Constituents from Salvia Species and Their Biological Activities

Grandifolins A-D: three 6/6/5 abietane diterpenes and an abietane diterpene from Salvia grandifolia

The genus Salvia is a well-established source of biologically active compounds with beneficial health effects. In this study, we aimed to isolate and structurally characterize novel compounds from Salvia grandifolia and evaluate their cytotoxic activity against human promyelocytic leukemia (HL-60) and cervical cancer (HeLa) cell lines. Three new rearranged abietane-type diterpenes, grandifolins A-C (1-3) and a new abietane diterpene, grandifolin D (4), were isolated from the roots of Salvia grandifolia, along with 12 known compounds (5-16). Their structures were determined by combining extensive 1H and 13C spectroscopy, X-ray crystallography, and electronic circular dichroism spectra (ECD). The skeletons of 1-3 had a rearranged structure with a 6/6/5 ring from an abietane-type diterpene. A plausible biosynthetic pathway for the rearranged skeleton was also proposed. Many of the isolated compounds showed weak cytotoxicity against HeLa or HL-60 cell lines.

Saleucanes A-J, structurally diverse neo-clerodane diterpenoids from Salvia leucantha with anti-neuroinflammatory activity via TLR4/MYD88/NF-κB pathway

Saleucanes A-J (1-10), ten unprecedented neo-clerodane diterpenoids, and twenty-two knowns were isolated from the whole plant of Salvia leucantha. Their structures including absolute configurations were elucidated by extensive spectroscopic methods, single-crystal X-ray crystallographic and ECD calculation. Compound 7 possesses an unusual 6/5/6/4/6/5-hexacyclic fused ring skeleton, with a rare oxetane unit. All compounds were evaluated for their inhibitory effect on nitric oxide (NO) production induced by lipopolysaccharide (LPS) in BV-2 cells. The results showed that five compounds exhibited significant NO inhibitory effects, with IC50 values ranging from 3.29 to 6.65 μM, which were better than the positive control minocycline hydrochloride (IC50 = 18.81 μM). Among them, compound 5 showed significant inhibitory effect, which significantly suppressed the production of IL-6, IL-1β, and TNF-α, as well as iNOS and COX-2 in a concentration-dependent manner. Further investigation results showed that compound 5 exerts anti-inflammatory effect via the TLR4/MYD88/NF-κB signaling pathway. To summarize, these findings supported the great hope of compound 5 as a potential novel inhibitor of neuroinflammation.

Total Synthesis of Polycyclic Natural Products via Photoenolization/Diels-Alder Reaction

ConspectusPolycyclic ring systems represent the most common structural features of drug molecules and natural products. Chemical synthesis of complex polycyclic molecules with multiple stereogenic centers, especially quaternary carbon stereocenters, has been a significant challenge in the field of total synthesis. Due to the low reactivities of the substrates and congested chemical environments, the efficient establishment of polycyclic rings and enantioselective construction of quaternary carbon stereocenters are still ongoing challenges. In our laboratory, we are devoted to developing new methodologies and strategies for the total syntheses of bioactive polycyclic natural products and the exploration of their biological potentials. The photoenolization/Diels-Alder (PEDA) reaction has been recognized as a powerful strategy to increase synthetic efficiency and address the aforementioned issues. Over the past several years, our group systematically reinvestigated this reaction in terms of its reactivity and stereoselectivity and developed a unique dinuclear metal-promoted reaction process for constructing fused or spiro polycyclic rings bearing quaternary carbon stereocenters. During the course of this investigation, we have come to realize how to rationally design the synthetic route based on the PEDA reaction and successfully implement the synthetic projects.In this Account, we summarize our endeavors and journeys in the development and application of the PEDA reaction to the total synthesis of topologically complex natural products in order to draw attention to its broad utility and encourage further uptake. In the first part, we provide the details on the investigation of the PEDA reaction to address the issues of reactivity, diastereoselectivity, and enantioselectivity. An enantioselective PEDA reaction involving Ti(Oi-Pr)4 and TADDOL-type ligands was developed. This reaction enables the sterically bulky dienophiles to interact with the transient photoenolized hydroxy-o-quinodimethanes, delivering a wide range of polycyclic rings with single or vicinal quaternary carbon stereocenters in good yields with excellent enantioselectivities. In the second part, we showcase the synthetic potential of PEDA reaction in total synthesis of natural products. The fused tricyclic ring systems, bearing gem-dimethyl groups or quaternary carbon stereocenters located at the ring junction, were efficiently constructed by Ti(Oi-Pr)4-promoted PEDA reactions, which enabled the syntheses of three different types of natural products, including aromatic polyketides (anthrabenzoxocinones, fasamycins/naphthacemycins, and benastatins), meroterpenoid (oncocalyxone B), and halenaquinones (xestoquinone, adociaquinones A and B). To access structurally more complex triterpenoids, namely, perovskones and hydrangenones, the asymmetric PEDA reaction was developed to build a tricyclic ring along with three contiguous quaternary carbon stereocenters. The asymmetric PEDA reaction was also applied to achieve the total synthesis of aryltetralin lactone lignans. Furthermore, an intramolecular PEDA reaction provides a new pathway for the rapid construction of highly congested hydrophenanthrene with a quaternary carbon stereocenter, facilitating the total synthesis of five hasubanan alkaloids. We anticipate that the development of the PEDA reaction will inspire future innovations and progressions in asymmetric photo reactions, and its synthetic potential will be expanded by further applications in the total synthesis of complex natural and drug molecules.

Phytochemicals From Salvia substolonifera With Anti-Angiogenic Properties and Substolide H Decreased Oxygen-Induced Retinal Neovascularization

Retinal neovascularization is a pathological feature of ischemic retinopathy. Current therapeutic approaches are limited, and additional treatment options are needed. This study aims to discover lead compounds from Salvia substolonifera that inhibit angiogenesis. As a result, an undescribed norditerpene lactone, substolide H (3), and eight known compounds (1, 2, and 4-9) have been isolated. The structure was elucidated using synthetic spectroscopy and electron circular dichroism. Compounds 2, 3, 5, 7, and 9 inhibited human umbilical vein endothelial cells (HUVEC) proliferation with IC50 values of 26.47, 6.10, 43.27, 36.81, and 35.11 µM, respectively. Compounds 2, 3, and 7 inhibited HUVEC migration with IC50 values of 12.48, 8.37, and 7.63 µM, respectively. Further studies have shown that the substolide H (3) suppresses tube formation in human umbilical vein endothelial cells and that intravitreous administration suppresses retinal neovascularization in oxygen-induced retinopathy mice. Turning to its mechanism of action, we have shown that the anti-angiogenic effect of the substolide H may be through the downregulation of vascular endothelial growth factor expression and the phosphorylation of VEGFR2, ERK1/2, and protein kinase B. Our study represents the first report of these anti-angiogenic compounds from this plant, and substolide H may be a potential candidate for the treatment of retinal neovascularization.

Bioinspired Synthesis of Microstegiol and Biosynthetically Related Skeleton-Rearranged Abietanes

We report a bioinspired synthesis of microstegiol and biosynthetically related skeleton-rearranged abietane diterpenoids from commercially available carnosic acid. The strategy features a Wagner-Meerwein type methyl migration followed by several cascade transformations, enabling the divergent synthesis of five abietane diterpenoids, including viridoquinone, prattinin A, saprorthoquinone, microstegiol, and 1-deoxyviroxocin.

Three new diterpenes from the roots of Salvia miltiorrhiza and their cytotoxicity

Two undescribed oxazole-containing diterpenoids (1-2) and a new diterpenoid (3) were isolated from the roots of Salvia miltiorrhiza. Their structures were elucidated by extensive HRESIMS and NMR spectroscopic analysis, and the absolute configurations of 1 and 3 were confirmed by comparison of the calculated and experimental electronic circular dichroism (ECD) spectra. Compound 1 represents the first example of an abietane diterpenoid with a benzo[d]oxazole unit fused in the ring B of the abietane skeleton. The cytotoxicity of 1-3 was evaluated against four human tumor cell lines (A549, MCF-7, HepG2, and PC-3), and 1-2 showed weak cytotoxic activities.

