Analgesic effects and the mechanisms of anti-inflammation of ergostatrien-3beta-ol from Antrodia camphorata submerged whole broth in mice

Unique Bioactives from Zombie Fungus (Cordyceps) as Promising Multitargeted Neuroprotective Agents

Cordyceps, also known as "zombie fungus", is a non-poisonous mushroom that parasitizes insects for growth and development by manipulating the host system in a way that makes the victim behave like a "zombie". These species produce promising bioactive metabolites, like adenosine, β-glucans, cordycepin, and ergosterol. Cordyceps has been used in traditional medicine due to its immense health benefits, as it boosts stamina, appetite, immunity, longevity, libido, memory, and sleep. Neuronal loss is the typical feature of neurodegenerative diseases (NDs) (Alzheimer's disease (AD), Parkinson's disease (PD), multiple sclerosis (MS), amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS)) and neurotrauma. Both these conditions share common pathophysiological features, like oxidative stress, neuroinflammation, and glutamatergic excitotoxicity. Cordyceps bioactives (adenosine, N6-(2-hydroxyethyl)-adenosine, ergosta-7, 9 (11), 22-trien-3β-ol, active peptides, and polysaccharides) exert potential antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and anti-apoptotic activities and display beneficial effects in the management and/or treatment of neurodegenerative disorders in vitro and in vivo. Although a considerable list of compounds is available from Cordyceps, only a few have been evaluated for their neuroprotective potential and still lack information for clinical trials. In this review, the neuroprotective mechanisms and safety profile of Cordyceps extracts/bioactives have been discussed, which might be helpful in the identification of novel potential therapeutic entities in the future.

Selenium Enrichment of the Edible Medicinal Mushroom Antrodia camphorata by Submerged Fermentation

Selenium (Se) is an essential nutrient element in human physiological metabolism and immune function. Supplementation of bioavailable Se will confer benefit on human life, especially when intake of this nutrient is inadequate. The edible and medicinal mushroom Antrodia camphorata is a unique fungus endemic to Taiwan, which has shown high therapeutic and nutritive value. This study is the first to demonstrate that A. camphorata can assimilate and transform sodium selenite into organic selenium. With an initial concentration of Se (IV) at 10 mg/L in 100 mL of the medium at 25 °C, the total selenium content in Se-enriched A. camphorata mycelia was 1281.3 ± 79.2 µg/g, in which the organic selenium content accounted for 88.1%. Further analysis demonstrated that selenium-enriched polysaccharide was the main form of Se present in A. camphorata (61.5% of the organic selenium). Four water-soluble Se-polysaccharide fractions were separated from A. camphorata, and ACP II was the major fraction of Se-polysaccharide. The scavenging efficiency of Se-polysaccharides on DPPH and ABTS radicals was determined, proving that selenium enrichment dramatically improved the in vitro antioxidant capacity of A. camphorata polysaccharide. Therefore, the selenium accumulation and transformation ability of A. camphorata provides an opportunity for developing this beneficent fungus into a novel selenium-enriched dietary or medicinal supplement.

Increasing the production of the bioactive compounds in medicinal mushrooms: an omics perspective

Macroscopic fungi, mainly higher basidiomycetes and some ascomycetes, are considered medicinal mushrooms and have long been used in different areas due to their pharmaceutically/nutritionally valuable bioactive compounds. However, the low production of these bioactive metabolites considerably limits the utilization of medicinal mushrooms both in commerce and clinical trials. As a result, many attempts, ranging from conventional methods to novel approaches, have been made to improve their production. The novel strategies include conducting omics investigations, constructing genome-scale metabolic models, and metabolic engineering. So far, genomics and the combined use of different omics studies are the most utilized omics analyses in medicinal mushroom research (both with 31% contribution), while metabolomics (with 4% contribution) is the least. This article is the first attempt for reviewing omics investigations in medicinal mushrooms with the ultimate aim of bioactive compound overproduction. In this regard, the role of these studies and systems biology in elucidating biosynthetic pathways of bioactive compounds and their contribution to metabolic engineering will be highlighted. Also, limitations of omics investigations and strategies for overcoming them will be provided in order to facilitate the overproduction of valuable bioactive metabolites in these valuable organisms.

