Highly Conductive PPy-PEDOT:PSS Hybrid Hydrogel with Superior Biocompatibility for Bioelectronics Application

High-Fidelity, High-Conductivity and Multifunctional PEDOT:PSS Hydrogel for Efficient Electromagnetic Interference Shielding and Ultrafast Response Electrochromic Applications

Poly(3,4-ethylenedioxythiophene):poly(styrenesulfonate) (PEDOT:PSS) hydrogel are promising for applications in electromagnetic interference (EMI) shielding, energy storage, and electrochromic (EC) devices. However, challenges such as low conductivity at reduced solid content, limited charge storage, poor mechanical properties, and structural distortion during solvent treatment limit their high-performance applications. To address these issues, a high-fidelity, high-conductivity and multifunctional PEDOT:PSS hydrogel is developed by an ice crystal-assisted skeleton stacking and stepwise treatment strategy, achieving ultrahigh conductivity of 87,249 S m-1 at 5.8 wt% solid content. The PEDOT:PSS hydrogel also features a charge storage capacity of 35.66 mC cm-2 and a capacitance density of 587.6 mF cm-2. Additionally, The PEDOT:PSS hydrogel demonstrates exceptional EMI shielding effectiveness, achieving 81.2 dB, and also exhibits an ultrahigh specific surface shielding efficiency of 30,769.23 dB cm2 g-1. Notably, The PEDOT:PSS maintains high EMI shielding stability even after undergoing various harsh conditions. Using femtosecond laser direct writing, the highly stable all-solid-state EC reflective displays are developed with ultrafast response (<0.3 s) and superior durability.

Unveiling the PEDOT-polypyrrole hybrid electrode for the electrochemical sensing of dopamine

This study presents the electrochemical sensing of dopamine (DA) using an electrode of polypyrrole/poly(3,4-ethylenedioxythiophene) (PEDOT-PPy) thin film. Electrochemical analyses of the PEDOT-PPy thin film for DA sensing were conducted through cyclic voltammetry (CV) and differential pulse voltammetry (DPV). The CV analysis demonstrated that PEDOT-PPy exhibited superior electrochemical activity towards DA due to its enhanced conductivity as a high-conducting polymer composite. The DPV results indicated a linear concentration level of 5 nM to 200 µM with a minimal limit of sensing of 5 nM using the PEDOT-PPy electrode material. The fabricated sensor explored the sensitivity of 7.27 µA/µM cm2 at the 5 to 1000 nM DA concentration and the dopamine diffusion coefficient of 1.3 × 10-8 cm2/s. Additionally, the PEDOT-PPy electrode material displayed excellent reproducibility, selectivity, and stability. Therefore, the PEDOT-PPy composite electrode material shows excellent potential for outperforming other electrode materials in detecting DA.

Advances in conducting nanocomposite hydrogels for wearable biomonitoring

Recent advancements in wearable biosensors and bioelectronics have led to innovative designs for personalized health management devices, with biocompatible conducting nanocomposite hydrogels emerging as a promising building block for soft electronics engineering. In this review, we provide a comprehensive framework for advancing biosensors using these engineered nanocomposite hydrogels, highlighting their unique properties such as high electrical conductivity, flexibility, self-healing, biocompatibility, biodegradability, and tunable architecture, broadening their biomedical applications. We summarize key properties of nanocomposite hydrogels for thermal, biomechanical, electrophysiological, and biochemical sensing applications on the human body, recent progress in nanocomposite hydrogel design and synthesis, and the latest technologies in developing flexible and wearable devices. This review covers various sensor types, including strain, physiological, and electrochemical sensors, and explores their potential applications in personalized healthcare, from daily activity monitoring to versatile electronic skin applications. Furthermore, we highlight the blueprints of design, working procedures, performance, detection limits, and sensitivity of these soft devices. Finally, we address challenges, prospects, and future outlook for advanced nanocomposite hydrogels in wearable sensors, aiming to provide a comprehensive overview of their current state and future potential in healthcare applications.

Bio-inspired electronics: Soft, biohybrid, and "living" neural interfaces

Neural interface technologies are increasingly evolving towards bio-inspired approaches to enhance integration and long-term functionality. Recent strategies merge soft materials with tissue engineering to realize biologically-active and/or cell-containing living layers at the tissue-device interface that enable seamless biointegration and novel cell-mediated therapeutic opportunities. This review maps the field of bio-inspired electronics and discusses key recent developments in tissue-like and regenerative bioelectronics, from soft biomaterials and surface-functionalized bioactive coatings to cell-containing 'biohybrid' and 'all-living' interfaces. We define and contextualize key terminology in this emerging field and highlight how biological and living components can bridge the gap to clinical translation.

Biocompatible EDOT-Pyrrole Conjugated Conductive Polymer Coating for Augmenting Cell Attachment, Activity, and Differentiation

Developing scaffolds supporting functional cell attachment and tissue growth is critical in basic cell research, tissue engineering, and regenerative medicine approaches. Though poly(ethylene glycol) (PEG) and its derivatives are attractive for hydrogels and scaffold fabrication, they often require bioactive modifications due to their bioinert nature. In this work, biomimetic synthesized conductive polypyrrole-poly(3,4-ethylenedioxythiophene) copolymer doped with poly(styrenesulfonate) (PPy-PEDOT:PSS) was used as a biocompatible coating for poly(ethylene glycol) diacrylate (PEGDA) hydrogel to support neuronal and muscle cells' attachment, activity, and differentiation. The synthesized copolymer was characterized by Raman spectroscopy and dynamic light scattering. Its electrochemical properties were studied using galvanostatic charge-discharge (GCD) and voltammetry. PPy-PEDOT:PSS-coated hydrogels were characterized by Raman spectroscopy and atomic force microscopy, and protein adsorption was assessed using a quartz crystal microbalance with dissipation monitoring. Attachment and differentiation of the ND7/23 neuron hybrid cell line and C2C12 myoblasts were evaluated by cell cytoskeleton staining and quantification of morphological parameters. Viability was assessed by live/dead staining using flow cytometry. Cortex neural activity was studied by calcium ion influx that could be detected through the dynamic fluorescence changes of Fluo-4. The PPy-PEDOT:PSS coating supported cell attachment and differentiation and was nontoxic to cells. Primary neurons attached and remained responsive to electrical stimulation. Altogether, the biocompatible copolymer PPy-PEDOT:PSS is a simple yet effective alternative for hydrogel coating and presents great potential as an interface for nervous and other electrically excitable tissues.

