Analgesic and anti-inflammatory activity of the proanthocyanidin shellegueain A from Polypodium feei METT

Grape Seed Proanthocyanidins Exert a Neuroprotective Effect by Regulating Microglial M1/M2 Polarisation in Rats with Spinal Cord Injury

Spinal cord injury (SCI) is a highly disabling disorder for which few effective treatments are available. Grape seed proanthocyanidins (GSPs) are polyphenolic compounds with various biological activities. In our preliminary experiment, GSP promoted functional recovery in rats with SCI, but the mechanism remains unclear. Therefore, we explored the protective effects of GSP on SCI and its possible underlying mechanisms. We found that GSP promoted locomotor recovery, reduced neuronal apoptosis, increased neuronal preservation, and regulated microglial polarisation in vivo. We also performed in vitro studies to verify the effects of GSP on neuronal protection and microglial polarisation and their potential mechanisms. We found that GSP regulated microglial polarisation and inhibited apoptosis in PC12 cells induced by M1-BV2 cells through the Toll-like receptor 4- (TLR4-) mediated nuclear factor kappa B (NF-κB) and phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase/serine threonine kinase (PI3K/AKT) signaling pathways. This suggests that GSP regulates microglial polarisation and prevents neuronal apoptosis, possibly by the TLR4-mediated NF-κB and PI3K/AKT signaling pathways.

Eucalyptus globulus and Salvia officinalis Extracts Mediated Green Synthesis of Silver Nanoparticles and Their Application as an Antioxidant and Antimicrobial Agent

Silver nanoparticles (AgNPs) biosynthesized using plant extracts as reducing and capping agents show multiple possibilities for solving various biological problems. The aim of this study was to expand the boundaries of AgNPs using a novel low toxicity and production cost phytochemical method for the biosynthesis of nanoparticles from Eucalyptus globulus and Salvia officinalis aqueous leaf extracts. Biosynthesized AgNPs were characterized by various methods (ultraviolet-visible spectroscopy (UV-vis), Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy with horizontal attenuated total reflectance (HART), transmission electron microscopy (TEM), energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (EDS)). The determined antioxidative and antimicrobial activity of plant extracts was compared with the activity of the AgNPs. The UV-vis spectral analysis demonstrated the absorption peaks at 408 and 438 nm, which confirmed the synthesis of stable AgNPs from E. globulus and S. officinalis, respectively. FTIR-HART results suggested strong capping of phytochemicals on AgNPs. TEM results show mainly spherical-shaped AgNPs, whose size distribution depends on the plant leaf extract type; the smaller AgNPs were obtained with E. globulus extract (with size range of 17.5 ± 5.89 nm compared to 34.3 ± 7.76 nm from S. officinalis AgNPs). The in vitro antioxidant activity evaluated by radical scavenging assays and the reduction activity method clearly demonstrated that both the plant extracts and AgNPs showed prominent antioxidant properties. In addition, AgNPs show much stronger antimicrobial activity against broad spectrum of Gram-negative and Gram-positive bacteria strains than the plant extracts used for their synthesis.

Redox Activity of Flavonoids: Impact on Human Health, Therapeutics, and Chemical Safety

The cost-effectiveness of presently used therapies is a problem in overall redox-based management, which is posing a significant financial burden on communities across the world. As a result, sophisticated treatment models that provide notions of predictive diagnoses followed by targeted preventive therapies adapted to individual patient profiles are gaining global acclaim as being beneficial to patients, the healthcare sector, and society as a whole. In this context, natural flavonoids were considered due to their multifaceted antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and anticancer effects as well as their low toxicity and ease of availability. The aim of this review is to focus on the capacity of flavonoids to modulate the responsiveness of various diseases and ailments associated with redox toxicity. The review will also focus on the flavonoids' pathway-based redox activity and the advancement of redox-based therapies as well as flavonoids' antioxidant characteristics and their influence on human health, therapeutics, and chemical safety. Research findings indicated that flavonoids significantly exhibit various redox-based therapeutic responses against several diseases such as inflammatory, neurodegenerative, cardiovascular, and hepatic diseases and various types of cancer by activating the Nrf2/Keap1 transcription system, suppressing the nuclear factor κB (NF-κB)/IκB kinase inflammatory pathway, abrogating the function of the Hsp90/Hsf1 complex, inhibiting the PTEN/PI3K/Akt pathway, and preventing mitochondrial dysfunction. Some flavonoids, especially genistein, apigenin, amentoflavone, baicalein, quercetin, licochalcone A, and biochanin A, play a potential role in redox regulation. Conclusions of this review on the antioxidant aspects of flavonoids highlight the medicinal and folk values of these compounds against oxidative stress and various diseases and ailments. In short, treatment with flavonoids could be a novel therapeutic invention in clinical trials, as we hope.

Natural Antioxidants from Plant Extracts in Skincare Cosmetics: Recent Applications, Challenges and Perspectives

In recent years, interest in the health effects of natural antioxidants has increased due to their safety and applicability in cosmetic formulation. Nevertheless, efficacy of natural antioxidants in vivo is less documented than their prooxidant properties in vivo. Plant extracts rich in vitamins, flavonoids, and phenolic compounds can induce oxidative damage by reacting with various biomolecules while also providing antioxidant properties. Because the biological activities of natural antioxidants differ, their effectiveness for slowing the aging process remains unclear. This review article focuses on the use of natural antioxidants in skincare and the possible mechanisms underlying their desired effect, along with recent applications in skincare formulation and their limitations.