Treatments of psychosomatic symptoms in Alzheimer's disease: a scoping review of the potential therapeutic effects of essential oils

Alzheimer's disease, a type of dementia, poses serious challenges to patients, especially older people, and no definitive treatment is available for this disease, with drug treatments having many side effects. As essential oils of plants deserve particular attention in the treatment of diseases, this study aimed to review the potential therapeutic effects of essential oils on treatment of psychosomatic aspects of Alzheimer's disease. To collect information, we searched different databases, including MagIran, SID, IranDoc and IranMedex, Embase, Science Direct, PubMed, Google Scholar, Scopus and Web of Science using the keywords of essential oil, Alzheimer, acetylcholinesterase, memory, forgetfulness, aromatherapy, medicinal plant, herbal drugs, and their Persian equivalents from January 2010 to June 2022; the search included both single and multiple keywords. We retrieved 233 articles, reviewed the titles, abstracts, and full texts of the articles, and then included 25 related articles in this review (11 in vitro studies and 14 in vivo studies). The study results of in vitro and in vivo studies showed the effectiveness of different essential oils such as salvia family, tangerine and lemon oils, Juniperus communis, Anthriscus nemorosa, olibanum, inhaled coriander, Schisandra chinensis, lavender, rose essential oil, Nepeta cataria, Cinnamomum zeylanicum and Lippia origanoides, on memory and learning, enzymes, oxidative stress and inflammation, behavioural and cognitive symptoms in Alzheimer's disease. These findings suggest that essential oils can serve as complementary therapies for neurodegenerative diseases like Alzheimer's and for addressing memory impairments, although further research, especially human clinical trials, is needed to validate these findings, determine optimal dosages, and explore the long-term safety of essential oils in clinical settings.

Three cytochrome P450 enzymes consecutively catalyze the biosynthesis of furanoclerodane precursors in Salvia species

Salvia species native to the Americas are rich in valuable bioactive furanoclerodanes like the psychoactive salvinorin A found in Salvia divinorum, which is used in the treatment of opioid addiction. However, relatively little is known about their biosynthesis. To address this, we investigated the biosynthesis of salviarin, the most abundant furanoclerodane structure in the ornamental sage Salvia splendens. Using a self-organizing map and mutual rank analysis of RNA-seq co-expression data, we identified three cytochrome P450 enzymes responsible for the consecutive conversion of kolavenol into the salviarin precursors: annonene, hardwickiic acid, and hautriwaic acid. Annonene and hardwickiic acid have been proposed as intermediates in the biosynthesis of salvinorin A, and we therefore tested for a common evolutionary origin of the furanoclerodane pathway in these Salvia species by searching for homologous genes in available data for S. divinorum. The enzymes encoded by orthologous genes from S. divinorum displayed kolavenol synthase, annonene synthase, and hardwickiic acid synthase activity, respectively, supporting the view that these are intermediate steps in the biosynthesis of salvinorin A. We further investigated the origin of annonene synthase and the role of gene duplication in the evolution of this specific activity. Our work shows how S. splendens can serve as a model species for the study of furanoclerodane biosynthesis in Salvia species, contributes to understanding the evolution of specialized metabolism in plants, and provides new tools for the production of salvinorin A in biotechnological chassis.

Elicited Production of Essential Oil with Immunomodulatory Activity in Salvia apiana Microshoot Culture

Salvia apiana Jepson is an endemic North American species characterized by a rich phytochemical profile including abietane-type diterpenoids, phenolic acids, flavonoids, and thujone-free essential oil (EO). The current study was aimed at increasing EO production in bioreactor-grown S. apiana microshoot culture through biotic elicitation using chitosan, ergosterol, and yeast extract (YE). Additionally, the immunomodulatory effects of the major volatile constituent of white sage-1,8-cineole-as well as EOs obtained from both S. apiana microshoots and leaves of field-grown plants, were assessed. EOs were isolated via hydrodistillation and analyzed by GC/MS and GC/FID. Biological assays included flow cytometric evaluation of the proliferation and apoptosis rates of human CD4 and CD8 T lymphocytes, obtained from healthy volunteers and subjected to different concentrations of EOs and 1,8-cineole. Elicitation with 100 mg/L YE improved the production of EO in S. apiana microshoots by 9.4% (1.20% v/m). EOs from both microshoots and leaves of field-grown plants, as well as 1,8-cineole, demonstrated dose-dependent anti-proliferative and pro-apoptotic effects on CD4+ and CD8+ T cells. These findings highlight the potential of S. apiana microshoot cultures capable of producing EO with significant immunomodulatory activity.

Exploring Quantitative Biological Major, Trace, and Ultratrace Elements Composition and Qualitative Primary-Secondary Metabolites in Lamiaceae Medicinal Plants from Turkey

Medicinal plants comprise a spectrum of constituents, encompassing both organic and inorganic elements. Elemental composition of 27 species of medicinal plants of Lamiaceae (including 17 endemic) family grown in Turkey was carried out by ICP-MS. The following elements were determined in analysed samples: Na, Mg, Al, K, Ca, Sc, Cr, Mn, Fe, Co, Zn, As, Rb, Sr, Cs, Ba, La, Ce, Sm, U, Se. Quantitative analysis of specific primary and secondary metabolites was carried out. Na and K are major constituents in plants. The concentrations of Na range from 332,495.590 g/kg (in sample 10SA) to 279,690.674 g/kg (in sample 4SA), while those of K vary from 67,492.456 g/kg (in sample 15SA) to 3347.612 g/kg (in sample 1A). Some metals such as Al, Cr, Mn, Fe, Co, Zn, As, Se, Rb, Sr, Cs, and Ba were also detected. Flavonoids, carbohydrates and tannins were present in all sample. Saponins were found in all samples except 1C and 2O. Coumarin were detected in samples 2N, 1 T, 1O, 1Z, 3SA, 1C, 4SA, 6SA, 8SA, 1 M, 11SA, 13SA, 2O, 14SA, 1H, and 16SI. Lipids were present in samples 6S, 9S, 1A, 10S, 1 M, 11SA, 12SA, 13SA, 14SA, and 16SI. Plants contain essential, rare earth, and trace elements at mg/kg concentrations, while major elements such as K and Na are present in high levels. Toxic element As (arsenic) was detected in all analyzed plants, but in most samples, its concentration was below the threshold set by World Health Organization.

Salvicsite A-C: Three Seco-Norabietane Diterpenoids Including an Unusual Tetracyclic Skeleton from Salvia castanea Diels f. tomentosa Stib

Three seco-norabietane diterpenoids, salvicsites A-C (1-3), along with two known compounds, were isolated from the roots and rhizomes of Salvia castanea Diels f. tomentosa Stib. Salvicsite A (1) represents an unprecedented structural combination, featuring an eight-membered α-methyl-α,β-unsaturated lactone ring and a five-membered α,β-unsaturated lactone ring, based on a 6/6/5/8 ring system. Their structures were elucidated through comprehensive spectroscopic analyses, X-ray crystallography, and quantum chemical calculations. Putative biosynthetic pathways of 1-3 were proposed, with compound 5 being the plausible biogenetic precursor. The AChE inhibition assay demonstrated that salvicsite A (1) exhibited a notable inhibitory effect against AChE, with an IC50 value of 9.56 ± 1.05 μM. Enzymatic kinetic studies indicated that salvicsite A (1) acted as a mixed-type inhibitor, and its binding mode was explored through molecular docking. The results of the cytotoxic activity demonstrated that only compound 5 exhibited inhibitory activity.

Plant and marine-derived natural products: sustainable pathways for future drug discovery and therapeutic development

Plant- and marine-derived natural products are rich sources of bioactive compounds essential for drug discovery. These compounds contain complex mixtures of metabolites, which collectively contribute to their pharmacological properties. However, challenges arise in the isolation of individual bioactive compounds, owing to their intricate chemistry and low abundance in natural extracts. Despite these limitations, numerous plant and marine-derived compounds have achieved regulatory approval, particularly for treating cancer and infectious diseases. This review explores the therapeutic potential of plant and marine sources along with innovative extraction and isolation methods that support sustainable drug development. Future perspectives will highlight the role of responsible innovation, artificial intelligence, and machine learning in advancing drug discovery, underscoring the importance of continued research to meet global health needs.

Aromatic Abietane-Type Diterpenoids from the Roots of Salvia prattii and their Protective Activity Against Alcoholic Liver Disease

Eighteen aromatic abietane-type diterpenes, including three previously unreported compounds, Salkanoids A-C (1-3), were isolated from the roots of Salvia prattii. Their stuctures were extensively elucidated using 1D/2D NMR, high-resolution electrospray ionization mass spectrometry (HRESIMS) data, and ECD calculation. Among these, compounds 1, 6 and 7 belong to a class of diterpenes featuring a [5, 5]-oxaspirolactones moiety, a rare structure isolated from the Salvia plants. All the isolates were assessed for their protective effects against alcoholic liver disease using ethanol-induced AML-12 cell lines. The findings revealed that compounds 2, 5, 8 and 15 demonstrated potential protective activity.