Flexible Triboelectric Nanogenerator Patch for Accelerated Wound Healing Through the Synergy of Electrostimulation and Photothermal Effect

Physiological wound healing process can restore the functional and structural integrity of skin, but is often delayed due to external disturbance. The development of methods for promoting the repair process of skin wounds represents a highly desired and challenging goal. Here, a flexible, self-powered, and multifunctional triboelectric nanogenerator (TENG) wound patch (e-patch) is presented for accelerating wound healing through the synergy of electrostimulation and photothermal effect. To fabricate the triboelectric e-patch, a flexible and conductive hydrogel with a dual network of polyacrylamide (PAM) and polydopamine (PDA) is synthesized and doped with multi-walled carbon nanotubes (MCNTs). The hydrogel exhibits high conductivity, good stretchability, and high biocompatibility. The triboelectric e-patch assembled from the hydrogel can detect mechanical and electrical signals of human motions in a real-time manner. In a rodent model of full-thickness dorsal skin wound, the e-patch integrating self-driven electrostimulation and photothermal effect under the near-infrared light irradiation efficiently promotes wound repair and hair follicle regeneration through relieving inflammation, fastening collagen deposition, vascular regeneration, and epithelialization. It offers a promising way to accelerate wound healing.

Thermoelectric Materials and Devices for Advanced Biomedical Applications

Thermoelectrics (TEs), enabling the direct conversion between heat and electrical energy, have demonstrated extensive application potential in biomedical fields. Herein, the mechanism of the TE effect, recent developments in TE materials, and the biocompatibility assessment of TE materials are provided. In addition to the fundamentals of TEs, a timely and comprehensive review of the recent progress of advanced TE materials and their applications is presented, including wearable power generation, personal thermal management, and biosensing. In addition, the new-emerged medical applications of TE materials in wound healing, disease treatment, antimicrobial therapy, and anti-cancer therapy are thoroughly reviewed. Finally, the main challenges and future possibilities are outlined for TEs in biomedical fields, as well as their material selection criteria for specific application scenarios. Together, these advancements can provide innovative insights into the development of TEs for broader applications in biomedical fields.

A label-free and ultrasensitive electrochemical biosensor using hybrid polypyrrole/gold nanoelectrocatalyst mediated signal amplification for the detection of miRNA-21

The quantitative detection of microRNAs (miRNAs) is crucial for the diagnosis of cancers, while the traditional methods involve complicated procedures and restricted signal gain. In this study, we have established an ultrasensitive electrochemical biosensor by combining a target-induced hybridization reaction and signal amplification strategy for the detection of miRNA-21. The signal amplification is achieved through employing double-stranded DNA as scaffolds for methylene blue (MB) and using a polypyrrole@gold nanocomposite (ppy@AuNPs) as the electrochemical catalyst for further enhancing the signal. Therefore, this proposed electrochemical platform displayed an analytical performance with a wide linear range from 10 fM to 100 nM and a low detection limit down to 5.4 fM. The excellent selectivity allows the biosensor to discriminate miRNA-21 from other miRNAs, even the one base-mismatched sequence. Moreover, this nanoelectrocatalyst-based platform exhibited good reproducibility and remarkable storage stability, which shows great potential for miRNA-21 detection.

Hydrogel-based bimodal sensors for high-sensitivity independent detection of temperature and strain

Avoiding crosstalk between strain and temperature detection is crucial for bimodal hydrogel sensors, yet achieving high sensitivity for both parameters while maintaining signal decoupling remains a significant challenge. In this study, a bimodal sensor was developed by locally coating poly (3,4-ethylene dioxythiophene): polystyrene sulfonate (PEDOT: PSS) onto the hydrogel surface, creating distinct regions for strain and temperature detection. These regions form localized strain concentration zones and wrinkle structures, respectively. The localized strain concentration enhances the sensor's sensitivity from 8.5 to 18.5. Additionally, the sensor demonstrates a low detection limit (0.2 %), a wide detection range (up to 1356 %), a fast response time, and excellent cyclic stability for strain measurements. The temperature detection region, leveraging the thermoelectric effect, improves the Seebeck coefficient of the PEDOT: PSS coating from 20 to 122.86 μVK-1 through de-doping and energy band modulation. Moreover, the temperature sensing of the PEDOT: PSS coating features good cyclic stability, a rapid response time, and versatile testing capabilities. This innovative structural design effectively decouples strain and temperature signals across a broad strain range (0-600 %). These sensors hold potential applications in human health monitoring and as electronic skin for flexible robotics.