In vitro evaluation of selligueain A effects on the proinflammatory mediators production in RAW264.7 murine macrophages

Introduction: Selligueain A derived from the roots of Polypodium feei was shown to have anti-inflammatory activity, which was tested in vivo on the rats’ paw edema induced by carrageenan. The aim of this study was to evaluate the anti-inflammatory mechanism of selligueain A in vitro against the production of pro-inflammatory mediators. Methods: In this study, RAW264.7 cells were used as an inflammatory cell model, and observations were made on the inflammatory mediators nitric oxide (NO), inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS), and tumour necrosis factor-α (TNF-α). The NO concentration was measured by the Griess reaction, and the iNOS enzyme and the TNF-α concentrations were determined by the ELISA method. Cell viability was assessed by the [3-(4,5-dimethylthiazol-2yl)-5-(3-carboxymethoxyphenyl)-2-(4-sulfophenyl)-2H-tetrazolium] (MTS) test. Results: Selligueain A at concentrations of 100 and 150 µM suppressed the production of NO, iNOS, and TNF-α in RAW264.7 cells stimulated by lipopolysaccharide (LPS). The concentration of 150 µM showed the highest inhibition of NO, iNOS, and TNF-α mediators with the percentage inhibition of 64.85, 55.01, and 48.54%, respectively. Conclusion: This study shows that selligueain A has anti-inflammatory activity through inhibition of NO, iNOS, and TNF-α production in RAW264.7 macrophage cells.

Safety assessment of the Polypodium feei root extract: Acute and subchronic studies

This study was performed to assess the safety of the oral acute and subchronic administration of Polypodium feei root extract through acute and subchronic studies in mice and rats, respectively. In the acute toxicity treatment, mice were grouped according to the dose (1000, 2000, 4000 and 5000 mg/kg, b.w) and were observed for mortality and toxicity signs for 14 days. In the subchronic treatment, there were six groups of rats (female and male), a control group, three test groups (100, 400, and 800 mg/kg, b.w), and two satellite groups (control satellite and satellite 800 mg/kg groups). The three test groups received the extract orally once daily for 90 days. No animals in the acute and subchronic treatment groups showed mortality and any signs of toxicity, with no significant difference in the body weight and organ index compared to the control. The LD₅₀ of the extract was estimated to be higher than 5000 mg/kg, therefore regarded as practically non-toxic. The haematological profiles did not significantly change on exposure to the extract for 90 days, except the platelet count in the female animals which significantly decreased in animals treated with 400 and 800 mg/kg, returning to normal after 28 days of recovery. The 800 mg/kg dose significantly increased the urea concentration and induced lesions in the stomachs of female animals. However, this undesirable effect on the kidney was not strong, as the creatinine concentration remained in the normal limits, and the histopathological observations showed no alteration in the kidney tissues. No significant morphological alterations in organs were observed, only minor lesions in the liver. These results indicate that the P. feei root extract is safe for use as herbal medicine and recommended at doses lower than 400 mg/kg.

Effects of Grape Seed Proanthocyanidin Extract on Vascular Endothelial Function in Participants with Prehypertension: A Randomized, Double-Blind, Placebo-Controlled Study

This study aimed to investigate the effects of grape seed proanthocyanidin extract (GSPE) on blood pressure and vascular endothelial function in middle-aged Japanese adults with prehypertension. We conducted a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled study on 6 men and 24 women aged 40-64 years old. The participants were randomized to receive tablets containing either low-dose (200 mg/day) or high-dose (400 mg/day) GSPE, or placebo, for 12 weeks. Systolic and diastolic blood pressures (SBP and DBP, respectively), brachial flow-mediated dilation (FMD), and other cardiovascular parameters were measured before and after 4, 8, and 12 weeks of treatment. The mean SBP in the high-dose group significantly decreased by 13 mmHg after 12 weeks (P = 0.028), although FMD did not change. In an ad hoc analysis of non-smoking participants (n = 21), the mean SBP, DBP, stiffness parameter β, distensibility, incremental elastic modulus (Einc), and pulse wave velocity (PWV) also significantly improved in the high-dose group after 12 weeks. Changes in Einc and PWV from baseline to 12 weeks were significantly greater in the high-dose group than in the placebo group (Einc, P = 0.023; PWV, P = 0.03). GSPE consumption could help maintain vascular elasticity and normal blood pressure in this population.

Grape Seed Proanthocyanidin Extract Alleviates AflatoxinB₁-Induced Immunotoxicity and Oxidative Stress via Modulation of NF-κB and Nrf2 Signaling Pathways in Broilers

Aflatoxin B₁ (AFB₁) is a widely spread mycotoxin contaminates food and feed, causing severe oxidative stress damages and immunotoxicity. Grape seed proanthocyanidin (GSPE), a natural antioxidant with wide range of pharmacological and medicinal properties. The goal of the present study was to investigate the protective effects of GSPE against AFB₁-induced immunotoxicity and oxidative stress via NF-κB and Nrf2 signaling pathways in broiler chickens. For the experiment, 240 one-day old Cobb chicks were allocated into four dietary treatment groups of six replicates (10 birds per replicate): 1. Basal diet (control); 2. Basal diet + AFB₁ 1mg/kg contaminated corn (AFB₁); 3. Basal diet + GSPE 250 mg/kg (GSPE); 4. Basal diet + AFB₁ 1 mg/kg + GSPE 250 mg/kg (AFB₁ + GSPE). The results showed that GSPE significantly decreased serum inflammatory cytokines TNF-α, IFN-γ, IL-1β, IL-10, and IL-6 induced by AFB₁. Similarly, GSPE + AFB₁ treated group revealed a significant decrease in mRNA expressions of pro-inflammatory cytokines (TNF-α, IFN-γ, IL-1β, and IL-6) in the splenic tissue compared to the AFB₁ treatment group. In addition, western blotting results manifested that GSPE treatment normalized the phosphorylation of nuclear factor kappa B (p65) and the degradation of IκBα protein induced by AFB₁. Furthermore, GSPE enhanced the antioxidant defense system through activating the nuclear factor-erythroid-2-related factor (Nrf2) signaling pathway. The mRNA and protein expression level of Nrf2 and its down streaming associated genes were noted up-regulated by the addition of GSPE, and down-regulated in the AFB₁ group. Taken together, GSPE alleviates AFB₁-induced immunotoxicity and oxidative damage by inhibiting the NF-κB and activating the Nrf2 signaling pathways in broiler chickens. Conclusively, our results suggest that GSPE could be considered as a potential natural agent for the prevention of AFB₁-induced immunotoxicity and oxidative damage.