A new anti-neuroinflammation labdane diterpenoid from Salvia tricuspis

One new labdane diterpenoid, tricuspion A (1), as well as five known triterpenoids (2-6) were isolated from Salvia tricuspis Franch (family Labiatae). The structure of tricuspion A was identified by extensive spectroscopic analysis and by comparison with previously reported data. Compounds 1-6 were evaluated for their inhibitory effects on the NO production in LPS-stimulated BV-2 microglia cells, and 1 exhibited potent inhibitory activity with IC50 value of 14.92 ± 0.51 μM. Compound 1 might exert anti-neuroinflammatory activity through inhibiting the excessive production of NO and down-regulating the protein expression of iNOS and COX-2. As such, labdane diterpenoid (tricuspion A) could provide promising anti-neuroinflammatory lead compound for further structural modification.

Electrochemical oxidative site-selective direct C-H activation of tanshinone IIA

Natural products play a pivotal role in the advancement of state-of-the-art pharmaceuticals. To augment their therapeutic efficacy, structural modifications of these compounds are routinely performed. In this study, we introduce an efficient and environmentally benign electrochemical oxidative method for site-selective direct C-H activation of tanshinone IIA under metal-free, oxidant-free, and base-free conditions. Moderate to excellent yields up to 92% of the desired tanshinone IIA derivatives were obtained with a broad substrate scope. Biological activity assays demonstrate that compounds 2k, 2q and 2w possess superior antitumor efficacy compared to tanshinone IIA.

Comparative Metabolomic Analysis and Antinociceptive Effect of Methanolic Extracts from Salvia cinnabarina, Salvia lavanduloides and Salvia longispicata

Mexico is considered one of the countries with the greatest diversity of the Salvia genus. A significant percentage of its species are known for their use in traditional medicine, highlighting their use as an analgesic. The objective of this work was to determine the chemical composition of the methanolic extracts of S. cinnabarina, S. lavanduloides and S. longispicata through untargeted metabolomics, as well as the in vivo evaluation of the antinociceptive effect and acute oral toxicity. The chemical profiling was performed using ultra-high performance liquid chromatography coupled with a high-resolution mass spectrometry (UPLC-ESI+/--MS-QTOF) system and tentative identifications were performed using a compendium of information on compounds previously isolated from Mexican species of the genus. Pharmacological evaluation was carried out using the formalin test and OECD guidelines. The analysis of the spectrometric features of the mass/charge ratios of the three salvias shows that a low percentage of similarity is shared between them. Likewise, the putative identification allowed the annotation of 46 compounds, mainly of diterpene and phenolic nature, with only four compounds shared between the three species. Additionally, the extracts of the three salvias produced a significant antinociceptive effect at a dose of 300 mg/kg administered orally and did not present an acute oral toxicity effect at the maximum dose tested, indicating a parameter of LD50 > 2000 mg/kg. The exploration of the chemical profile of the three salvias by untargeted metabolomics shows that, despite being species with antinociceptive potential, they have different chemical profiles and therefore different active metabolites.

Abietane-Type Diterpenoids: Insights into Structural Diversity and Therapeutic Potential

The abietane-type diterpenoids are among the most significant diterpene subsets found in hundreds of plant species belonging to various families. Among which, the members of the genus Salvia and Euphorbia are rich in abietane diterpenoids. Because of the chemical diversity and notable bioactivities, such as anticancer, antiinflammatory, antimicrobial, and antioxidant activities, they are attractive. Herein, recent advances in the isolation and characterization of abietanes from natural sources, as well as their biological activities, from 2015 up to 2024 are reviewed. During this time, over 300 abietanes with diverse structures have been discovered.

Identification of diterpenoids from Salvia castanea Diels f. tomentosa Stib and their antitumor activities

Four new diterpenoid tropolones, salvirrddones A-D (1-4), and four new icetexanes, salvirrddices A-D (9-12), along with thirteen new 11,12-seco-norabietane diterpenoids, salvirrddnor A-M (14-24, 31, 32) and sixteen known compounds (5-8, 13, 25-30, 33-37), were isolated from the roots and rhizomes of Salvia castanea Diels f. tomentosa Stib. Their structures were elucidated by comprehensive spectroscopic analyses, quantum chemical calculations, and X-ray crystallography. Structurally, compounds 1-8 represent a class of rare natural products featuring a unique cyclohepta-2,4,6-trienone moiety with diterpenoid skeletons. Bioassays showed that only diterpenoid tropolones 3, 5, 6, and 7 exhibited significant activity against several human cancer cell lines with IC50 values ranging from 3.01 to 11.63 μM. Additionally, 3 was shown to inhibit Hep3B cell proliferation, block the G0/G1 phase of the cell cycle, induce mitochondrial dysfunction and oxidative stress, promote apoptosis, as well as inhibit migration and invasion in vitro. Meanwhile, 3 demonstrated anti-proliferative, pro-apoptotic, and migration-inhibitory effects in the Hep3B xenograft zebrafish model in vivo. Network pharmacological analysis and molecular docking results suggested that 3 may treat hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) through the PI3K-Akt signaling pathway, as well as by binding PARP1 and CDK2 targets. Overall, the present results extremely expand the repertoire of diterpenoids from natural products and may provide a novel chemical scaffold for the discovery of new antitumor drugs.

(±)-Salvicatone A: A Pair of C27-Meroterpenoid Enantiomers with Skeletons from the Roots and Rhizomes of Salvia castanea Diels f. tomentosa Stib

(±)-Salvicatone A (1), a C27-meroterpenoid featuring a unique 6/6/6/6/6-pentacyclic carbon skeleton with a 7,8,8a,9,10,10a-hexahydropyren-1 (6H)-one motif, was isolated from the roots and rhizomes of Salvia castanea Diels f. tomentosa Stib. Its structure was characterized by comprehensive spectroscopic analyses along with computer-assisted structure elucidation, including ACD/structure elucidator and quantum chemical calculations with 1H/13C NMR and electronic circular dichroism. Biogenetically, compound 1 was constructed from decarboxylation following [4 + 2] Diels-Alder cycloaddition reaction between caffeic acid and miltirone analogue. Bioassays showed that (-)-1 and (+)-1 inhibited nitric oxide production in lipopolysaccharide-induced RAW264.7 macrophage cells with an IC50 value of 6.48 ± 1.25 and 15.76 ± 5.55 μM, respectively. The structure-based virtual screening based on the pharmacophores in ePharmaLib, as well as the molecular docking and molecular dynamics simulations study, implied that (-)-1 and (+)-1 may potentially bind to retinoic acid receptor-related orphan receptor C to exert anti-inflammatory activities.

Multiomic Profiling and Neuroprotective Bioactivity of Salvia Hairy Root-Derived Extracellular Vesicles in a Cellular Model of Parkinson's Disease

Purpose

Extracellular vesicles (EVs) are promising tools for nanomedicine and nanobiotechnology. The purification of mammalian-derived EVs involves intensive processes, and their therapeutic application raises multiple safety and regulatory issues. Plants have the potential to serve as nonconventional sources of therapeutically relevant EVs. In this context, we recently identified hairy roots (HRs) of medicinal plants as a novel biotechnological platform to produce EVs for human health.

Methods

Herein, we report the purification, omics profiling, and bioactivity of EVs isolated from HRs of the medicinal plants S. sclarea and S. dominica. EVs were isolated from conditioned media of HR cultures using differential ultracentrifugation (dUC) and size exclusion chromatography (SEC). The isolated EVs were characterized by nanoparticle tracking analysis (NTA) and electron microscopy. The proteomic and metabolomic profiles of the EVs were determined using mass spectrometry. Uptake studies and bioactivity assays, including confocal microscopy, MTT, flow cytometry, ROS quantification, and untargeted metabolomics analyses, were conducted in SH-SY5Y cells treated with the neurotoxin 6-hydroxydopamine (6-OHDA) to evaluate the therapeutic potential of EVs in an in vitro model of Parkinson's disease.

Results

S. sclarea HRs released nanosized round-shaped EVs with a distinctive molecular signature. HR EVs from S. sclarea and S. dominica revealed conserved cargo of secondary metabolites, predominantly triterpenoids, which are known for their antioxidant properties. We showed that HR EVs are safe, enter the cells, and strongly inhibit apoptosis in a cellular model of Parkinson's disease. Cellular metabolomics revealed that EVs preserved metabolic homeostasis and mitigated cellular oxidative stress when co-administered with 6-OHDA. Mechanistically, HR EVs inhibited 6-OHDA autoxidation and substantially reduced the accumulation of its oxidative products, which are responsible for 6-OHDA-induced toxicity.