Fermented Taiwanofungus camphoratus Extract Ameliorates Psoriasis-Associated Response in HaCaT Cells via Modulating NF-𝜅B and mTOR Pathways

Psoriasis is a chronic autoimmune disease, and until now, it remains an incurable disease. Therefore, the development of new drugs or agents that ameliorate the disease will have marketing potential. Taiwanofungus camphoratus (TC) is a specific fungus in Taiwan. It is demonstrated to have anticancer, anti-inflammation, and hepatoprotective effects. However, the effects of TC fermented extract on psoriasis are under investigation. In this research, we studied the ability of TC on antioxidative activity and the efficacy of TC on interleukin-17 (IL-17A)-induced intracellular oxidative stress, inflammation-relative, and proliferation-relative protein expression in human keratinocytes. The results of a DPPH radical scavenging assay, reducing power assay, and hydroxyl peroxide inhibition assay indicated that TC has a potent antioxidant ability. Furthermore, TC could reduce IL-17A-induced intracellular ROS generation and restore the NADPH level. In the investigation of pathogenesis, we discovered TC could regulate inflammatory and cell proliferation pathways via p-IKKα/p-p65 and p-mTOR/p-p70S6k signaling pathways in human keratinocytes. In conclusion, TC showed characteristics such as antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and anti-psoriatic-associated responses. It is expected to be developed as a candidate for oxidative-stress-induced skin disorders or psoriasis treatment.

Structure and Biological Activity of Ergostane-Type Steroids from Fungi

Mushrooms are known not only for their taste but also for beneficial effects on health attributed to plethora of constituents. All mushrooms belong to the kingdom of fungi, which also includes yeasts and molds. Each year, hundreds of new metabolites of the main fungal sterol, ergosterol, are isolated from fungal sources. As a rule, further testing is carried out for their biological effects, and many of the isolated compounds exhibit one or another activity. This study aims to review recent literature (mainly over the past 10 years, selected older works are discussed for consistency purposes) on the structures and bioactivities of fungal metabolites of ergosterol. The review is not exhaustive in its coverage of structures found in fungi. Rather, it focuses solely on discussing compounds that have shown some biological activity with potential pharmacological utility.

EK100 and Antrodin C Improve Brain Amyloid Pathology in APP/PS1 Transgenic Mice by Promoting Microglial and Perivascular Clearance Pathways

Alzheimer’s disease (AD) is characterized by the deposition of β-amyloid peptide (Aβ). There are currently no drugs that can successfully treat this disease. This study first explored the anti-inflammatory activity of seven components isolated from Antrodia cinnamonmea in BV2 cells and selected EK100 and antrodin C for in vivo research. APPswe/PS1dE9 mice were treated with EK100 and antrodin C for one month to evaluate the effect of these reagents on AD-like pathology by nesting behavior, immunohistochemistry, and immunoblotting. Ergosterol and ibuprofen were used as control. EK100 and antrodin C improved the nesting behavior of mice, reduced the number and burden of amyloid plaques, reduced the activation of glial cells, and promoted the perivascular deposition of Aβ in the brain of mice. EK100 and antrodin C are significantly different in activating astrocytes, regulating microglia morphology, and promoting plaque-associated microglia to express oxidative enzymes. In contrast, the effects of ibuprofen and ergosterol are relatively small. In addition, EK100 significantly improved hippocampal neurogenesis in APPswe/PS1dE9 mice. Our data indicate that EK100 and antrodin C reduce the pathology of AD by reducing amyloid deposits and promoting nesting behavior in APPswe/PS1dE9 mice through microglia and perivascular clearance, indicating that EK100 and antrodin C have the potential to be used in AD treatment.