Conducting polymer hydrogels based on supramolecular strategies for wearable sensors

Conductive polymer hydrogels (CPHs) are gaining considerable attention in developing wearable electronics due to their unique combination of high conductivity and softness. However, in the absence of interactions, the incompatibility between hydrophobic conductive polymers (CPs) and hydrophilic polymer networks gives rise to inadequate bonding between CPs and hydrogel matrices, thereby significantly impairing the mechanical and electrical properties of CPHs and constraining their utility in wearable electronic sensors. Therefore, to endow CPHs with good performance, it is necessary to ensure a stable and robust combination between the hydrogel network and CPs. Encouragingly, recent research has demonstrated that incorporating supramolecular interactions into CPHs enhances the polymer network interaction, improving overall CPH performance. However, a comprehensive review focusing on supramolecular CPH (SCPH) for wearable sensing applications is currently lacking. This review provides a summary of the typical supramolecular strategies employed in the development of high-performance CPHs and elucidates the properties of SCPHs that are closely associated with wearable sensors. Moreover, the review discusses the fabrication methods and classification of SCPH sensors, while also exploring the latest application scenarios for SCPH wearable sensors. Finally, it discusses the challenges of SCPH sensors and offers suggestions for future advancements.

From lab to wearables: Innovations in multifunctional hydrogel chemistry for next-generation bioelectronic devices

Functional hydrogels have emerged as foundational materials in diagnostics, therapy, and wearable devices, owing to their high stretchability, flexibility, sensing, and outstanding biocompatibility. Their significance stems from their resemblance to biological tissue and their exceptional versatility in electrical, mechanical, and biofunctional engineering, positioning themselves as a bridge between living organisms and electronic systems, paving the way for the development of highly compatible, efficient, and stable interfaces. These multifaceted capability revolutionizes the essence of hydrogel-based wearable devices, distinguishing them from conventional biomedical devices in real-world practical applications. In this comprehensive review, we first discuss the fundamental chemistry of hydrogels, elucidating their distinct properties and functionalities. Subsequently, we examine the applications of these bioelectronics within the human body, unveiling their transformative potential in diagnostics, therapy, and human-machine interfaces (HMI) in real wearable bioelectronics. This exploration serves as a scientific compass for researchers navigating the interdisciplinary landscape of chemistry, materials science, and bioelectronics.

Soft Bioelectronics for Heart Monitoring

Cardiovascular diseases (CVDs) are a predominant global health concern, accounting for over 17.9 million deaths in 2019, representing approximately 32% of all global fatalities. In North America and Europe, over a million adults undergo cardiac surgeries annually. Despite the benefits, such surgeries pose risks and require precise postsurgery monitoring. However, during the postdischarge period, where monitoring infrastructures are limited, continuous monitoring of vital signals is hindered. In this area, the introduction of implantable electronics is altering medical practices by enabling real-time and out-of-hospital monitoring of physiological signals and biological information postsurgery. The multimodal implantable bioelectronic platforms have the capability of continuous heart sensing and stimulation, in both postsurgery and out-of-hospital settings. Furthermore, with the emergence of machine learning algorithms into healthcare devices, next-generation implantables will benefit artificial intelligence (AI) and connectivity with skin-interfaced electronics to provide more precise and user-specific results. This Review outlines recent advancements in implantable bioelectronics and their utilization in cardiovascular health monitoring, highlighting their transformative deployment in sensing and stimulation to the heart toward reaching truly personalized healthcare platforms compatible with the Sustainable Development Goal 3.4 of the WHO 2030 observatory roadmap. This Review also discusses the challenges and future prospects of these devices.

Label-Free Mode Based on Ferrocene/PEDOT:PSS-PPy for Molecularly Imprinted Electrochemically Ultrasensitive Detection of Amino Acids

Generally, molecularly imprinted (MIP) electrochemical sensors for amino acids operate in a "label-like" mode. That is, after an amino acid is specifically recognized by an imprinted cavity at the sensing interface, the amino acid itself provides the sensing signal for quantitative detection. However, poorly electroactive amino acids impede electron transfer at the sensing interface and require high potentials to drive the reaction; thus, more interfering reactions tend to be triggered in practical applications, causing enhanced background noise in the detection. To address these issues, a "label-free" mode of the MIP sensor based on the ferrocene (Fc)/PEDOT:PSS-polypyrrole (PPy) composite was designed for the first time. The Fc/PEDOT:PSS-PPy is drop coated on the electrode surface as a substrate, and MIP polymers with specific recognition ability are immobilized on the substrate via electrostatic adsorption. As a proof of concept, l-tyrosine (l-Tyr) was selected as a model analyte and the "label-free" mode MIP/Fc/PEDOT:PSS-PPy sensor was constructed. The limit of detection (LOD) and linearity range of the MIP/Fc/PEDOT:PSS-PPy sensor were 2.31 × 10-11 M and from 100 pM to 5 mM, respectively. Compared with the label-like mode, the LOD was three orders of magnitude lower, the linear range was increased by three orders of magnitude, and the sensitivity was improved by more than four times. This work provides a universal and effective concept for MIP electrochemical sensing of amino acids.

A Fabric-Based Strain Sensor with a Microbridge Structure and the Supercapacitor-Powered Integrated Sensing System

Developing fabric-based strain sensors with high sensitivity and stability is in high demand for wearable electronics. Herein, carbon nanotubes (CNTs) and polypyrrole (PPy) are coated on a thermoplastic polyurethane (TPU) fabric as strain sensors. A microbridge structure, in which CNT bridges the stretching-induced cracks, has been designed for the TPU-CNT-PPy strain sensor. The microbridge structure can significantly enhance the electrical resilience, ensuring the improved sensitivity and stability of strain sensors. As a result, our TPU-CNT-PPy strain sensors deliver high sensitivity (GF = 231.5) with a broad working range (150%) and fast response and recovery time (166/195 ms). In addition, our TPU-CNT-PPy could also be used as flexible electrodes of the microsupercapacitors (MSCs) as a power supplier for the integrated sensing system. The TPU-CNT-PPy-based MSCs exhibit a high specific capacitance (460.3 mF cm-2 at 0.5 mA cm-2) and excellent cycling stability (96.69% capacitance retention for 10,000 charge/discharge cycles). Finally, we demonstrated an integrated sensing system using TPU-CNT-PPy as both MSCs and strain sensors, where the current signals of the sensors could be well detected via Bluetooth. This study offers a microbridge strategy to fabricate strain sensors with high sensitivity and stability and develops an integrated sensing system for the actual applications of wearable electronics.