Conclusion

Collectively, our findings provide compelling evidence that EVs isolated from the hairy roots of Salvia species are promising, non-mammalian alternative for the design of novel therapies targeting neurological disorders.

Content Determination and Chemical Clustering Analysis of Tanshinone and Salvianolic Acid in Salvia spp

Salvia miltiorrhiza is one of the famous traditional Chinese medicines for treating cardiovascular and cerebrovascular diseases. Tanshinone and phenolic acids are the main active compounds of Salvia miltiorrhiza, whereas the distribution patterns of the two kinds of components are still unclear among Salvia spp. In this work, high-performance liquid chromatography was applied to analyze the distribution patterns of major components in the roots and leaves of 58 Salvia spp. The results showed that the distribution patterns of tanshinone and phenolic acids in Salvia spp. varied significantly. Phenolic acid components such as rosmarinus acid, caffeic acid, and danshensu are widely distributed in the roots and leaves, and phenolic acids in the leaves of Salvia spp. are generally higher than that in roots. Tanshinones are mainly detected in the roots of Salvia przewalskii, Salvia trijuga, Salvia castanea, and Salvia yunnanensis. The content of major components of the different species varied significantly. The content of phenolic acids in most Salvia spp. generally followed the pattern of salvianolic acid B > rosmarinic acid > danshensu > caffeic acid both in the roots and leaves. Tanshinone IIA and cryptotanshinone were the main lipophilic components of Salvia spp. distributed in southwest China. A correlation between the distribution pattern of tanshinone and the genetic relationship of species was indicated in the work. This research systematically reveals the distribution patterns of tanshinone and phenolic acids in Salvia spp., providing a theoretical basis for the development and utilization of medicinal resources of Salvia.

Anti-Leishmania effect of icetexanes from Salvia procurrens

BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE

Leishmaniasis is a globally prevalent vector-borne disease caused by parasites of the genus Leishmania. The available chemotherapeutic drugs present problems related to efficacy, emergence of parasite resistance, toxicity and high cost, justifying the search for new drugs. Several classes of compounds have demonstrated activity against Leishmania, including icetexane-type diterpenes, previously isolated from Salvia and other Lamiaceae genera. Thus, in this study, compounds of Salvia procurrens were investigated for their leishmanicidal and immunomodulatory activities.

METHODS

The exudate of S. procurrens was obtained by rapidly dipping the aerial parts in dichloromethane. The compounds were isolated by column and centrifugal planar chromatography over silica gel. The effects on L. amazonensis growth, survival, membrane integrity, reactive oxygen species (ROS) generation, mitochondrial membrane potential and cytotoxicity of the compounds towards human erythrocytes, peripheral blood mononuclear cells and macrophages were evaluated. The effects on intracellular amastigote forms, nitric oxide (NO) and TNF-α production were also investigated.

RESULTS

The exudate from the leaves afforded the novel icetexane 7-hydroxyfruticulin A (1) as well as the known demethylisofruticulin A (2), fruticulin A (3) and demethylfruticulin A (4). The compounds (1-4) were tested against promastigotes of L. amazonensis and showed an effective inhibition of the parasite survival (IC50 = 4.08-16.26 μM). In addition, they also induced mitochondrial ROS production, plasma membrane permeability and mitochondrial dysfunction in treated parasites, and presented low cytotoxicity against macrophages. Furthermore, all diterpenes tested reduced the number of parasites inside macrophages, by mechanisms involving TNF-α, NO and ROS.

CONCLUSION

The results suggest the potential of 7-hydroxyfruticulin A (1) as well as the known demethylisofruticulin A (2),fruticulin A (3) and demethylfruticulin A (4) as candidates for use in further studies on the design of anti-leishmanial drugs.

Chemometrics-based analysis of the phytochemical profile and antioxidant activity of Salvia species from Iran

In recent years, the exploration of the therapeutic potential of Salvia has gained considerable attention, leading to a growing number of scientific studies emphasizing its pharmacological properties. Despite this, therapeutic applications of Salvia remain underexploited, requiring further investigation. Iran is a major center for sage diversity in Asia, boasting 60 Salvia species, 17 of which are unique to the area. This study aimed to comprehensively explore and compare the extracts of 102 Salvia samples belonging to 20 distinct Salvia species from Iran, providing a deeper understanding of their specific polyphenol content and, consequently, their antioxidant capabilities and potential therapeutic uses. All samples were analyzed to determine the contents of total phenolics, total flavonoids, total tannin, photosynthetic pigments, and ascorbic acid, along with their antioxidant activity. These data were then combined with the forty distinct chemical fingerprints identified by ultrafast high-pressure liquid chromatography coupled with high-resolution mass spectrometry. Multivariate data analysis was employed to find correlations and differences among the huge number of data obtained and to identify Salvia species with similar phytochemical and/or antioxidant properties. The results show that each Salvia species is characterized by a distinct class of polyphenols recognized for their antidiabetic, anti-inflammatory, cardioprotective and neuroprotective properties. Overall, our findings reveal the potential of some Salvia species for targeted therapeutic applications and provide a rational basis for the development of Salvia-derived nutraceuticals, ultimately improving the prospects for the use of Salvia in medicine.

Total Synthesis of Brevitaxin

Brevitaxin was prepared in nine steps from commercially available carnosic acid. The construction of the 1,4-benzodioxin moiety involved an unique stepwise ortho-quinone-engaged [4+2] cycloaddition. Two strategic stages were employed to prepare the highly unsaturated cycloaddition precursor 3: (1) synthesizing the diene moiety (C1-C2 and C10-C20 double bonds) by regioselective ortho-quinone tautomerization, and (2) installing four sp2-hybridized carbon atoms (C3, C5, C6 and C7) in one step using a SeO2-promoted chemo- and regioselective oxidation reaction.

Salvia miltiorrhiza Bunge (Danshen) based nano-delivery systems for anticancer therapeutics

BACKGROUND

The ancient Chinese herb Salvia miltiorrhiza Bunge (Danshen), plays the important role in cardiovascular and cerebrovascular disease. Furthermore, Danshen could also be used for curing carcinogenesis. Up to now, the anti-tumor effects of the main active constituents of Danshen have made great progress. However, the bioavailability of the active constituents of Danshen were restricted by their unique physical characteristics, like low oral bioavailability, rapid degradation in vivo and so on.

PURPOSE

With the leap development of nano-delivery systems, the shortcomings of the active constituents of Danshen have been greatly ameliorated. This review tried to summarize the recent progress of the active constituents of Danshen based delivery systems used for anti-tumor therapeutics.

METHODS

A systematic literature search was conducted using 5 databases (Embase, Google scholar, PubMed, Scopus and Web of Science databases) for the identification of relevant data published before September 2023. The words "Danshen", "Salvia miltiorrhiza", "Tanshinone", "Salvianolic acid", "Rosmarinic acid", "tumor", "delivery", "nanomedicine" and other active ingredients contained in Danshen were searched in the above databases to gather information about pharmaceutical decoration for the active constituents of Danshen used for anti-tumor therapeutics.

RESULTS

The main extracts of Danshen could inhibit the proliferation of tumor cells effectively and a great deal of studies were conducted to design drug delivery systems to ameliorate the anti-tumor effect of the active contents of Danshen through different ways, like improving bioavailability, increasing tumor targeting ability, enhancing biological barrier permeability and co-delivering with other active agents.

CONCLUSION

This review systematically represented recent progress of pharmaceutical decorations for the active constituents of Danshen used for anti-tumor therapeutics, revealing the diversity of nano-decoration skills and trying to inspire more designs of Danshen based nanodelivery systems, with the hope that bringing the nanomedicine of the active constituents of Danshen for anti-tumor therapeutics from bench to bedside in the near future.

Evolution and chemical diversity of the volatile compounds in Salvia species

INTRODUCTION

The plant essential oils are composed of volatile compounds and have significant value in preventing and treating neurological diseases, anxiety, depression, among others. The genus Salvia has been shown to be an important medicinal resource, especially the aerial parts of genus Salvia, which are rich in volatile compounds; however, the chemical diversity and distribution patterns of volatile compounds in Salvia species are still unknown.

OBJECTIVE

The work is performed to analyse the chemical diversity and distribution patterns of volatile compounds in genus Salvia.