Regulatory Roles of Flavonoids on Inflammasome Activation during Inflammatory Responses

Inflammation is an innate immune response to noxious stimuli to protect the body from pathogens. Inflammatory responses consist of two main steps: priming and triggering. In priming, inflammatory cells increase expressions of inflammatory molecules, while in triggering, inflammasomes are activated, resulting in cell death and pro-inflammatory cytokine secretion. Inflammasomes are protein complexes comprising intracellular pattern recognition receptors (PRRs) (e.g., nucleotide-binding oligomerization domain-like receptors (NLRs), absent in melanoma 2 (AIM2), and caspases-4/5/11) and pro-caspase-1 with or without a bipartite adaptor molecule ASC. Inflammasome activation induces pyroptosis, inflammatory cell death, and stimulates caspase-1-mediated secretion of interleukin (IL)-1b and IL-18. Flavonoids are secondary metabolites found in various plants and are considered as critical ingredients promoting health and ameliorating various disease symptoms. Anti-inflammatory activity of flavonoids and underlying mechanisms have been widely studied. This review introduces current knowledge on different types of inflammasomes and their activation during inflammatory responses and discusses recent studies regarding anti-inflammatory roles of flavonoids as suppressors of inflammasomes in inflammatory conditions. Understanding the regulatory effects of flavonoids on inflammasome activation will increase our knowledge of flavonoid-mediated anti-inflammatory activity and provide new insights into the development of flavonoid preparations to prevent and treat human inflammatory diseases.

Therapeutic potential of flavonoids in inflammatory bowel disease: A comprehensive review

The inflammatory process plays a central role in the development and progression of numerous pathological situations, such as inflammatory bowel disease (IBD), autoimmune and neurodegenerative diseases, metabolic syndrome, and cardiovascular disorders. IBDs involve inflammation of the gastrointestinal area and mainly comprise Crohn’s disease (CD) and ulcerative colitis (UC). Both pathological situations usually involve recurring or bloody diarrhea, pain, fatigue and weight loss. There is at present no pharmacological cure for CD or UC. However, surgery may be curative for UC patients. The prescribed treatment aims to ameliorate the symptoms and prevent and/or delay new painful episodes. Flavonoid compounds are a large family of hydroxylated polyphenolic molecules abundant in plants, including vegetables and fruits which are the major dietary sources of these compounds for humans, together with wine and tea. Flavonoids are becoming very popular because they have many health-promoting and disease-preventive effects. Most interest has been directed towards the antioxidant activity of flavonoids, evidencing a remarkable free-radical scavenging capacity. However, accumulating evidence suggests that flavonoids have many other biological properties, including anti-inflammatory, antiviral, anticancer, and neuroprotective activities through different mechanisms of action. The present review analyzes the available data about the different types of flavonoids and their potential effectiveness as adjuvant therapy of IBDs.

Procyanidin A2 and Its Degradation Products in Raw, Fermented, and Roasted Cocoa

Cocoa is known as an important source of flavan-3-ols, but their fate "from the bean to the bar" is not yet clear. Here, procyanidin A2 found in native cocoa beans (9-13 mg/kg) appeared partially epimerized into A2^E1 through fermentation, whereas a second epimer (A2^E2) emerged after roasting. At m/z 575, dehydrodiepicatechin A was revealed to be the major HPLC peak before fermentation, whereas F1, a marker of well-conducted fermentations, becomes the most intense after roasting. RP-HPLC-ESI(-)-HRMS/MS analysis performed on a procyanidin A2 model medium after 12 h at 90 °C revealed many more degradation products than those identified in fermented cocoa, including the last epimer of A2, A2 open structure intermediates (m/z 577), and oxidized A-type dimers (m/z 573).

Seasonal dynamics of the phytochemical constituents and bioactivities of extracts from Stenoloma chusanum (L.) Ching

Stenoloma chusanum is a traditional Chinese medicinal herb with a very high total flavonoid content (TFC). The seasonal dynamics of the TFC and total phenolic content (TPC) in S. chusanum, as well as antioxidant activity, were investigated. The TFC and TPC showed clear seasonal dynamics, reaching their maxima (24.63 ± 1.34% and 9.58 ± 0.41%, respectively) in February. The TFC and TPC in the aerial parts of the plant were much higher than those in the subterranean parts; however, the antioxidant activities of the extracts from the subterranean parts were slightly higher than those from the aerial parts. Moreover, the extracts exhibited higher inhibition against tyrosinase than against arbutin (the positive control). The extract from S. chusanum collected in February was associated with the highest proliferation and apoptosis of K562 cells. The phytochemicals in the extract were analyzed using LC-MS, and were found to comprise of 12 flavonoids, five alkaloids, one sesquiterpenoid and one phenypropanoid. In conclusion, S. chusanum exhibits multiple bioactivities; these results could contribute to the therapeutic application of the plants in indigenous medicine.

Protective Effects of Selenium, Vitamin E, and Purple Carrot Anthocyanins on D-Galactose-Induced Oxidative Damage in Blood, Liver, Heart and Kidney Rats