Energy difference-driven ROS reduction for electrochemical tracking crop growth sensitized with electron-migration nanostructures

Aiming for sustainable crop productivity under changing climate conditions, it is essential to develop handy models for in-situ monitoring of reactive oxygen species (ROS). Herein, this work reports a simple electrochemical sensing toward hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) for tracking crop growth status sensitized with electron-migration nanostructure. To be specific, Cu-based metal-organic frameworks (MOFs) with high HOMO energy level are designed for H2O2 reduction on account of Cu(I)/Cu(II) redox switchability. Importantly, the sensing performance is improved by electrochemically reduced graphene oxide (GO) with ready to use feature. To overcome the shortcomings of traditional liquid electrolytes, conductive hydrogel as semi-solid electrolyte exhibits the adhesive property to the cut plant petiole surface. Benefitting from the preferred composite models and conductive hydrogel, the electrochemical sensing toward H2O2 with high sensitivity and good anti-interference against the coexistent molecules, well qualified for acquiring plant growth status.

Progress of Research on Conductive Hydrogels in Flexible Wearable Sensors

Conductive hydrogels, characterized by their excellent conductivity and flexibility, have attracted widespread attention and research in the field of flexible wearable sensors. This paper reviews the application progress, related challenges, and future prospects of conductive hydrogels in flexible wearable sensors. Initially, the basic properties and classifications of conductive hydrogels are introduced. Subsequently, this paper discusses in detail the specific applications of conductive hydrogels in different sensor applications, such as motion detection, medical diagnostics, electronic skin, and human-computer interactions. Finally, the application prospects and challenges are summarized. Overall, the exceptional performance and multifunctionality of conductive hydrogels make them one of the most important materials for future wearable technologies. However, further research and innovation are needed to overcome the challenges faced and to realize the wider application of conductive hydrogels in flexible sensors.

Robust and sensitive conductive nanocomposite hydrogel with bridge cross-linking-dominated hierarchical structural design

Conductive hydrogels have a remarkable potential for applications in soft electronics and robotics, owing to their noteworthy attributes, including electrical conductivity, stretchability, biocompatibility, etc. However, the limited strength and toughness of these hydrogels have traditionally impeded their practical implementation. Inspired by the hierarchical architecture of high-performance biological composites found in nature, we successfully fabricate a robust and sensitive conductive nanocomposite hydrogel through self-assembly-induced bridge cross-linking of MgB2 nanosheets and polyvinyl alcohol hydrogels. By combining the hierarchical lamellar microstructure with robust molecular B─O─C covalent bonds, the resulting conductive hydrogel exhibits an exceptional strength and toughness. Moreover, the hydrogel demonstrates exceptional sensitivity (response/relaxation time, 20 milliseconds; detection lower limit, ~1 Pascal) under external deformation. Such characteristics enable the conductive hydrogel to exhibit superior performance in soft sensing applications. This study introduces a high-performance conductive hydrogel and opens up exciting possibilities for the development of soft electronics.

A highly sensitive and anti-freezing conductive strain sensor based on polypyrrole/cellulose nanofiber crosslinked polyvinyl alcohol hydrogel for human motion detection

Electro-conductive hydrogels emerge as a stretchable conductive materials with diverse applications in the synthesis of flexible strain sensors. However, the high-water content and low cross-links density cause them to be mechanically destroyed and freeze at subzero temperatures, limiting their practical applications. Herein, we report a one-pot strategy by co-incorporating cellulose nanofiber (CNF), Poly pyrrole (PPy) and glycerol with polyvinyl alcohol (PVA) to prepare hydrogel. The addition of PPy endowed the hydrogel with good conductivity (∼0.034 S/m) compared to the no PPy@CNF group (∼0.0095 S/m), the conductivity was increased by 257.9 %. The hydrogel exhibits comparable ionic conductivity at -18 °C as it does at room temperature. It's attributed to the glycerol as a cryoprotectant and the formation of hydrated [Zn(H2O)n]2+ ions via strong interaction between Zn2+ and water molecules. Moreover, the cellulose nanofiber intrinsically assembled into unique hierarchical structures allow for strong hydrogen bonds between adjacent cellulose and PPy polymer chains, greatly improve the mechanical strength (stress∼0.65 MPa, strain∼301 %) and excellent viscoelasticity (G'max ∼ 82.7 KPa). This novel PPy@CNF-PVA hydrogel exhibits extremely high Gauge factor (GF) of 2.84 and shows excellent sensitivity, repeatability and stability. Therefore, the hydrogel can serve as reliable and stable strain sensor which shows excellent responsiveness in human activities monitoration.

Facile Preparation of a Self-Adhesive Conductive Hydrogel with Long-Term Usability

Although conductive hydrogels (CHs) have been investigated as the wearable sensor in recent years, how to prepare the multifunctional CHs with long-term usability is still a big challenge. In this paper, we successfully prepared a kind of conductive and self-adhesive hydrogel with a simple method, and its excellent ductility makes it possible as a flexible strain sensor for intelligent monitoring. The CHs are constructed by poly(vinyl alcohol) (PVA), polydopamine (PDA), and phytic acid (PA) through the freeze-thaw cycle method. The introduction of PA enhanced the intermolecular force with PVA and provided much H+ for augmented conductivity, while the catechol group on PDA endows the hydrogel with self-adhesion ability. The PVA/PA/PDA hydrogel can directly contact with the skin and adhere to it stably, which makes the hydrogel potentially a wearable strain sensor. The PVA/PA/PDA hydrogel can monitor human motion signals (including fingers, elbows, knees, etc.) in real-time and can accurately monitor tiny electrical signals for smile and handwriting recognition. Notably, the composite CHs can be used in a normal environment even after 4 months. Because of its excellent ductility, self-adhesiveness, and conductivity, the PVA/PA/PDA hydrogel provides a new idea for wearable bioelectronic sensors.