Ergosta-7,9(11),22-trien-3β-ol Attenuates Inflammatory Responses via Inhibiting MAPK/AP-1 Induced IL-6/JAK/STAT Pathways and Activating Nrf2/HO-1 Signaling in LPS-Stimulated Macrophage-like Cells

Chronic inflammation induces autoimmune disorders and chronic diseases. Several natural products activate nuclear factor erythroid 2-related factor 2 (Nrf2) signaling, attenuating inflammatory responses. Ergosta-7,9(11),22-trien-3β-ol (EK100) isolated from Cordyceps militaris showed anti-inflammatory and antioxidative activity, but those mechanisms are still unclear. This study is the first to investigate EK100 on antioxidant Nrf2 relative genes expression in LPS-stimulated macrophage-like cell lines. The results showed that EK100 reduced IL-6 (interleukin-6) and tumor necrosis factor-α production. EK100 also attenuated a mitogen-activated protein kinase/activator protein-1 (MAPK/AP-1) pathway and interleukin-6/Janus kinase/signal transducer and activator of transcription (IL-6/JAK/STAT) pathway in LPS-stimulated cells. Toll-like receptor 4 (TLR4) inhibitor CLI-095 and MAPK inhibitors can synergize the anti-inflammatory response of EK100 in LPS-stimulated cells. Moreover, EK100 activated Nrf2/HO-1 (heme oxygenase-1) signaling in LPS-stimulated murine macrophage-like RAW 264.7 cells, murine microglial BV2 cells, and human monocytic leukemia THP-1 cells. However, Nrf2 small interfering RNA (Nrf2 siRNA) reversed EK100-induced antioxidative proteins expressions. In conclusion, EK100 showed anti-inflammatory responses via activating the antioxidative Nrf2/HO-1 signaling and inhibiting TLR4 related MAPK/AP-1 induced IL-6/JAK/STAT pathways in the LPS-stimulated cells in vitro. The results suggest EK100 acts as a novel antioxidant with multiple therapeutic targets that can potentially be developed to treat chronic inflammation-related diseases.

Ergosta-7, 9 (11), 22-trien-3β-ol Interferes with LPS Docking to LBP, CD14, and TLR4/MD-2 Co-Receptors to Attenuate the NF-κB Inflammatory Pathway In Vitro and Drosophila

Ergosta-7, 9 (11), 22-trien-3β-ol (EK100) was isolated from Cordyceps militaris, which has been used as a traditional anti-inflammatory medicine. EK100 has been reported to attenuate inflammatory diseases, but its anti-inflammatory mechanism is still unclear. We were the first to investigate the effect of EK100 on the Toll-like receptor 4 (TLR4)/nuclear factor of the κ light chain enhancer of B cells (NF-κB) signaling in the lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-stimulated RAW264.7 cells and the green fluorescent protein (GFP)-labeled NF-κB reporter gene of Drosophila. EK100 suppressed the release of the cytokine and attenuated the mRNA and protein expression of pro-inflammatory mediators. EK100 inhibited the inhibitor kappa B (IκB)/NF-κB signaling pathway. EK100 also inhibited phosphatidylinositol-3-kinase (PI3K)/Protein kinase B (Akt) signal transduction. Moreover, EK100 interfered with LPS docking to the LPS-binding protein (LBP), transferred to the cluster of differentiation 14 (CD14), and bonded to TLR4/myeloid differentiation-2 (MD-2) co-receptors. Compared with the TLR4 antagonist, resatorvid (CLI-095), and dexamethasone (Dexa), EK100 suppressed the TLR4/AKT signaling pathway. In addition, we also confirmed that EK100 attenuated the GFP-labeled NF-κB reporter gene expression in Drosophila. In summary, EK100 might alter LPS docking to LBP, CD14, and TLR4/MD-2 co-receptors, and then it suppresses the TLR4/NF-κB inflammatory pathway in LPS-stimulated RAW264.7 cells and Drosophila.

Ergosta-7,9(11),22-trien-3β-ol Alleviates Intracerebral Hemorrhage-Induced Brain Injury and BV-2 Microglial Activation