METHODS

The genomic single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) combined with gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS) were used to explore the evolution and chemical diversity of Salvia volatile compounds. Initially, the genetic relationship of genus Salvia was revealed by phylogenetic tree that was constructed based on SNPs. And then, GC-MS was applied to explore the chemical diversity of volatile compounds.

RESULTS

The results indicated that the volatile compounds were mainly monoterpenoids, sesquiterpenoids, and aliphatic compounds. The genomic SNPs divided species involved in this work into four branches. The volatile compounds in the first and second branches were mainly sesquiterpenoids and monoterpenoids, respectively. Species in the third branch contained more aliphatic compounds and sesquiterpenoids. And those in the fourth branch were also rich in monoterpenoids but had relatively simple chemical compositions.

CONCLUSION

This study offered new insights into the phylogenetic relationships besides chemistry diversity and distribution pattern of volatile compounds of genus Salvia, providing theoretical guidance for the investigations and development of secondary metabolites.

Chemometric Analysis Evidencing the Variability in the Composition of Essential Oils in 10 Salvia Species from Different Taxonomic Sections or Phylogenetic Clades

Essential oil (EO) of Salvia spp. has been widely used for culinary purposes and in perfumery and cosmetics, as well as having beneficial effects on human health. The present study aimed to investigate the quantitative and qualitative variations in EOs in wild-growing and cultivated pairs of samples from members in four Salvia sections or three clades, namely S. argentea L. (Sect. Aethiopis; Clade I-C), S. ringens Sm. (Sect. Eusphace; Clade I-D), S. verticillata L. (Sect. Hemisphace; Clade I-B), S. amplexicaulis Lam., and S. pratensis L. (Sect. Plethiosphace; Clade I-C). Furthermore, the natural variability in EO composition due to different genotypes adapted in different geographical and environmental conditions was examined by employing members of three Salvia sections or two phylogenetic clades, namely S. sclarea L. (six samples; Sect. Aethiopis or Clade I-C), S. ringens (three samples; Sect. Eusphace or Clade I-D), and S. amplexicaulis (five samples; Sect. Plethiosphace or Clade I-C). We also investigated the EO composition of four wild-growing species of two Salvia sections, i.e., S. aethiopis L., S. candidissima Vahl, and S. teddii of Sect. Aethiopis, as well as the cultivated material of S. virgata Jacq. (Sect. Plethiosphace), all belonging to Clade I-C. The EO composition of the Greek endemic S. teddii is presented herein only for the first time. Taken together, the findings of previous studies are summarized and critically discussed with the obtained results. Chemometric analysis (PCA, HCA, and clustered heat map) was used to identify the sample relationships based on their chemical classes, resulting in the classification of two distinct groups. These can be further explored in assistance of classical or modern taxonomic Salvia studies.

Discovery and Bioinspired Synthesis of Salpratone A

Salpratone A (1), a novel abietane diterpenoid containing a unique cis-fused A/B ring, was isolated from Salvia prattii. Bioactivity studies showed that 1 has potent activity in inhibiting platelet aggregation induced by multiple agonists as well as antithrombotic efficacy in the FeCl3-induced rat in vivo thrombosis model. Furthermore, a bioinspired synthesis of 1 from the abundant natural product ferruginol was achieved in 6 steps with a 22% overall yield. The key steps include a stereoselective allyl oxidation and a subsequent regioselective Meinwald rearrangement.

Salvirrane A-F, six undescribed nordrimane sesquiterpene derivatives from Salvia castanea Diels f. tomentosa Stib and their cytotoxic activities

Six undescribed nordrimane sesquiterpene derivatives, salvirrane A-F (1-6), were isolated from the roots and rhizomes of Salvia castanea Diels f. tomentosa Stib. Comprehensive spectral analysis and a quantum chemical calculation strategy were employed to determine their structures. These compounds represent four previously unreported nordrimane carbon skeletal types in Salvia genus, including 15-nor-drimane, 11,15-di-nor-drimane, 14,15-di-nor-drimane, and 11,14,15-tri-nor-drimane sesquiterpenes. All compounds were evaluated for their cytotoxic activities against several human cancer cell lines (A549, H460, Hep3B, MCF7, PC3, and HeLa). The results showed that 3 exhibited low activity against MCF7 cells (IC50,72.72 ± 6.95 μM) and moderate activity against HeLa cells (IC50, 9.80 ± 0.64 μM). Moreover, the EdU (5-ethynyl-2'-deoxyuridine) assay demonstrates that 3 displays dose-dependent efficacy in suppressing the proliferation of HeLa cells. Network pharmacology and molecular docking technology implied that 3 may potentially bind to Src (proto-oncogene tyrosine-protein kinase) to exert anti-proliferative activity.

Discovery of Natural Ah Receptor Antagonists from Salvia miltiorrhiza Bunge and Synthesis of Analogs for Tumor Immunotherapy

IDO/TDO/Kyn/AhR signaling plays a crucial role in regulating innate and adaptive immunity, and targeting Ah receptor (AhR) inhibition can potentially redirect immune cells toward an antitumoral phenotype. Therefore, AhR is an attractive drug target for novel small molecule cancer immunotherapies. In this study, natural products tanshinolic A-D (1-4), the first adducts composed of ortho-naphthoquinone-type tanshinone and phenolic acid featuring a unique 1,4-benzodioxan hemiacetal structure, were isolated and characterized from the roots of Salvia miltiorrhiza Bunge. Luciferase reporter gene assay revealed that these adducts exhibited significant AhR inhibitory activity. A linear strategy was developed to construct a cis-3,4-disubstituted 1,4-benzodioxan hemiacetal structure. Encouragingly, in both in vitro and in vivo experiments, (±)-13e demonstrated the ability to inhibit tumor cell proliferation, promote INF-γ secretion in CD8+ T cells, and inhibit PD-1/PD-L1 signal transduction, which could exert tumor inhibition properties by inhibiting AhR activity, positioning it as a promising candidate for tumor immunotherapy.

Phytochemical Profiles and Biological Activities of Plant Extracts from Aromatic Plants Cultivated in Cyprus

Medicinal and aromatic plants' properties, still an interesting research area, are attributed to the presence of various specialized products that possess important pharmacological activities. In the present study, six medicinal/aromatic plants (Sideritis cypria, Origanum dubium, Melissa officinalis, Mentha piperita, Thymus capitatus, and Salvia fruticosa) were evaluated for their phytochemical and nutritive composition, as well as their biological activities, including antioxidant, antimicrobial, and cytotoxic properties. The results obtained indicate that M. piperita was rich in proteins and minerals such as N and Mg, while S. cypria accumulated more K, Na, P, and Ca. The highest content of phenols and flavonoids was observed in M. piperita, followed by O. dubium and T. capitatus, which eventually influenced their high antioxidant capacity. NMR screening revealed the presence of (i) triterpenoids and hydroxycinnamic acid derivatives in M. officinalis; (ii) terpenoids, flavonoids, and phenolic acid derivatives in S. fruticosa; (iii) flavonoids and phenolic acid derivatives in M. piperita; (iv) phenolic monoterpenes in O. dubium and T. capitatus; and (v) terpenoids, flavones, and phenylethanoid glycosides in S. cypria. The results of the antimicrobial activity showed that the tested samples overall had quite good antimicrobial potential. High antibacterial activity was found in O. dubium and T. capitatus, while O. dubium and S. cypria exhibited great antifungal activities. The studied species also had an important effect on the viability of female-derived and colon cancer cells. In particular, in colon cancer cells, the extracts from T. capitatus, M. officinalis, M. piperita, and S. fruticosa exhibited a stronger effect on cell viability in the more metastatic cell line at significantly lower concentrations, indicating an important therapeutic potential in targeting highly metastatic tumors. This finding is worth further investigation. The present study unveiled interesting phytochemical profiles and biological properties of the six medicinal/aromatic plants, which should be further explored, contributing to green chemistry and the possible creation of natural health products for humans' health/nutrition and additives in cosmetics.

New triterpenoids from the aerial parts of the Uygur medicine Salvia deserta

Phytochemical investigation on the aerial parts of Salvia deserta led to the isolation of eight new pentacyclic triterpenoids including three oleanane- (1 - 3) and five ursane-type (4 - 8) triterpenoids, whose structures were elucidated based on extensive spectroscopic analysis and quantum chemical calculation. Weak immunosuppressive potency was observed for compounds 1, 2, and 4 - 8 via inhibiting the secretion of cytokines TNF-α and IL-6 in LPS-induced macrophages RAW264.7 at 20 μM. In addition, compounds 1, 2, and 4 - 6 exhibited moderate protective activity on t-BHP-induced oxidative injury in HepG2 cells.