Development of Electro-Conductive Composite Bioinks for Electrohydrodynamic Bioprinting with Microscale Resolution

Bioprinting has attracted extensive attention in the field of tissue engineering due to its unique capability in constructing biomimetic tissue constructs in a highly controlled manner. However, it is still challenging to reproduce the physical and structural properties of native electroactive tissues due to the poor electroconductivity of current bioink systems as well as the limited printing resolution of conventional bioprinting techniques. In this work, an electro-conductive hydrogel is prepared by introducing poly (3,4-ethylene dioxythiophene): poly (styrene sulfonate) (PEDOT: PSS) into an RGD (GGGGRGDSP)-functionalized alginate and fibrin system (RAF), and then electrohydrodynamic (EHD)-bioprinted to form living tissue constructs with microscale resolution. The addition of 0.1 (w/v%) PEDOT: PSS increases the electroconductivity to 1.95 ± 0.21 S m-1 and simultaneously has little effect on cell viability. Compared with pure RAF bioink, the presence of PEDOT: PSS expands the printable parameters for EHD-bioprinting, and hydrogel filaments with the smallest feature size of 48.91 ± 3.44 µm can be obtained by further optimizing process parameters. Furthermore, the EHD-bioprinted electro-conductive living tissue constructs with improved resolution show good viability (>85%). The synergy of the advanced electro-conductive hydrogel and EHD-bioprinting presented here may provide a promising approach for engineering electro-conductive and cell-laden constructs for electroactive tissue engineering.

Multifunctional Filler-Free PEDOT:PSS Hydrogels with Ultrahigh Electrical Conductivity Induced by Lewis-Acid-Promoted Ion Exchange

Highly conductive hydrogels with biotissue-like mechanical properties are of great interest in the emerging field of hydrogel bioelectronics due to their good biocompatibility, deformability, and stability. Fully polymeric hydrogels may exhibit comparable Young's modulus to biotissues. However, most of these filler-free hydrogels have a low electrical conductivity of <10 S cm-1 , which limits their wide applications of them in digital circuits or bioelectronic devices. In this work, a series of metal-halides-doped poly(3,4-ethylenedioxythiophene):poly(styrene sulfonate) (PEDOT:PSS) hydrogels with an ultrahigh electrical conductivity up to 547 S cm-1 is reported, which is 1.5 times to 104 times higher than previously reported filler-free polymeric hydrogels. Theoretical calculation demonstrated that the ion exchange between PEDOT:PSS and the metal halides played an important role to promote phase separation in the hydrogels, which thus leads to ultrahigh electrical conductivity. The high electrical conductivity resulted in multifunctional hydrogels with high performance in thermoelectrics, electromagnetic shielding, Joule heating, and sensing. Such flexible and stretchable hydrogels with ultrahigh electrical conductivity and stability upon various deformations are promising for soft bioelectronics devices and wearable electronics.

Chemically revised conducting polymers with inflammation resistance for intimate bioelectronic electrocoupling

Conducting polymers offer attractive mixed ionic-electronic conductivity, tunable interfacial barrier with metal, tissue matchable softness, and versatile chemical functionalization, making them robust to bridge the gap between brain tissue and electronic circuits. This review focuses on chemically revised conducting polymers, combined with their superior and controllable electrochemical performance, to fabricate long-term bioelectronic implants, addressing chronic immune responses, weak neuron attraction, and long-term electrocommunication instability challenges. Moreover, the promising progress of zwitterionic conducting polymers in bioelectronic implants (≥4 weeks stable implantation) is highlighted, followed by a comment on their current evolution toward selective neural coupling and reimplantable function. Finally, a critical forward look at the future of zwitterionic conducting polymers for in vivo bioelectronic devices is provided.

A highly sensitive electrochemical sensor by growing Ag nanoparticles on the surface of PPy@PEDOT:PSS film for detecting sodium hydroxymethanesulfinate molecules

A high-sensitivity electrochemical sensor was fabricated via in situ growth of Ag nanoparticles (AgNPs) on the surface of a polypyrrole@poly(3,4-ethylenedioxythiophene):polystyrene sulfonic acid (PPy@PEDOT:PSS) film for detecting sodium hydroxymethanesulfinate (SHF) molecules in milk and rice flour samples. The sensor fabrication process involved randomly decorating Ag seed points on the porous PPy@PEDOT:PSS film via a chemical reduction process using a AgNO₃ solution. Next, AgNPs were anchored on the PPy@PEDOT:PSS film surface using an electrochemical deposition method to prepare a sensor electrode. Under optimal conditions, the sensor exhibits a good linear relation within a range of 1-130 ng/mL for real milk and rice flour samples and its limit-of-detection values were up to 0.58 and 0.29 ng/mL, respectively. Additionally, Raman spectroscopy was used to identify the byproducts of the chemical reaction, such as formaldehyde. This AgNP/PPy@PEDOT:PSS film-based electrochemical sensor offers a simple and rapid method for detecting SHF molecules in food products.