The present study was performed to investigate the protective effects of selenium (Se), vitamin E (Vit E) and anthocyanins from purple carrots and their combination against the oxidative stress induced by D-galactose in rats. A total of 80 male rats were equally divided into 11 groups, one of which acted as control (I) just receiving intraperitoneal injections of physiological saline. The remaining ten groups (II-XI) were intraperitoneally injected with D-galactose at a dose of 400 mg kg(-1) body weight (BW) per day for 42 consecutive days. Rats in groups III-XI were treated with antioxidants via gavage per day as follows: group III: Se-methylselenocysteine (SeMSC), IV: Se as sodium selenite (Na2SeO3), V: Se-enriched yeast (SeY), VI: Vit E as α-tocopherol acetate, VII: anthocyanin from purple carrots (APC), VIII: APC + Vit E, IX: SeMSC + APC+ Vit E, X: Na2SeO3 + APC + Vit E, XI: SeY + Ant + Vit E. The results showed that the rats treated with antioxidants (III-XI) showed significant decreases in the levels of malondialdehyde (MDA) and carbonyl protein (PCO) compared with the D-galactose-treated group (II) in the heart, liver, kidneys, and blood. Moreover, there were significant increases in the activities of superoxide dismutase (SOD) and glutathione peroxidase (GSH-Px), glutathione (GSH) concentration, and total antioxidant capacity (T-AOC) in the heart, liver, kidneys, and blood of antioxidant-treated animals (III-XI) than those in control group (I). In addition, the combined treatments of two or three antioxidants showed greater antioxidant activities than those of individual treatments, suggesting the synergistic antioxidant effects of Se, Vit E, and APC. In conclusion, all the antioxidants exhibited protective effects against D-galactose-induced oxidative damage in rats, and these antioxidants showed a synergistic effect.

Allelopathy of Bracken Fern (Pteridium arachnoideum): New Evidence from Green Fronds, Litter, and Soil

The neotropical bracken fern Pteridium arachnoideum (Kaulf.) Maxon. (Dennstaedtiaceae) is described as an aggressive pioneer plant species. It invades abandoned or newly burned areas and represents a management challenge at these invaded sites. Native to the Atlantic Forest and Cerrado (Tropical Savanna) Brazilian biomes, P. arachnoideum has nevertheless become very problematic in these conservation hotspots. Despite some reports suggesting a possible role of allelopathy in this plant’s dominance, until now there has been little evidence of isolated and individually identified compounds with phytotoxic activities present in its tissues or in the surrounding environment. Thus, the aim of this study was to investigate the allelopathic potential of P. arachnoideum by isolating and identifying any secondary metabolites with phytotoxic activity in its tissues, litter, and soil. Bioguided phytochemical investigation led to the isolation and identification of the proanthocyanidin selligueain A as the major secondary compound in the green fronds and litter of this fern. It is produced by P. arachnoideum in its green fronds, remains unaltered during the senescence process, and is the major secondary compound present in litter. Selligueain A showed phytotoxic activity against the selected target species sesame (Sesamum indicum) early development. In particular, the compound inhibited root and stem growth, and root metaxylem cell size but did not affect chlorophyll content. This compound can be considered as an allelochemical because it is present in the soil under P. arachnoideum patches as one of the major compounds in the soil solution. This is the first report of the presence of selligueain A in any member of the Dennstaedtiaceae family and the first time an isolated and identified allelochemical produced by members of the Pteridium species complex has been described. This evidence of selligueain A as a putative allelochemical of P. arachnoideum reinforces the role of allelopathy in the dominance processes of this plant in the areas where it occurs.

Protective effects of a blueberry extract in acute inflammation and collagen-induced arthritis in the rat

Here we investigated the anti-inflammatory effect of a blueberry extract in the carrageenan-induced paw edema model and collagen-induced arthritis model, both in rats. Along with the chemical characterization of the phenolic content of the fruits and extract, the antioxidant potential of the extract, the cellular antioxidant activity and the effects over neutrophils' oxidative burst, were studied in order to provide a mechanistic insight for the anti-inflammatory effects observed. The extract significantly inhibited paw edema formation in an acute model the rat. Our results also demonstrate that the standardized extract had pharmacological activity when administered orally in the collagen-induced arthritis model in the rat and was able to significantly reduce the development of clinical signs of arthritis and the degree of bone resorption, soft tissue swelling and osteophyte formation, consequently improving articular function in treated animals.

Intervention of Grape Seed Proanthocyanidin Extract on the Subchronic Immune Injury in Mice Induced by Aflatoxin B1

The aim was to investigate the prevention of grape seed proanthocyanidin extract (GSPE) on the subchronic immune injury induced by aflatoxin B1 (AFB1) and the possible ameliorating effect of GSPE in mice. The subchronic AFB1-induced immune injury mice model was set up with the continuous administration of 100 μg/kg body weight (BW) AFB1 for six weeks by intragastric administration. Then, intervention with different doses (50 and 100 mg/kg BW) of GSPE was conducted on mice to analyze the changes of body weight, immune organ index, antioxidant capability of spleen, serum immunoglobulin content, and the expression levels of inflammatory cytokines. The prevention of GSPE on the immune injury induced by AFB1 was studied. The GSPE could relieve the AFB1-induced reduction of body weight gain and the atrophy of the immune organ. The malondialdehyde (MDA) level of the spleen in the AFB1 model group significantly increased, but levels of catalase (CAT), glutathione (GSH), glutathione peroxidase (GSH-P_X), and superoxide dismutase (SOD) significantly decreased. The GSPE could significantly inhibit the oxidative stress injury of the spleen induced by AFB1. AFB1 exposure could not significantly change the contents of IgA, IgG, or IgM. AFB1 significantly improved the expression of interleukin 1β (IL-1β), IL-6, tumor necrosis factor α (TNF-α), and interferon γ (IFN-γ). Additionally, GSPE could decrease the expression of these four proinflammatory factors to different degrees and inhibit the inflammatory reaction of mice. The results suggest that GSPE alleviates AFB1-induced oxidative stress and significantly improves the immune injury of mice induced by AFB1.