Cytotoxic diterpenoids from Salvia glutinosa and comparison with the tanshinone profile of danshen (Salvia miltiorrhiza)

The roots of Salvia miltiorrhiza are the source of the traditional Chinese medicine danshen and the class of tanshinones, particular quinoid nor-diterpenoids of the abietane type. Of these compounds, cryptotanshinone, dihydrotanshinone I, tanshinone I, and tanshinone IIA, have been extensively studied for their anticancer potential, not only but as well because of their high abundance in S. miltiorrhiza and their thus easy availability. However, also additional Salvia species are known to contain tanshinones, mainly such of the subgenus Glutinaria, of which S. glutinosa is the only species widely occurring in Europe. Using UHPLC-DAD-MS, the tanshinone profile of S. glutinosa roots collected from two different locations was compared to the profile in S. miltiorrhiza roots. In addition, tanshinone IIA and another six diterpenoids from S. glutinosa were investigated for their antiproliferative and cytotoxic potential against MDA-MB-231 and HL-60 cells. Apart from dihydrotanshinone I, which has been previously characterized due to its anticancer properties, we determined danshenol A as a highly antiproliferative and cytotoxic agent, significantly surpassing the effects of dihydrotanshinone I. With regard to the diterpenoid profile, S. miltiorrhiza showed a higher concentration for most of the tanshinones, except for (+)-danshexinkun A, which was present in comparable amounts in both species. Danshenol A, in contrast, was only present in S. glutinosa as were dehydroabietic acid and (+)-pisiferic acid. The results of our study underlines the long traditional use of danshen due to its high amount on tanshinones, but also demonstrates the potential value of investigating closely related species for the discovery of new biologically active lead compounds.

Rapid access to icetexane diterpenes: Their protective effects against lipopolysaccharides-induced acute lung injury via PI3K/AKT/NF-κB axis in macrophages

Acute lung injury (ALI) is a life-threatening disease with limited therapeutic options available in clinic. Development of novel strategies and drugs for anti-ALI therapy are urgently needed. In this study, a facile synthesis of 21 icetexane diterpenes and derivatives with widely-varied oxidation states, particularly the taxamairins that are otherwise challenging to access, were developed from the readily available carnosic acid. Further explorations of their biological implications led to the identification of taxamairin B (6) as a potent anti-inflammatory agent by decreasing the gene expressions of proinflammatory cytokines (TNF-α, IL-1β and IL-6), as well as mitigating NO and ROS production, within LPS-induced RAW264.7 cells. Taxamairin B (6, 25 mg/kg) also exerted significant protective effects against in LPS-induced ALI in mice. Mechanistic insights drawn from the transcriptomic analysis revealed that taxamairin B (6) down-regulated the PI3K-AKT pathway, along with the suppression of the nuclear translocation of NF-κB. This study not only paves a new pathway to taxamairins, but also provides novel drug leads for the development of anti-inflammatory agents with unique mode of actions.

Chemical Composition of Salvia fruticosa Mill. Essential Oil and Its Protective Effects on Both Photosynthetic Damage and Oxidative Stress in Conocephalum conicum L. Induced by Environmental Heavy Metal Concentrations

The genus Salvia L., belonging to the Lamiaceae family, contains more than 900 species distributed in various parts of the world. It is a genus containing aromatic plants used both in the culinary field and above all in the cosmetic area to produce several perfumes. Salvia fruticosa Mill., notoriously known as Greek Salvia, is a plant used since ancient times in traditional medicine, but today cultivated and used in various parts of Europe and Africa. Polar and apolar extracts of this plant confirmed the presence of several metabolites such as abietane and labdane diterpenoids, triterpenoids, steroids, and some flavonoids, causing interesting properties such as sedative, carminative, and antiseptic, while its essential oils (EOs) are mainly characterized by compounds such as 1,8-cineole and camphor. The aim of this work concerns the chemical analysis by GC and GC-MS, and the investigation of the biological properties, of the EO of S. fruticosa plants collected in eastern Sicily. The gas-chromatographic analysis confirmed the presence of 1,8-cineole (17.38%) and camphor (12.81%), but at the same time, also moderate amounts of α-terpineol (6.74%), β-myrcene (9.07%), camphene (8.66%), β-pinene (6.55%), and α-pinene (6.45%). To study the protective effect of EOs from S. fruticosa (both the total mixture and the individual compounds) on possible damage induced by heavy metals, an in vitro system was used in which a model organism, the liverwort Conocephalum conicum, was subjected to the effect of a mix of heavy metals (HM) prepared using values of concentrations actually measured in one of the most polluted watercourses of the Campania region, the Regi Lagni. Finally, the antioxidant response and the photosynthetic damage were examined. The exogenous application of the EO yields a resumption of the oxidative stress induced by HM, as demonstrated by the reduction in the Reactive Oxygen Species (ROS) content and by the increased activity of antioxidant enzyme catalase (CAT) and glutathione-S-transferase (GST). Furthermore, plants treated with HMs and EO showed a higher Fv/Fm (maximal quantum efficiency of PSII in the dark) with respect to HMs-only treated ones. These results clearly indicate the protective capacity of the EO of S. fruticosa against oxidative stress, which is achieved at least in part by modulating the redox state through the antioxidant pathway and on photosynthetic damage.

11,12-seco-Abietane-type diterpene lactones with potential antiplatelet activity from Salvia prattii

Eleven new abietane-type diterpene lactones, salpratlactones D-N (1-11), including five 11,12-seco-11-nor-abietane diterpenes (1-5), four 11,12-seco-abietane diterpenes (6-9), two 20(10 → 5)-abeo-4,5;11,12-bis-seco-abietane diterpenes (10-11), and two known analogues (12-13), were characterized from Salvia prattii. Notably, compounds 1-3 were characterized by a unique linear 6/6/6 tricyclic skeleton. The structures were established by spectroscopic data interpretation, calculated NMR-DP4+ and electronic circular dichroism analysis, as well as single-crystal X-ray diffraction. A bioactivity study showed that 1, 2, 5, 11, and 12 can potently inhibit platelet aggregation induced by arachidonic acid (AA), with IC50 values of 5.66-16.10 μg/ml, stronger than aspirin. In addition, the lactate dehydrogenase assay showed that they had no effect on platelet integrity. Structurally, the same 1,2-benzopyrone fragments of 1, 2, and 5 should be the important pharmacophore for antiplatelet activity.

Structure-diversified terpenoids from Salvia prattii and their protective activity against alcoholic liver diseases

Eleven previously unreported compounds (1-11), including five diterpenoids (1-5) and six sesquiterpenoids (6-11), together with two known diterpenoids (12-13), have been isolated from the roots of Salvia prattii. Their structures were comprehensively elucidated through spectroscopic methods, and their configurations were established using computational 13C nuclear magnetic resonance and electronic circular dichroism. Compound 1 was found to be an abietane-type diterpenoid with a novel rearrangement generated from the cleavage of the C-4/5 chemical bond, 20-methyl shift, and the rearrangement of the C-10 side chain. Compounds 2-3 were the third and fourth examples of arrangement seco-norabietanes with a spiro-lactone ring. We evaluated all compounds for their protective effects against alcoholic liver diseases (ALD). Compound 2 exhibited potential protective activity and hence can be used as a novel anti-ALD candidate.

Functional divergence of CYP76AKs shapes the chemodiversity of abietane-type diterpenoids in genus Salvia

The genus Salvia L. (Lamiaceae) comprises myriad distinct medicinal herbs, with terpenoids as one of their major active chemical groups. Abietane-type diterpenoids (ATDs), such as tanshinones and carnosic acids, are specific to Salvia and exhibit taxonomic chemical diversity among lineages. To elucidate how ATD chemical diversity evolved, we carried out large-scale metabolic and phylogenetic analyses of 71 Salvia species, combined with enzyme function, ancestral sequence and chemical trait reconstruction, and comparative genomics experiments. This integrated approach showed that the lineage-wide ATD diversities in Salvia were induced by differences in the oxidation of the terpenoid skeleton at C-20, which was caused by the functional divergence of the cytochrome P450 subfamily CYP76AK. These findings present a unique pattern of chemical diversity in plants that was shaped by the loss of enzyme activity and associated catalytic pathways.