Poisson-Nernst-Planck framework for modelling ionic strain and temperature sensors

Ionically conductive hydrogels are gaining traction as sensing and structural materials for use bioelectronic devices. Hydrogels that feature large mechanical compliances and tractable ionic conductivities are compelling materials that can sense physiological states and potentially modulate the stimulation of excitable tissue because of the congruence in electro-mechanical properties across the tissue-material interface. However, interfacing ionic hydrogels with conventional DC voltage-based circuits poses several technical challenges including electrode delamination, electrochemical reaction, and drifting contact impedance. Utilizing alternating voltages to probe ion-relaxation dynamics has been shown to be a viable alternative for strain and temperature sensing. In this work, we present a Poisson-Nernst-Planck theoretical framework to model ion transport under alternating fields within conductors subject to varying strains and temperatures. Using simulated impedance spectra, we develop key insights about the relationship between frequency of the applied voltage perturbation and sensitivity. Lastly, we perform preliminary experimental characterization to demonstrate the applicability of the proposed theory. We believe this work provides a useful perspective that is applicable to the design of a variety of ionic hydrogel-based sensors for biomedical and soft robotic applications.

Continuous contractile force and electrical signal recordings of 3D cardiac tissue utilizing conductive hydrogel pillars on a chip

Heart-on-chip emerged as a potential tool for cardiac tissue engineering, recapitulating key physiological cues in cardiac pathophysiology. Controlled electrical stimulation and the ability to provide directly analyzed functional readouts are essential to evaluate the physiology of cardiac tissues in the heart-on-chip platforms. In this scenario, a novel heart-on-chip platform integrating two soft conductive hydrogel pillar electrodes was presented here. Human-induced pluripotent stem cell-derived cardiomyocytes (hiPSC-CMs) and cardiac fibroblasts were seeded into the apparatus to create 3D human cardiac tissues. The application of electrical stimulation improved functional performance by altering the dynamics of tissue structure and contractile development. The contractile forces that cardiac tissues contract was accurately measured through optical tracking of hydrogel pillar displacement. Furthermore, the conductive properties of hydrogel pillars allowed direct and non-invasive electrophysiology studies, enabling continuous monitoring of signal changes in real-time while dynamically administering drugs to the cardiac tissues, as shown by a chronotropic reaction to isoprenaline and verapamil. Overall, the platform for acquiring contractile force and electrophysiological signals in situ allowed monitoring the tissue development trend without interrupting the culture process and could have diverse applications in preclinical drug testing, disease modeling, and therapeutic discovery.

Current Progress in Conductive Hydrogels and Their Applications in Wearable Bioelectronics and Therapeutics

Wearable bioelectronics and therapeutics are a rapidly evolving area of research, with researchers exploring new materials that offer greater flexibility and sophistication. Conductive hydrogels have emerged as a promising material due to their tunable electrical properties, flexible mechanical properties, high elasticity, stretchability, excellent biocompatibility, and responsiveness to stimuli. This review presents an overview of recent breakthroughs in conductive hydrogels, including their materials, classification, and applications. By providing a comprehensive review of current research, this paper aims to equip researchers with a deeper understanding of conductive hydrogels and inspire new design approaches for various healthcare applications.

Synergetic Effect of Electrical and Topographical Cues in Aniline Trimer-Based Polyurethane Fibrous Scaffolds on Tissue Regeneration

Processibility and biodegradability of conductive polymers are major concerns when they are applied to tissue regeneration. This study synthesizes dissolvable and conductive aniline trimer-based polyurethane copolymers (DCPU) and processes them into scaffolds by using electrospinning with different patterns (random, oriented, and latticed). The effects of topographic cue changes on electrical signal transmission and further regulation of cell behaviors concerning bone tissue are researched. Results show that DCPU fibrous scaffolds possessed good hydrophilicity, swelling capacity, elasticity, and fast biodegradability in enzymatic liquid. In addition, the conductivity and efficiency of electrical signal transmission can be tuned by changing the surface’s topological structure. Among them, oriented DCPU scaffolds (DCPU-O) showed the best conductivity with the lowest ionic resistance value. Furthermore, the viability and proliferation results of bone mesenchymal stem cells (BMSCs) demonstrate a significant increase on three DCPU scaffolds compared to AT-free scaffolds (DPU-R). Especially, DCPU-O scaffolds exhibit superior abilities to promote cell proliferation because of their unique surface topography and excellent electroactivity. Concurrently, the DCPU-O scaffolds can synergistically promote osteogenic differentiation in terms of osteogenic differentiation and gene expression levels when combined with electrical stimulation. Together, these results suggest a promising use of DCPU-O fibrous scaffolds in the application of tissue regeneration.

Surface engineering of mixed conjugated/polyelectrolyte brushes - Tailoring interface structure and electrical properties

HYPOTHESIS

Mixed polymer brushes (MPBs) could be synthesized by surface dilution of homopolymer brushes and subsequent grafting of other type of chains in the formed voids. Nanophase separation and dynamics of surface-grafted chains could be tailored by modification of their molecular architecture. Mixed polyelectrolyte and conjugated chains contribute synergistically to tailor properties of the coating.

EXPERIMENTS

A new synthetic strategy that allowed spatially controlled grafting of poly(sodium 4-styrenesulfonate) chains (PSSNa) in close neighborhood of poly(3-methylthienyl methacrylate) (PMTM) brushes (precursors of the conjugated chains) using surface-initiated polymerizations was developed. The final mixed conjugated/polyelectrolyte brushes were prepared by template polymerization of pendant thiophene groups in PMTM chains. Surface dynamics and nanophase separation of MPBs were studied by nanoscale resolution IR imaging, SIMS profiling and AFM mapping in selective solvents.

FINDINGS

Unconjugated MPBs were shown to undergo vertical, and horizontal nanophase separation, while the size and shape of the nanodomains were dependent on molar ratio of the mixed chains and their relative lengths. Generation of the conjugated chains led to diminishing of nanophase separation thanks to stronger mutual interactions of conjugated PMTM and PSSNa (macromolecular mixing). The obtained systems demonstrated tunable interfacial structure and resistance switching phenomenon desired in construction of smart surfaces or memristive devices.