Treatment of condyloma acuminata in pregnant women with cryotherapy combined with proanthocyanidins: Outcome and safety

Patients with condyloma acuminata (CA) during pregnancy represent a special risk group. The outcomes of many treatment methods for such cases are not satisfactory. The purpose of the present study was to evaluate the treatment outcome and safety of cryotherapy combined with proanthocyanidins (PCs) for CA in pregnant women. In this study, 46 pregnant women with CA were treated with cryotherapy combined with PCs. The lesions were sprayed with liquid nitrogen until the color of the wart changed from flesh colored to purple. A PC-containing formulation was then sprayed onto a non-woven fabric or single-layer gauze and applied to the affected area. The PC treatment was applied for 20 min, 2 or 3 times per day. All patients were followed up at 1 and 3 months. No visible warts remained after the cryotherapy and PC treatment. At the 1-month follow-up, only 1 case of recurrence was identified. At 3 months, 5 cases of recurrence were identified, and the recurrence rate was 10.9%. The satisfaction rate of the patients was 94% at 1 month and 87% at 3 months after treatment. All pregnancies resulted in healthy live births without delivery complications. Cryotherapy combined with PCs is indicated to be a safe and effective procedure and may serve as a treatment option for pregnant women with CA.

Anthocyanin-rich tea Sunrouge upregulates expressions of heat shock proteins in the gastrointestinal tract of ICR mice: A comparison with the conventional tea cultivar Yabukita

Sunrouge is an anthocyanin-rich, new tea cultivar that contains similar levels of catechins as Yabukita, the most popular tea cultivar consumed in Japan. Interestingly, Sunrouge preparations have previously been shown to have more pronounced acetylcholinesterase inhibitory and anticolitis activities than those of Yabukita. In this study, we examined their effects on expressions of self-defensive molecules, including heat shock proteins (HSPs), which are molecular chaperones involved in homeostasis and longevity. Hot water extract from freeze-dried Sunrouge significantly upregulated messenger RNA (mRNA) expressions of HSP40, HSP70, and HSP32 (heme oxygenase-1), with grades greater than those shown by Yabukita. Oral administration of freeze-dried preparation of Sunrouge to male ICR mice at a dose of 1% in the basal diet for 1 month resulted in marked upregulations of several HSP mRNA expressions in mucosa from the gastrointestinal tract, especially the upper small intestine. Again, its efficacy was remarkably higher than that of Yabukita. Moreover, exposure of Caenorhabditis elegans to Sunrouge conferred thermoresistant phenotype, and also resulted in a significant life-span elongation. Taken together, our results suggest that Sunrouge is a unique and promising tea cultivar for regulating self-defense systems.

Modulation of human neutrophils' oxidative burst by flavonoids

Inflammation is a normal response towards tissue injury, but may become deleterious to the organism if uncontrolled. The overproduction of reactive species during the inflammatory process may cause or magnify the damage at inflammatory sites. Flavonoids have been suggested as therapeutic agents to avoid such damage, as these compounds exhibit anti-inflammatory activity, through the modulation of oxidative stress and signalling pathways. Both effects may attenuate neutrophils' activities at inflammatory sites. In this study, we investigated the structure/activity relationship of a series of flavonoids on the oxidative burst of human neutrophils in vitro, as a measure of its anti-inflammatory potential. Neutrophils were stimulated with phorbol-12-myristate-13-acetate, and fluorescence and chemiluminescence techniques were used to evaluate the generation of reactive oxygen species. All the tested flavonoids revealed the ability to modulate the neutrophil's oxidative burst. From the obtained results, the pivotal role of the catechol group in the B-ring was evidenced as well as the minor importance of the hydroxylations in the A-ring, which did not appear to be determinant for the activity, although clearly influencing the lipophilicity of the tested flavonoids. It is also clarified the importance of the methylation in the OH group at the B-ring catechol moiety. In conclusion, the obtained results uncover new possible strategies for the resolution of inflammatory processes, using flavonoids to modulate neutrophil's oxidative burst.

Effects of anthocyanin-rich tea "Sunrouge" on dextran sodium sulfate-induced colitis in mice

Sunrouge, an anthocyanin-rich tea, has similar levels of catechins as "Yabukita," the most popular green tea cultivar consumed in Japan. Green tea polyphenols (GTPs) have attracted interest due to their potent antioxidative activities combined with a lack of side effects in humans at normal consumption levels. However, we previously reported that high doses (0.5 and 1%) of dietary GTPs can result in deterioration of colitis and failed to prevent colon carcinogenesis in inflamed colons. In the present study, we determined the inhibitory effects of Sunrouge on colitis in dextran sodium sulfate (DSS)-treated and untreated control mice. Five-week-old female ICR mice were administered a single dose of Yabukita or Sunrouge (extracts in 1 mL distilled water) via a stomach tube for 3 weeks. After 1 week of treatment, the mice were divided into four groups (two Yabukita and two Sunrouge groups) and given drinking water with or without 3% DSS for 2 weeks, then they were euthanized. Those treated with DSS developed watery diarrhea and bloody stools, and showed body weight loss, spleen hypertrophy, and shortening of the colon, as well as deteriorations in survival rate, liver function, colon mucosal interleukin-1β level and expression of phase II detoxification enzyme mRNA. Sunrouge improved these DSS-induced symptoms, at least in part, whereas Yabukita showed either no effect or adverse effects in regard to some those parameters. It is suggested that the differences between Yabukita and Sunrouge on DSS-induced colitis might be due to the high levels of anthocyanins found in Sunrouge tea.

Antioxidant and prooxidant properties of flavonoids

The interest in possible health benefits of flavonoids has increased owing to their potent antioxidant and free radical scavenging activities observed in vitro. Nevertheless, the antioxidant efficacy of flavonoids in vivo is less documented and their prooxidant properties have been actually described in vivo. Due to their prooxidant properties, they are able to cause oxidative damage by reacting with various biomolecules, such as lipids, proteins and DNA. Hence, the aim of this review is to discuss both the antioxidant and prooxidant effects of flavonoids.