Variation in Terpenoid and Flavonoid Content in Different Samples of Salvia semiatrata Collected from Oaxaca, Mexico, and Its Effects on Antinociceptive Activity

Salvia semiatrata Zucc. (Lamiaceae) is endemic to Oaxaca, Mexico, and is known for its analgesic properties. Terpenoids and phenolic compounds with antinociceptive potential have been characterised from this species. The aim of this research was to determine the variation in terpenoids and flavonoids in ethyl acetate extracts of S. semiatrata collected from ten different localities, as well as to evaluate the antinociceptive effect between plants with higher and lower contents of these secondary metabolites. Quantification of S. semiatrata compounds was performed via HPLC-DAD, whereas in vivo evaluation of the antinociceptive effect was performed via formalin test. The results showed that the most abundant groups of metabolites are oleanolic acid (89.60-59.20 µg/mg), quercetin (34.81-16.28 µg/mg), catechin (11.30-9.30 µg/mg), and 7-keto-neoclerodan-3,13-dien-18,19:15,16-diolide (7-keto) (8.01-4.76 µg/mg). Principal component and canonical correspondence analysis showed that the most contrasting localities in terms of compound content and climatic variables are Miahuatlán and Santiago Huauclilla. The differences in metabolite content between the two locations did not affect the antinociceptive effects evaluated at a dose of 300 mg/kg, p.o. In conclusion, the results indicate that S. semiatrata is effective in relieving pain, regardless of the site of collection, reinforcing its traditional use as analgesic.

Functional Study and Efficient Catalytic Element Mining of CYP76AHs in Salvia Plants

Salvia is a large genus with hundreds of species used in traditional Chinese medicine. Tanshinones are a highly representative class of exclusive compounds found in the Salvia genus that exhibit significant biological activity. Tanshinone components have been identified in 16 Salvia species. The CYP76AH subfamily (P450) is crucial for the synthesis of tanshinone due to its catalytic generation of polyhydroxy structures. In this study, a total of 420 CYP76AH genes were obtained, and phylogenetic analysis showed their clear clustering relationships. Fifteen CYP76AH genes from 10 Salvia species were cloned and studied from the perspectives of evolution and catalytic efficiency. Three CYP76AHs with significantly improved catalytic efficiency compared to SmCYP76AH3 were identified, providing efficient catalytic elements for the synthetic biological production of tanshinones. A structure-function relationship study revealed several conserved residues that might be related to the function of CYP76AHs and provided a new mutation direction for the study of the directed evolution of plant P450.

Chromosome-level genome assembly of Salvia miltiorrhiza with orange roots uncovers the role of Sm2OGD3 in catalyzing 15,16-dehydrogenation of tanshinones

Salvia miltiorrhiza is well known for its clinical practice in treating heart and cardiovascular diseases. Its roots, used for traditional Chinese medicine materials, are usually brick-red due to accumulation of red pigments, such as tanshinone IIA and tanshinone I. Here we report a S. miltiorrhiza line (shh) with orange roots. Compared with the red roots of normal S. miltiorrhiza plants, the contents of tanshinones with a single bond at C-15,16 were increased, whereas those with a double bond at C-15,16 were significantly decreased in shh. We assembled a high-quality chromosome-level genome of shh. Phylogenomic analysis showed that the relationship between two S. miltiorrhiza lines with red roots was closer than the relationship with shh. It indicates that shh could not be the mutant of an extant S. miltiorrhiza line with red roots. Comparative genomic and transcriptomic analyses showed that a 1.0 kb DNA fragment was deleted in shh Sm2OGD3m. Complementation assay showed that overexpression of intact Sm2OGD3 in shh hairy roots recovered furan D-ring tanshinone accumulation. Consistently, in vitro protein assay showed that Sm2OGD3 catalyzed the conversion of cyptotanshinone, 15,16-dihydrotanshinone I and 1,2,15,16-tetrahydrotanshinone I into tanshinone IIA, tanshinone I and 1,2-dihydrotanshinone I, respectively. Thus, Sm2OGD3 functions as tanshinone 15,16-dehydrogenase and is a key enzyme in tanshinone biosynthesis. The results provide novel insights into the metabolic network of medicinally important tanshinone compounds.

Marine Puupehenone and Puupehedione: Synthesis and Future Perspectives

Puupehenone and puupehedione are natural products isolated from marine organisms. These compounds display a broad spectrum of biological activities, the in vitro antitubercular activity of puupehenone being a stand out, and are equipped with an interesting structural complexity. These products have served to stimulate the continual interest of the synthetic community. The first part of this article is a review of their total synthesis, using natural compounds which have the potential to be transformed into these marine compounds as starting materials; the synthetic routes employed to generate the basic skeleton; and the advances made to synthesize the pyran C ring with the required diastereoselectivity to obtain the natural products. Finally, this perspective shows a personal reflection of the authors on a possible unified and efficient retrosynthetic route that could allow easy access to these natural products, as well as their epimers at the C8 carbon and which could be used to address future biological issues in the production of pharmacologically active compounds.

An In Vitro and In Silico Characterization of Salvia sclarea L. Methanolic Extracts as Spasmolytic Agents

The use of medicinal plant species and their products is widespread in the field of gastrointestinal and respiratory diseases. This study aimed to evaluate the traditional use of Salvia sclarea L., clary sage, finding the possible mechanisms of its spasmolytic and bronchodilator actions in in vitro conditions supported by molecular docking analysis, along with the antimicrobial effects. Four dry extracts were prepared from the aerial parts of S. sclarea, using absolute or 80% (v/v) methanol by the method of a single-stage maceration or an ultrasound-assisted extraction. Characterization of the bioactive compounds by high-performance liquid chromatography indicated the presence of significant amounts of polyphenolics, with rosmarinic acid as the prevalent one. The spontaneous ileal contractions were best inhibited by the extract prepared with 80% methanol and maceration. The same extract was superior in the carbachol- and KCl-induced tracheal smooth muscle contractions, being the strongest bronchodilator agent. The most powerful relaxation of KCl-induced ileal contractions was achieved with the extract made of absolute methanol by maceration, while the 80% methanolic extract made with the ultrasound method generated the best spasmolytic effects in the acetylcholine-induced ileal contractions. Docking analysis suggested that apigenin-7-O-glucoside and luteolin-7-O-glucoside exhibited the highest binding affinity to voltage-gated calcium channels. Gram (+) bacteria were more susceptible to the effects of the extracts, particularly Staphylococcus aureus, in contrast to Gram (-) bacteria and Candida albicans. This is the first study to point out the influence of S. sclarea methanolic extracts on the gastrointestinal and respiratory spasm reduction, paving the way for their potential place in complementary medicine.

Total tanshinones protect against acute lung injury through the PLCγ2/NLRP3 inflammasome signaling pathway

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Salvia miltiorrhiza Bunge is a widely used traditional Chinese medicine with anticholinesterase, antitumor, and anti-inflammatory. Total Tanshinones (TTN), the most significant active ingredient of Salvia miltiorrhiza Bunge, exerts anti-inflammatory activity. However, the protective mechanism of total Tanshinones on acute lung injury (ALI) still needs to be explored.

AIM OF THIS STUDY

In this study, the underlying mechanisms of TTN to treat with ALI were investigated in vitro and in vivo.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Cell experiments established an in vitro model of LPS-induced J774A.1 and MH-S macrophages to verify the mechanism. The levels of inflammatory cytokines (TNF-α, IL-6 and IL-1β) were estimated by ELISA. The changes of ROS, Ca²⁺ and NO were detected by flow cytometry. The expression levels of proteins related to the NLRP3 inflammasome were determined by Western blotting. The effect of TTN on NLRP3 inflammasome activation was examined by immunofluorescence analysis of caspase-1 p20. Male BALB/c mice were selected to establish the ALI model. The experiment was randomly divided into six groups: control, LPS, LPS + si-NC, LPA + si-Nek7, LPS + TTN, and DEX. Pathological alterations were explored by H&E staining. The expression levels of proteins related to the NLRP3 inflammasome were analyzed by Western blotting.

RESULTS

TTN decreased pro-inflammatory cytokines levels like TNF-α, IL-6, IL-1β, NO, and ROS in alveolar macrophages. TTN bound to NIMA-related kinase 7 (NEK7), a new therapeutic protein to modulate NLRP3 inflammasome and PLCγ2-PIP2 signaling pathway. In ALI mice, LPS enhanced IL-1β levels in the serum, lung tissues, and bronchoalveolar lavage fluid (BALF),which were reversed by TTN. TTN decreased cleaved-caspase-1 and NLRP3 expressions in lung tissues. When Nek7 was knocked down in mice by siRNA, the syndrome of ALI in mice was significantly suppressed, of which the effect was similar to that of TTN.