Conductive and elastic bottlebrush elastomers for ultrasoft electronics

Understanding biological systems and mimicking their functions require electronic tools that can interact with biological tissues with matched softness. These tools involve biointerfacing materials that should concurrently match the softness of biological tissue and exhibit suitable electrical conductivities for recording and reading bioelectronic signals. However, commonly employed intrinsically soft and stretchable materials usually contain solvents that limit stability for long-term use or possess low electronic conductivity. To date, an ultrasoft (i.e., Young's modulus <30 kPa), conductive, and solvent-free elastomer does not exist. Additionally, integrating such ultrasoft and conductive materials into electronic devices is poorly explored. This article reports a solvent-free, ultrasoft and conductive PDMS bottlebrush elastomer (BBE) composite with single-wall carbon nanotubes (SWCNTs) as conductive fillers. The conductive SWCNT/BBE with a filler concentration of 0.4 - 0.6 wt% reveals an ultralow Young's modulus (<11 kPa) and satisfactory conductivity (>2 S/m) as well as adhesion property. Furthermore, we fabricate ultrasoft electronics based on laser cutting and 3D printing of conductive and non-conductive BBEs and demonstrate their potential applications in wearable sensing, soft robotics, and electrophysiological recording.

Methods of poly(3,4)-ethylenedioxithiophene (PEDOT) electrodeposition on metal electrodes for neural stimulation and recording

Conductive polymers are of great interest in the field of neural electrodes because of their potential to improve the interfacial properties of electrodes. In particular, the conductive polymer poly (3,4)-ethylenedioxithiophene (PEDOT) has been widely studied for neural applications.Objective:This review compares methods for electrodeposition of PEDOT on metal neural electrodes, and analyses the effects of deposition methods on morphology and electrochemical performance.Approach:Electrochemical performances were analysed against several deposition method choices, including deposition charge density and co-ion, and correlations were explained to morphological and structural arguments as well as characterisation methods choices.Main results:Coating thickness and charge storage capacity are positively correlated with PEDOT electrodeposition charge density. We also show that PEDOT coated electrode impedance at 1 kHz, the only consistently reported impedance quantity, is strongly dependent upon electrode radius across a wide range of studies, because PEDOT coatings reduces the reactance of the complex impedance, conferring a more resistive behaviour to electrodes (at 1 kHz) dominated by the solution resistance and electrode geometry. This review also summarises how PEDOT co-ion choice affects coating structure and morphology and shows that co-ions notably influence the charge injection limit but have a limited influence on charge storage capacity and impedance. Finally we discuss the possible influence of characterisation methods to assess the robustness of comparisons between published results using different methods of characterisation.Significance:This review aims to serve as a common basis for researchers working with PEDOT by showing the effects of deposition methods on electrochemical performance, and aims to set a standard for accurate and uniform reporting of methods.

Advances in the Translation of Electrochemical Hydrogel-Based Sensors

Novel biomaterials for bio- and chemical sensing applications have gained considerable traction in the diagnostic community with rising trends of using biocompatible and lowly cytotoxic material. Hydrogel-based electrochemical sensors have become a promising candidate for their swellable, nano-/microporous, and aqueous 3D structures capable of immobilizing catalytic enzymes, electroactive species, whole cells, and complex tissue models, while maintaining tunable mechanical properties in wearable and implantable applications. With advances in highly controllable fabrication and processability of these novel biomaterials, the possibility of bio-nanocomposite hydrogel-based electrochemical sensing presents a paradigm shift in the development of biocompatible, "smart," and sensitive health monitoring point-of-care devices. Here, recent advances in electrochemical hydrogels for the detection of biomarkers in vitro, in situ, and in vivo are briefly reviewed to demonstrate their applicability in ideal conditions, in complex cellular environments, and in live animal models, respectively, to provide a comprehensive assessment of whether these biomaterials are ready for point-of-care translation and biointegration. Sensors based on conductive and nonconductive polymers are presented, with highlights of nano-/microstructured electrodes that provide enhanced sensitivity and selectivity in biocompatible matrices. An outlook on current challenges that shall be addressed for the realization of truly continuous real-time sensing platforms is also presented.

Acetylated Distarch Phosphate-Mediated Tough and Conductive Hydrogel for Antibacterial Wearable Sensors

Conductive, stretchable, and flexible hydrogel wearable sensors have attracted extensive attention in the fields of artificial intelligence and electronic equipment. However, it is an enormous challenge to fabricate conductive hydrogel sensors with biocompatibility, antibacterial properties, and toughness. Here, a highly conductive hydrogel with excellent toughness, good biocompatibility, and strong antibacterial properties was prepared by incorporating acetylated distarch phosphate (ADSP) into poly(vinyl alcohol) (PVA)/polyhexamethylene biguanide hydrochloride (PHMG). The addition of ADSP not only ionized sodium ions to make the hydrogel conductive but also provided abundant hydroxyl groups to form hydrogen bonds with PVA to improve the toughness of the hydrogel. Furthermore, PHMG endowed the hydrogel with antibacterial properties toward E. coli (Escherichia coli, Gram-negative bacteria) and S. aureus (Staphylococcus aureus, Gram-positive bacteria). Meanwhile, the hydrogel was implanted in mice for 14 days, and the surrounding tissue remained in good condition. More importantly, the hydrogel could detect ECG signals and electrical signals under different actions. This study affords a novel approach for exploiting wearable sensors with antibacterial properties and biocompatibility.