Preliminary studies on the antinociceptive activity of Vaccinium ashei berry in experimental animal models

The aim of this study was to carry out pharmacological screening in order to evaluate the potential effects of lyophilized fruits of different cultivars of Vaccinium ashei Reade (Family Ericaceae) berries, commonly known as rabbiteye blueberries, on nociception. This was achieved using the formalin, hot plate, tail-flick, and writhing tests in mice. During this experiment the mice consumed approximately 3.2-6.4 mg/kg/day (p.o.) of the anthocyanins. The extract was administered for 21 days or 60 minutes before test. Morphine and diclofenac (10 mg/kg, p.o.) as the standard drug (positive control) and water (via oral gavage) as the negative control were administered before all tests. The blueberry extract produced a significant decrease in constrictions induced by acetic acid and caused graded inhibition of the second phase of formalin-induced pain. Moreover, in both the hot plate and tail-flick tests, it significantly increased the threshold. These data suggest that the extract from V. ashei produced antinociceptive effects, as demonstrated in the experimental models of nociception in mice. Additional experiments are necessary in order to clarify the true target for the antinociceptive effects of rabbiteye blueberry extract.

Grape seed proanthocyanidin extract (GSPE) differentially regulates Foxp3(+) regulatory and IL-17(+) pathogenic T cell in autoimmune arthritis

Grape seed proanthocyanidin extract (GSPE), which is the antioxidant derived from grape seeds, has been reported to possess a variety of potent properties. We have previously shown that GSPE attenuates collagen-induced arthritis. However the mechanism by which GSPE regulates the immune response remains unclear, although it may involve effects on the regulation of pathogenic T cells in autoimmune arthritis. To clarify this issue, we have assessed the effects of GSPE on differential regulation of Th17 and regulatory T (Treg) cells subsets in vitro in mouse and human CD4(+) T cells. We observed that GSPE decreased the frequency of IL-17(+)CD4(+)Th17 cells and increased induction of CD4(+)CD25(+)forkhead box protein 3 (Foxp3)(+) Treg cells. In vivo, GSPE effectively attenuated clinical symptoms of established collagen-induced arthritis in mice with concomitant suppression of IL-17 production and enhancement of Foxp3 expression (type II collagen-reactive Treg cells) in CD4(+) T cells of joints and splenocytes. The presence of GSPE decreased the levels of IL-21, IL-22, IL-26 and IL-17 production by human CD4(+) T cells in a STAT3-dependent manner. In contrast, GSPE induces Foxp3(+) Treg cells in humans. Our results suggest that GSPE possesses a reciprocal control over IL-17 and Foxp3. By potently regulating inflammatory T cell differentiation, GSPE may serve as a possible novel therapeutic agent for inflammatory and autoimmune diseases, including rheumatoid arthritis.

Effect of anthocyanin-rich extract from black rice (Oryza sativa L. Japonica) on chronically alcohol-induced liver damage in rats

The study evaluated the protective effect of anthocyanin-rich extract from black rice (AEBR) on chronic ethanol-induced biochemical changes in male Wistar rats. Administration of ethanol (3.7 g/kg/day) to Wistar rats for 45 days induced liver damage with a significant increase (P < 0.05) of aspartate transaminase (AST), alanine transaminase (ALT), gamma glutamyl transferase (GGT) in the serum and the hepatic malondialdehyde (MDA) level. In contrast, administration of AEBR (500 mg/kg) along with alcohol significantly (P < 0.01) decreased the activities of liver enzymes (AST, ALT and GGT) in serum, the MDA levels and the concentrations of serum and hepatic triglyceride (TG) and total cholesterol (TCH). Rats treated with AEBR showed a better profile of the antioxidant system with normal glutathione peroxidase (GSH-Px), superoxide dismutase (SOD) and glutathione S-transferase (GST) activities. All these results were accompanied by histological observations in liver. The results demonstrate that AEBR has a beneficial effect in reducing the adverse effect of alcohol.

An examination of anthocyanins' and anthocyanidins' affinity for cannabinoid receptors

A growing body of evidence suggests that anthocyanins and anthocyanidins may possess analgesic properties in addition to neuroprotective and anti-inflammatory activities. These functionalities suggest a role for the cannabinoid receptor (CB) in mediating biological effects. Competitive radioligand binding assays identified cyanidin (K(i) = 16.2 microM) and delphinidin (K(i) = 21.3 microM) as ligands with moderate affinity to human CB1. For CB2, similar affinities were achieved by cyanidin (K(i) = 33.5 microM), delphinidin (K(i) = 34.3 microM), and peonidin (K(i) = 46.4 microM). Inhibition constants >50 microM were obtained for pelargonidin, malvidin, cyanidin-3,5-di-O-glucoside, cyanidin-3-O-glucoside, cyanidin-3-O-galactoside, and cyanidin-3-O-rutinoside for both CB subtypes.

Biosynthesis and genetic regulation of proanthocyanidins in plants

Proanthocyanidins (PAs), also known as condensed tannins, are a group of polyphenolic secondary metabolites synthesized in plants as oligomers or polymers of flavan-3-ol units via the flavonoid pathway. Due to their structural complexity and varied composition, only in the recent years has the study on the biosynthesis and regulation of PAs in plants taken off, although some details of the synthetic mechanism remain unclear. This paper aims to summarize the status of research on the structures of PAs in plants, the genes encoding key enzymes of biosynthetic pathway, the transport factors, the transcriptional regulation of PA biosynthesis and the genetic manipulation of PAs. The problems of this field were also discussed, including the nature of the final "enzyme" which catalyzes the polymerization reaction of PAs and the possible mechanism of how the elementary units of flavanols are assembled in vivo.