Intracerebral hemorrhage (ICH) is a devastating neurological disorder characterized by an exacerbation of neuroinflammation and neuronal injury, for which few effective therapies are available at present. Inhibition of excessive neuroglial activation has been reported to alleviate ICH-related brain injuries. In the present study, the anti-ICH activity and microglial mechanism of ergosta-7,9(11),22-trien-3β-ol (EK100), a bioactive ingredient from Asian medicinal herb Antrodia camphorate, were evaluated. Post-treatment of EK100 significantly attenuated neurobehavioral deficit and MRI-related brain lesion in the mice model of collagenase-induced ICH. Additionally, EK100 alleviated the inducible expression of cyclooxygenase (COX)-2 and the activity of matrix metalloproteinase (MMP)-9 in the ipsilateral brain regions. Consistently, it was shown that EK100 concentration-dependently inhibited the expression of COX-2 protein in Toll-like receptor (TLR)-4 activator lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-activated microglial BV-2 and primary microglial cells. Furthermore, the production of microglial prostaglandin E₂ and reactive oxygen species were attenuated by EK100. EK100 also attenuated the induction of astrocytic MMP-9 activation. Among several signaling pathways, EK100 significantly and concentration-dependently inhibited activation of c-Jun N-terminal kinase (JNK) MAPK in LPS-activated microglial BV-2 cells. Consistently, ipsilateral JNK activation was markedly inhibited by post-ICH-treated EK100 in vivo. In conclusion, EK100 exerted the inhibitory actions on microglial JNK activation, and attenuated brain COX-2 expression, MMP-9 activation, and brain injuries in the mice ICH model. Thus, EK100 may be proposed and employed as a potential therapeutic agent for ICH.

Ergostatrien-3β-ol (EK100) from Antrodia camphorata Attenuates Oxidative Stress, Inflammation, and Liver Injury In Vitro and In Vivo

Hepatic ischemia/reperfusion (IR) injury is a complication that occurs during liver surgery, whereby hepatic tissue is injured by oxygen deficiency during ischemia, then further damaged by a cascade of inflammatory and oxidative insults when blood is resupplied during reperfusion. Antrodia camphorata is an indigenous fungus in Taiwan and an esteemed Chinese herbal medicine with various bioactivities. This study examined the effect of ergostatrien-3β-ol (EK100), an active compound found in both the fruiting body and mycelia of A. camphorata, on IR injury pathologies in rats and cell models of oxidative and inflammatory stress. Male Sprague-Dawley rats were randomly assigned to receive a vehicle or 5 mg/kg EK100 prior to hepatic IR injury induced by 1 h ischemia followed by 24 h reperfusion, or a sham operation. RAW 264.7 murine macrophages and HepG2 hepatocytes were pretreated with EK100, then inflammation was induced with lipopolysaccharides in the former and oxidative stress was induced with hydrogen peroxide in the latter. EK100 decreased IR-induced elevation in serum levels of alanine aminotransferase and aspartate aminotransferase and lowered levels of the inflammatory cytokines tumor necrosis factor-α, interleukin (IL)-6, and IL-1β. In addition, EK100 significantly reduced hepatic mRNA levels of inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS) and cyclooxygenase-2, as well as nitrite production and iNOS gene expression in both hepatocyte and macrophage cell lines. We demonstrated that EK100 exhibits potent protec-tion against hepatic IR injury, which may be used to design strategies to ameliorate liver damage during liver surgery.

Terpenoids from the medicinal mushroom Antrodia camphorata: chemistry and medicinal potential

Covering: up to February 2020Antrodia camphorata is a medicinal mushroom endemic to Taiwan for the treatment of intoxication, liver injury, cancer, and inflammation. Owing to its rare occurrence and potent pharmacological activities, efforts have been devoted to identify its bioactive constituents, especially terpenoids. Since 1995, a total of 162 terpenoids including triterpenoids, meroterpenoids, sesquiterpenoids, diterpenoids, and steroids have been characterized. The ergostane-type triterpenoids (antcins) and meroterpenoids (antroquinonols) are characteristic constituents of A. camphorata. The terpenoids show anti-cancer, hepatoprotective, anti-inflammatory, anti-diabetic, and neuroprotective activities. This review summarizes the research progress on terpenoids in A. camphorata during 1995-2020, including structural diversity, resources, biosynthesis, pharmacological activities, metabolism, and toxicity. The medicinal potential of the terpenoids is also discussed.