CONCLUSIONS

This research demonstrates that TTN alleviated ALI by binding to NEK7 in vitro and in vivo to modulate NLRP3 inflammasome activation and PLCγ2-PIP2 signaling pathways.

Highly oxygenated germacrane-type sesquiterpenoids from the whole plant of Salvia cavaleriei H.Lév. and their biological activities

The entire plant Salvia cavaleriei H.Lév. (Lamiaceae) is used as a traditional Chinese herbal medicine. Its leaves are edible, and the flowers can be soaked in water to make a health-care tea. In an effort to find natural bioactive chemical components, twelve undescribed germacrane-type sesquiterpenoids, salcavalins A-L, were isolated from the whole plant of S. cavaleriei and were identified as analogs. This is the first study to isolate highly oxygenated germacrane-type sesquiterpenoids from this plant. The structures of these undescribed compounds were elucidated by various spectroscopic methods, and their absolute configurations were confirmed by single-crystal X-ray diffraction analysis with Cu Kα radiation and electronic circular dichroism calculations. The biological activity of these undescribed compounds on the production of tumor necrosis factor-alpha in lipopolysaccharide induced NR8383 cells was evaluated, and salcavalins I and K showed anti-inflammatory activity to some extent. Salcavalins A-C, F and L were found to be neuroprotective with antiparkinsonic potential in a nematode (Caenorhabditis elegans) model. In addition, salcavalins F and I displayed marked phytotoxic activity against radish seeds at a low concentration of 50 ppm. Our findings provide scientific justification to show that bioactive sesquiterpenoids from the edible herb have anti-inflammatory in vitro, neuroprotective and phytotoxic activities.

Role of Phytohormones in Biomass and Polyphenol Accumulation in Salvia bulleyana In Vitro Culture

Salvia bulleyana is a plant native to the Chinese Yunnan Province. This species has been used in traditional Chinese medicine as a substitute for Danshen (the roots of Salvia miltiorrhiza). The aim of our study was to establish an effective system for propagating S. bulleyana shoots to obtain large amounts of material rich in bioactive compounds. Phytohormones were used to regulate shoot growth and regeneration potential and influence plant secondary metabolism. The shoot tips were incubated on a Murashige and Skoog agar medium supplemented with 0.1 or 0.5 mg/L IAA (indole-3-acetic acid) and the cytokinins benzylaminopurine (BAP), meta-topoline (M-T), 6-benzylaminopurine riboside (RBAP), N-benzyl-9-(2-tetrahydropyranyl)-adenine (BPA) or kinetin, (K) at concentrations of 0.5, 1 or 2 mg/L. It was observed that the type and concentration of growth regulator significantly influenced the regeneration potential of S. bulleyana shoots. The highest multiplication rate was obtained when 0.1 mg/L IAA and 2 mg/L BPA were used. Under these conditions, 100% of shoot tips formed buds and almost seven buds/shoot per explant were obtained after five weeks. Meanwhile, the highest biomass was found for shoots growing on a medium supplemented with 0.1 mg/L IAA and 1 mg/L M-T: 1.2 g of fresh weight and 0.17 g of dry weight. However, a medium with 0.1 mg/L IAA and 2 mg/L RBAP was most favorable for bioactive phenolic acid content, with a total polyphenol level (37.7 mg/g dw) 4.5 times higher than in shoots grown on medium without growth regulators (8.23 mg/g dw). Finally, optimal conditions were selected by TOPSIS (technique for order of preference by similarity to the ideal solution); the culture of S. bulleyana grown on an MS medium containing 0.1 mg/L IAA and 1 mg/L M-T was found to be the most efficient for polyphenol accumulation and can be used for the production of medicinally relevant compounds.

GC-MS and LC-DAD-MS Phytochemical Profiling for Characterization of Three Native Salvia Taxa from Eastern Mediterranean with Antiglycation Properties

Salvia fruticosa and S. pomifera subsp. calycina are native to Eastern Mediterranean and S. pomifera subsp. pomifera is endemic to Greece. The primary aim of this study was to develop an analytical methodology for metabolomic profiling and to study their efficacy in combating glycation, the major biochemical complication of diabetes. After sequential ultrasound-assisted extraction of 2 g of leaves with petroleum ether and 70% methanol, the volatile metabolites in the petroleum ether extracts were studied with GC-MS (Gas Chromatography-Mass Spectrometry), whereas the polar metabolites in the hydroalcoholic extracts were determined and quantified by UHPLC-DAD-ESI-MS (Ultra-High Performance Liquid Chromatography-Diode Array Detector-Mass Spectrometry). This methodology was applied to five populations belonging to the three native taxa. 1,8-Cineole was the predominant volatile (34.8-39.0%) in S. fruticosa, while S. pomifera had a greater content of α-thujone (19.7-41.0%) and β-thujone (6.0-39.1%). Principal Component Analysis (PCA) analysis of the volatiles could discriminate the different taxa. UHPLC-DAD-ESI-MS demonstrated the presence of 50 compounds, twenty of which were quantified. PCA revealed that not only the taxa but also the populations of S. pomifera subsp. pomifera could be differentiated. All Salvia samples inhibited advanced glycation end-product formation in a bovine serum albumin/2-deoxyribose assay; rosmarinic and carnosic acid shared this activity. This study demonstrates the antiglycation activity of S. fruticosa and S. pomifera extracts for the first time and presents a miniaturized methodology for their metabolomic profiling, which could aid chemotaxonomic studies and serve as a tool for their authentication and quality control.

Nickel-Catalyzed Enantioconvergent Carboxylation Enabled by a Chiral 2,2'-Bipyridine Ligand

In contrast to previous approaches to chiral α-aryl carboxylic acids that based on reactions using hazardous gases, pressurized setup and mostly noble metal catalysts, in this work, a nickel-catalyzed general, efficient and highly enantioselective carboxylation reaction of racemic benzylic (pseudo)halides under mild conditions using atmospheric CO₂ has been developed. A unique chiral 2,2'-bipyridine ligand named Me-SBpy featuring compact polycyclic skeleton enabled both high reactivity and stereoselectivity. The utility of this method has been demonstrated by synthesis of various chiral α-aryl carboxylic acids (30 examples, up to 95 % yield and 99 : 1 er), including profen family anti-inflammatory drugs and transformations using the acids as key intermediates. Based on mechanistic experimental results, a plausible catalytic cycle involving Ni-complex/radical equilibrium and Lewis acid-assisted CO₂ activation has been proposed.

Anti-COVID-19 and antidiabetic activities of new oleanane and ursane-type triterpenoids from Salvia grossheimii: an in-silico approach

Salvia grossheimii is a perennial herb with antidiabetic and cytotoxic constituents. In continuation of our study on S. grosshiemii to identify the bioactive phytochemicals, we have reported the characterization of seven undescribed triterpenoids. The aerial parts of the plant were extracted in dichloromethane and its constituents were isolated using chromatography techniques. The structures of compounds were identified using 1D, 2D NMR, and ESI-MS spectral data. Seven new oleanane- and ursane-type triterpenoids (1-7) were identified in S. grossheimii. The structures of 1-7 were characterized as; 2α-hydroxy-3β-acetoxy-olean-9(11),12-diene (1), 2α-acetoxy-3β-hydroxy-olean-9(11),12-diene (2), 3β-acetoxy-olean-18-ene,2α,11α-diol (3), 2α-hydroxy-3β-acetoxy-urs-9(11),12-diene (4), 2α-acetoxy-3β-hydroxy-urs-9(11),12-diene (5), 2α,3β-diacetoxy-urs-12-ene-11α,20β-diol (6), 2α,3β-diacetoxy-urs-9(11),12-diene-20β-ol (7). Triterpenoids (2, 5, and 7) were intramolecular transesterification or dehydration products of their corresponding isomers or allylic alcohol in the C rings, respectively, produced in-situ during NMR spectroscopy. Virtual screening of 1-7 was performed with molecular docking analysis to identify the potential SARS-CoV-2 and α-glucosidase inhibitors using the smina molecular docking algorithm. The best binding energy values (kcal/mol) against COVID-19 main protease M^pro were calculated for 6 (-8.77) and 7 (-8.68), and the higher binding affinities toward human α-glucosidase were obtained for 2 (-9.39) and 6 (-8.63). This study suggests S. grossheimii as a rich source of bioactive triterpenoids and introduces new natural compounds. Considering the high binding energy values of 2, 6, and 7, these structures could be candidates for anti-COVID-19 and antidiabetic drug development in the future.