Anthocyanins induce the activation of phase II enzymes through the antioxidant response element pathway against oxidative stress-induced apoptosis

Reactive oxygen species (ROS)-induced cell damage is inevitable and severe and is involved in numerous diseases, including cancer. Reducing oxidative stress is one of the strategies of chemoprevention. Anthocyanins are naturally occurring flavonoids that show multiple benefits. We first pointed out the effects of anthocyanins in the contributions to activation of phase II antioxidant and detoxifying enzymes, chemopreventive potency, and involved transcriptional regulation. Our results obtained in rat liver Clone 9 cells showed that treatment of anthocyanins leads to positive effects on elevating the antioxidant capacity, including activated expression of glutathione-related enzymes (glutathione reductase, glutathione peroxidase, and glutathione S-transferase) and recruited GSH content. In addition, the activity of NAD(P)H: quinone oxidoreductase (NQO1) was also promoted under the treatment of anthocyanin. This influential functions as the defense system against programmed cell death induced by H2O2. The capacity for induction of luciferase expression by anthocyanins in cells transfected with rat nqo1-promoter constructed plasmid was further investigated; we found that the molecular mechanism is related to the activation of antioxidant response element (ARE) upstream of genes that are involved in antioxidation and detoxification. Our data suggest that natural anthocyanins are recommended as chemopreventive phytochemicals and could stimulate the antioxidant system to resist oxidant-induced injury. And, more important, the promoting effect of anthocyanins on ARE-regulated phase II enzyme expression seems to be a critical point in modulating the defense system against oxidative stress.

Anti-Inflammatory Bioactivities in Plant Extracts

The medical ethnobotanical knowledge propagated over generations in the coastal regions of the Eastern Mediterranean, including Lebanon, is one that has built on several ancient cultures and civilizations of these regions. Recent interest in medical ethnobotany and the use of medicinal herbs in treating or preventing ailments has rejuvenated interest in folk medicine practices, especially those transcendent across generations. According to Eastern Mediterranean folk medicine practices, herbal remedies that treat many inflammation-related ailments were typically based on plant bioactive water extracts or decoctions. Studies have shown that active anti-inflammatory ingredients in water extracts include many natural chemicals such as phenols, alkaloids, glycosides, and carbohydrates. The intent of this manuscript is twofold: first, to review the literature that describes anti-inflammatory bioactivities in plant extracts of different plant genera; and second, to evaluate indigenous folk remedies used by folk doctors to treat inflammatory ailments in this region of the world. For this aim, the reported literature of five plant genera assumed to possess anti-inflammatory bioactivities and typically prescribed by folk doctors to treat inflammation-related ailments is reviewed.

Effects of anthocyanidin on the inhibition of proliferation and induction of apoptosis in human gastric adenocarcinoma cells

Anthocyanins are naturally occurring reddish pigments that abundant in fruits and vegetables. To investigate the mechanistic basis for the anti-tumor properties of anthocyanins, five aglycone (cyanidin, delphinidin, malvidin, pelargonidin, and peonidin) and four glycosylated (cyanidin-3-glucoside, malvidin-3-glucoside, pelargonidin-3-glucoside and peonidin-3-glucoside) anthocyanins were used to examine their effects on cell cycle progression and induction of apoptosis in human gastric adenocarcinoma AGS cells. The data from cell viability assay showed that malvidin exhibited the most potent anti-proliferation effect on AGS cells in a time- and dose-dependent manner (P<0.05). This event is accompanied the arrest of AGS cells at the G0/G1 phase by malvidin at the tested concentrations of 0-200 microM. Cellular uptake of anthocyanin and anthocyanidin was confirmed by HPLC analysis and the intracellular accumulation of malvidin (24.9+/-1.1 microM/mg protein) was observed when treatment of AGS cells with malvidin for 12 h. In addition, an accumulation of AGS cells in sub-G1 phase (20% and 30% increase for 100 and 200 microM of malvidin, respectively) was observed as well as by the appearance of a fraction of cells with an aneudiploid DNA content. The occurrence of apoptosis induced by malvidin was confirmed by morphological and biochemical features, including apoptotic bodies formation, caspase-3 activation and poly(ADP-ribose) polymerase proteolysis. Furthermore, the mitochondrial membrane potential of apoptotic cells after treatment with malvidin was significantly lost and resulted in the elevation of Bax/Bcl-2 ratio for 1.6-fold against control for 100 microM treatment. In addition, the malvidin treatment significantly increased the p38 kinase expression and inhibited the ERK activity, and the effects of malvidin on caspase-3 activation were blocked, respectively, by the ERK and p38 inhibitors. These findings suggest that growth inhibition and cytotoxicity of AGS cells by malvidin is involved in the induction of apoptosis rather than necrosis.

Anticancer effects of oligomeric proanthocyanidins on human colorectal cancer cell line, SNU-C4

AIM: Oligomeric proanthocyanidins (OPC), natural polyphenolic compounds found in plants, are known to have antioxidant and anti-cancer effects. We investigated whether the anti-cancer effects of the OPC are induced by apoptosis on human colorectal cancer cell line, SNU-C4.

METHODS: Colorectal cancer cell line, SNU-C4 was cultured in RPMI 1640 medium supplemented with 10% fetal bovine serum. The cytotoxic effect of OPC was assessed by 3-(4, 5-dimethylthiazol-2-yl)-2, 5-diphenylt-etrazolium bromide (MTT) assay. To find out the apoptotic cell death, 4, 6-diamidino-2-phenylindole (DAPI) staining, terminal deoxynucleotidyl transferase (TdT)-mediated dUTP nick end labeling (TUNEL) assay, reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR), and caspase-3 enzyme assay were performed.

RESULTS: In this study, cytotoxic effect of OPC on SNU-C4 cells appeared in a dose-dependent manner. OPC treatment (100 µg/mL) revealed typical morphological apoptotic features. Additionally OPC treatment (100 µg/mL) increased level of BAX and CASPASE-3, and decreased level of BCL-2 mRNA expression. Caspase-3 enzyme activity was also significantly increased by treatment of OPC (100 µg/mL) compared with control.

CONCLUSION: These data indicate that OPC caused cell death by apoptosis through caspase pathways on human colorectal cancer cell line, SNU-C4.

Proanthocyanidins--a final frontier in flavonoid research?