The Role of Bioactive Compounds and other Metabolites from Mushrooms against Skin Disorders- A Systematic Review Assessing their Cosmeceutical and Nutricosmetic Outcomes

Bioactive compounds derived from mushrooms have been shown to present promising potential as cosmeceutical or nutricosmetic ingredients. Scientific data reviewed herein showed that extracts prepared from medicinal and edible mushrooms and their individual metabolites presented antiinflammatory, antioxidant, photoprotective, antimicrobial, anti-tyrosinase, anti-elastase, and anticollagenase activities. These metabolites can be utilised as ingredients to suppress the severity of Inflammatory Skin Diseases, offer photoprotection to the skin, and correct Hyperpigmentation. However, studies regarding the molecular mechanism behind the mentioned bioactivities are still lacking. Challenges associated with the use of mushroom extracts and their associated metabolites as cosmeceutical and nutricosmetic ingredients include several steps from the fruiting bodies to the final product: extraction optimization, estimation of the efficacy and safety claims, the use of micro and nanocarriers to allow for controlled release and the pros and cons associated with the use of extracts vs individual compounds. This systematic review highlights that mushrooms contain diverse biomolecules that can be sustainably used in the development of nutricosmetic and cosmeceutical formulations. Reports regarding stability, compatibility, and safety assessment, but also toxicological studies are still needed to be considered. Furthermore, some of the constraints and limitations hindering the development of this type of ingredients still require long-term studies to achieve major breakthroughs.

Oil from hake (Merluccius merluccius): Characterization, antioxidant activity, wound healing and anti-inflammatory effects

The aim of this work was to evaluate some biological properties of hake head oil (HHO) as well its lipid composition. The fatty acid profiles showed a dominance of unsaturated fatty acids overtaking 55% of the total fatty acids. Omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acid profiles exhibited a dominance of EPA (eicosapentaenoic acid) (3.96%) and DHA (docosahexaenoic acid) (25.39%). The antioxidant activity was determined through two different assays: DPPH scavenging activity and β-carotene bleaching by linoleic acid assay. Eighteen mice were excised on their back and divided into 3 groups, treated with sterile saline, commercial healing cream and HHO, respectively. The wound closure rate, the hydroxyproline contents and the histopathology evolution in skin tissue were elaborated. Also, the anti-inflammatory activity was studied by carrageenan-induced mouse paw edema. Mice were divided into 3 groups treated respectively with sterile saline, anti inflammatory drug reference and HHO. The anti-inflammatory evaluation of HHO in mice exhibited an important inhibition of carrageenan-induced hind paws edema, as confirmed by the histological analysis, the superoxide dismutase (SOD), catalase (CAT) and malondialdehyde (MDA) level. HHO displayed a significant wound healing effect probably due to the anti-inflammatory and antioxidant activities of its EPA and DHA contents. The overall results proved that HHO might be favorable drugs who exert a great therapeutic potential wound healing and anti-inflammatory effects in animal model.

Ergostatrien-7,9(11),22-trien-3β-ol from Antrodia camphorata ameliorates ischemic stroke brain injury via downregulation of p65NF-κ-B and caspase 3, and activation of Akt/GSK3/catenin-associated neurogenesis

Antrodia camphorata is a well-known traditional Chinese mushroom used as a functional food and nutraceutical in Taiwan and China. The aim of this study was to explore the protective effects and mechanism(s) of the ethyl acetate crude extract of A. camphorata (EtOAc-AC) and its active constituent ergostatrien-7,9(11),22-trien-3β-ol (EK100) in an acute ischemic stroke (AIS) murine model. Treating mice with induced AIS injury by using EtOAc-AC (0.3-0.6 g kg^-1, p.o.) and EK100 (60 and 120 mg kg^-1, p.o.) 2 h after AIS induction significantly increased the tracking distance and reduced brain infarction. Both EtOAc-AC and EK-100 reduced the expression levels of p65NF-κB and caspase 3 near the peri-infarct cortex and promoted the expression of neurogenesis-associated protein doublecortin (DCX) near the hippocampus, accompanied by glycogen synthase kinase 3 (GSK-3) inhibition and β-catenin upregulation. Signaling pathway analysis revealed that the advantageous effects of EtOAc-AC and EK-100 involved triggering the activation of PI3K/Akt and inhibition of GSK-3. Our findings suggest that EtOAc-AC and its active constituent EK100 display anti-inflammatory and anti-apoptotic activities. Both EtOAc-AC and EK100 reduce ischemic brain injury by decreasing p65NF-κB and caspase 3 expression, and they promote neurogenesis (DCX) and neuroprotection (Bcl2) by activating the PI3k/Akt-associated GSK3 inhibition and β-catenin activation.