Recent Progress on Self-Healable Conducting Polymers

Materials able to regenerate after damage have been the object of investigation since the ancient times. For instance, self-healing concretes, able to resist earthquakes, aging, weather, and seawater have been known since the times of ancient Rome and are still the object of research. During the last decade, there has been an increasing interest in self-healing electronic materials, for applications in electronic skin (E-skin) for health monitoring, wearable and stretchable sensors, actuators, transistors, energy harvesting, and storage devices. Self-healing materials based on conducting polymers are particularly attractive due to their tunable high conductivity, good stability, intrinsic flexibility, excellent processability and biocompatibility. Here recent developments are reviewed in the field of self-healing electronic materials based on conducting polymers, such as poly 3,4-ethylenedioxythiophene (PEDOT), polypyrrole (PPy), and polyaniline (PANI). The different types of healing, the strategies adopted to optimize electrical and mechanical properties, and the various possible healing mechanisms are introduced. Finally, the main challenges and perspectives in the field are discussed.

Design of asymmetric-adhesion lignin-reinforced hydrogels based on disulfide bond crosslinking for strain sensing application

Soft and elastic polymer hydrogel materials are booming in the fields of wearable biomimetic skin, sensors, robotics, and bioelectrodes. Currently, many researchers are exploring new chemistries for the preparation of hydrogels to improve their performance. In the present study, we design and develop a strategy to prepare lignin reinforced hydrogels based on disulfide bond crosslinking mechanisms, and resultant hydrogels exhibit excellent stretchability, with tensile strain of up to 1085.4%, and high adhesion (with the highest T-peel strength of up to 432.2 N/m to pigskin). The underlying mechanism is based on the disulfide bonds that act as crosslinkers in the as-prepared hydrogel, and they can be easily cleaved and re-formed under mild conditions. Thanks to the presence of lignin, the as-obtained hydrogels also have excellent UV shielding effect. When assembled into a strain sensor, they can output stable and sensitive sensing signals, with gauge factor (GF) of 2.72 (strain: 0-72.8%). Furthermore, a simple and effective strategy to construct asymmetric adhesive hydrogels was adopted, which is based on directional soaking of the top portion of the hydrogel in a high-concentrated calcium chloride solution. The asymmetric hydrogel strain sensor transmits accurate and stable signals without the interference of various contaminants.

Ultra-High Electrical Conductivity in Filler-Free Polymeric Hydrogels Toward Thermoelectrics and Electromagnetic Interference Shielding

Conducting hydrogels have attracted much attention for the emerging field of hydrogel bioelectronics, especially poly(3,4-ethylenedioxythiophene): poly(styrene sulfonate) (PEDOT:PSS) based hydrogels, because of their great biocompatibility and stability. However, the electrical conductivities of hydrogels are often lower than 1 S cm^-1 which are not suitable for digital circuits or applications in bioelectronics. Introducing conductive inorganic fillers into the hydrogels can improve their electrical conductivities. However, it may lead to compromises in compliance, biocompatibility, deformability, biodegradability, etc. Herein, a series of highly conductive ionic liquid (IL) doped PEDOT:PSS hydrogels without any conductive fillers is reported. These hydrogels exhibit high conductivities up to ≈305 S cm^-1 , which is ≈8 times higher than the record of polymeric hydrogels without conductive fillers in literature. The high electrical conductivity results in enhanced areal thermoelectric output power for hydrogel-based thermoelectric devices, and high specific electromagnetic interference (EMI) shielding efficiency which is about an order in magnitude higher than that of state-of-the-art conductive hydrogels in literature. Furthermore, these stretchable (strain >30%) hydrogels exhibit fast self-healing, and shape/size-tunable properties, which are desirable for hydrogel bioelectronics and wearable organic devices. The results indicate that these highly conductive hydrogels are promising in applications such as sensing, thermoelectrics, EMI shielding, etc.

Stretchable, Adhesive, Self-Healable, and Conductive Hydrogel-Based Deformable Triboelectric Nanogenerator for Energy Harvesting and Human Motion Sensing

Hydrogels that combine the integrated attributes of being adhesive, self-healable, deformable, and conductive show great promise for next-generation soft robotic/energy/electronic applications. Herein, we reported a dual-network polyacrylamide (PAAM)/poly(acrylic acid) (PAA)/graphene (GR)/poly(3,4-ethylenedioxythiophene):poly(styrene sulfonate) (PEDOT:PSS) (MAGP) conductive hydrogel composed of dual-cross-linked PAAM and PAA as well as PEDOT:PSS and GR as a conducting component that combines these features. A wearable strain sensor is fabricated by sandwiching the MAGP hydrogels between two dielectric carbon nanotubes (CNTs)/poly(dimethylsiloxane) (PDMS) layers, which can be utilized to monitor delicate and vigorous human motion. In addition, the hydrogel-based sensor can act as a deformable triboelectric nanogenerator (D-TENG) for harvesting mechanical energy. The D-TENG demonstrates a peak output voltage and current of 141 V and 0.8 μA, respectively. The D-TENG could easily light 52 yellow-light-emitting diodes (LEDs) simultaneously and demonstrated the capability to power small electronics, such as a hygrometer thermometer. This work provides a potential approach for the development of deformable energy sources and self-powered strain sensors.

The Bioanalytical and Biomedical Applications of Polymer Modified Substrates

Polymers with different structures and morphology have been extensively used to construct functionalized surfaces for a wide range of applications because the physicochemical properties of polymers can be finely adjusted by their molecular weights, polydispersity and configurations, as well as the chemical structures and natures of monomers. In particular, the specific functions of polymers can be easily achieved at post-synthesis by the attachment of different kinds of active molecules such as recognition ligand, peptides, aptamers and antibodies. In this review, the recent advances in the bioanalytical and biomedical applications of polymer modified substrates were summarized with subsections on functionalization using branched polymers, polymer brushes and polymer hydrogels. The review focuses on their applications as biosensors with excellent analytical performance and/or as nonfouling surfaces with efficient antibacterial activity. Finally, we discuss the perspectives and future directions of polymer modified substrates in the development of biodevices for the diagnosis, treatment and prevention of diseases.