Proanthocyanidins are oligomeric and polymeric end products of the flavonoid biosynthetic pathway. They are present in the fruits, bark, leaves and seeds of many plants, where they provide protection against predation. At the same time they give flavor and astringency to beverages such as wine, fruit juices and teas, and are increasingly recognized as having beneficial effects on human health. The presence of proanthocyanidins is also a major quality factor for forage crops. The past 2 years have seen important breakthroughs in our understanding of the biosynthesis of the building blocks of proanthocyanidins, the flavan-3-ols (+)-catechin and (-)-epicatechin. However, virtually nothing is known about the ways in which these units are assembled into the corresponding oligomers in vivo. Molecular genetic approaches are leading to an understanding of the regulatory genes that control proanthocyanidin biosynthesis, and this information, together with increased knowledge of the enzymes specific for the pathway, will facilitate the genetic engineering of plants for introduction of value-added nutraceutical and forage quality traits.

Hepatoprotective effect of the natural fruit juice from Aronia melanocarpa on carbon tetrachloride-induced acute liver damage in rats

The fruits of Aronia melanocarpa are rich in anthocyanins--plant pigments with anti-inflammatory and antioxidant activity. We studied the effect of the natural fruit juice from A. melanocarpa (NFJAM) on carbon tetrachloride (CCl4)-induced acute liver damage in rats. Histopathological changes such as necrosis, fatty change, ballooning degeneration and inflammatory infiltration of lymphocytes around the central veins occurred in rats following acute exposure to CCl4 (0.2 ml kg(-1), 2 days). The administration of CCl4 increased plasma aspartate transaminase (AST) and alanine transaminase (ALT) activities, induced lipid peroxidation (as measured by malondialdehyde (MDA) content in rat liver and plasma) and caused a depletion of liver reduced glutathione (GSH). NFJAM (5, 10 and 20 ml kg(-1), 4 days) dose-dependently reduced the necrotic changes in rat liver and inhibited the increase of plasma AST and ALT activities, induced by CCl4 (0.2ml kg(-1), 3rd and 4th days). NFJAM also prevented the CCl4-induced elevation of MDA formation and depletion of GSH content in rat liver.

Tart cherry anthocyanins suppress inflammation-induced pain behavior in rat

The use of complementary and alternative medicine (CAM) has increased in the United States and more patients are seeking CAM therapies for control of pain. The present investigation tested the efficacy of orally administered anthocyanins extracted from tart cherries on inflammation-induced pain behavior in rats. Paw withdrawal latency to radiant heat and paw withdrawal threshold to von Frey probes were measured. The first set of experiments examined the effects of tart cherry anthocyanins (400 mg/kg) on the nociceptive behaviors and edema associated with inflammation induced by intraplantar injection of 1% carrageenan. These studies also included tests of motor coordination. The second set of experiments determined if tart cherry anthocyanins (15, 85, and 400 mg/kg) dose-dependently affected the inflammation induced by intraplantar injection of 25% complete Freund's adjuvant. We found that tart cherry extracts reduce inflammation-induced thermal hyperalgesia, mechanical hyperalgesia and paw edema. The suppression of thermal hyperalgesia was dose-dependent and the efficacy of highest dose (400 mg/kg) was similar to indomethacin (5 mg/kg). The highest dose anthocyanin (400 mg/kg) had no effects on motor function. These data suggest that tart cherry anthocyanins may have a beneficial role in the treatment of inflammatory pain. The antihyperalgesic effects may be related to the anti-inflammatory and antioxidant properties of anthocyanins. A better understanding of the modulatory role of dietary constituents and phytonutrients on pain will offer further therapeutic options for treating patients with persistent and chronic pain conditions.

Anti-inflammatory and antioxidant effects of Croton celtidifolius bark

Croton celtidifolius Baill commonly known as "sangue-de-adave" is a tree found in the Atlantic Forest of south of Brazil, mainly in Santa Catarina. The bark and leaf infusions of this medicinal plant have been popularly used for the treatment of inflammatory diseases. In this study we evaluated the anti-inflammatory and antioxidant properties of crude extract (CE), aqueous fraction (AqF), ethyl acetate fraction (EAF), butanolic fraction (BuF) and catechin, gallocatechin and sub-fractions, 19SF, 35SF and 63SF that contained a mixture of proanthocyanidins and were derived from the EAF fraction. The CE, AqF, EAF, BuF, catechin and sub-fractions 35SF and 63SF reduced paw edema induced by carrageenan. The CE, fractions, sub-fractions and isolated compounds showed antioxidant properties in vitro, all were able to scavenge superoxide anions at a concentration of 100 microg ml(-1). The EAF, catechin and gallocatechin were most effective in the deoxyribose assay, IC50 0.69 (0.44-1.06), 0.20 (0.11-0.39), 0.55 (0.28-1.08) microg x ml(-1) respectively. The CE and other fractions and sub-fractions inhibited deoxyribose degradation up to 1 microg x ml(-1). In the hydrophobic system only AqF did not show lipid peroxidation inhibition. The CE, other fractions, sub-fractions and isolated compounds inhibited lipidid peroxidation only at a concentration of 100 microg x ml(-1). In summary, this study demonstrates that Croton celtidifolius bark has significant anti-inflammatory and antioxidant activity.

Highly sweet compounds of plant origin

The demand for new alternative "low calorie" sweeteners for dietetic and diabetic purposes has increased worldwide. Although the currently developed and commercially used highly sweet sucrose substitutes are mostly synthetic compounds, the search for such compounds from natural sources is continuing. As of mid-2002, over 100 plant-derived sweet compounds of 20 major structural types had been reported, and were isolated from more than 25 different families of green plants. Several of these highly sweet natural products are marketed as sweeteners or flavoring agents in some countries as pure compounds, compound mixtures, or refined extracts. These highly sweet natural substances are reviewed herein.

Management of gastrointestinal pain

Choice of an analgesic for gastrointestinal pain requires consideration of the cause of the pain, desired duration of pain relief, need for sedation, and potential side effects and toxicity, particularly in light of other drugs being used and effects on the gastrointestinal tract. It is imperative that close monitoring be continued to ensure that surgical lesions or worsening conditions are detected. Recent research in the field may lead to new drugs, drug combinations, and avenues of treatment that minimize the side effects of these drugs while maximizing their efficacy.