Anti-Inflammatory Activities of Leaf Oil from Cinnamomum subavenium In Vitro and In Vivo

The study determined the chemical constituents and anti-inflammatory effects of leaf oil from Cinnamomum subavenium (CS-LO) that has been used in folk medicine to treat various symptoms including inflammation. The anti-inflammatory effects of the oil were evaluated by LPS-stimulated RAW264.7 cells and the Carr-induced hind mouse paw edema model, respectively. In vitro, nitric oxide (NO), prostaglandin E2 (PGE₂), TNF-α, IL-6, and IL-1β were significantly decreased by CS-LO, and the expression of nuclear factor-κB (NF-κB) protein was blocked as well. In in vivo, the malondialdehyde (MDA) and paw edema levels were decreased by CS-LO, and the same result came up on the NO and tumor necrosis factor (TNF-a) of serum at the 5th h after Carr injection. In addition, iNOS and COX-2 immunoreactive cells of the paw tissue were decreased significantly by CS-LO (200 mg/kg) in histological examination. The present findings indicated that CS-LO have anti-inflammatory properties, and the effects might be caused through inhibiting iNOS, COX-2, TNF-α, IL-1β, and IL-6 expression via affecting NF-κB pathway, which will provide a power scientific basis for CS-LO to be used as the treatment of inflammatory diseases.

The Effects of Ergosta-7,9(11),22-trien-3β-ol from Antrodia camphorata on the Biochemical Profile and Exercise Performance of Mice

Antrodia camphorata (AC) is a rare and unique mushroom that is difficult to cultivate. Previous studies have demonstrated the bioactivity of the compound Ergosta-7,9(11),22-trien-3β-ol (EK100) from AC in submerged culture. The purpose of this study is to evaluate the potential beneficial effects of EK100 on fatigue and ergogenic functions following physiological challenge. Male ICR (Institute of Cancer Research) mice were randomly divided into three groups (n = 8 per group) and orally administered EK100 for six weeks at 0 (Vehicle), 10 (EK100-1X), and 20 (EK100-2X) mg/kg/day. The six-week Ek100 supplementation significantly increased grip strength (p = 0.0051) in trend analysis. Anti-fatigue activity was evaluated using 15-min. acute exercise testing and measuring the levels of serum lactate, ammonia, glucose, blood urea nitrogen (BUN), and creatine kinase (CK) after a 15-min. swimming exercise. Our results indicate that AC supplementation leads to a dose-dependent decrease in serum lactate, ammonia, BUN, and CK activity after exercise and significantly increases serum glucose and glycogen content in liver tissues. Biochemical and histopathological data demonstrated that long term daily administration of EK100 for over six weeks (subacute toxicity) was safe. EK100’s anti-fatigue properties appear to be through the preservation of energy storage, increasing blood glucose and liver glycogen content, and decreasing the serum levels of lactate, ammonia, BUN, and CK. EK100 could potentially be used to improve exercise physiological adaptation, promote health, and as a potential ergogenic aid in combination with different nutrient strategies.

Chemical Constituents from the Fungus Antrodia cinnamomea

A new benzenoid, 4-methoxy-7-methylbenzo[ d][1,3]dioxol-5-ol (1) and three known secondary metabolites 2,3-dimethoxy-5-methyl[1,4]benzoquinone (2), 2-methoxy-6-methyl-1,4-benzoquinone (3) and 5-methyl-benzo[1,3]dioxole-4,7-diol (4) were isolated from the mycelia of A. cinnamomea BCRC 36799 by solid state fermentation with adlay. Their chemical structures were elucidated on the basis of HRESIMS, NMR spectroscopic data and comparison with reported values. All isolated compounds 1–4 were tested for their cytotoxicity against the six cancer cell lines using the MTT assay. Among them, compound 3 displayed significant cytotoxic effects toward all six tested cancer cell lines, with IC50 values ranging from 2.8–8.7 μM in vitro.

Antrodia cinnamomea induces autophagic cell death via the CHOP/TRB3/Akt/mTOR pathway in colorectal cancer cells

Antrodia cinnamomea, a well-known traditional medicine used in Taiwan, is a potent anticancer drug for colorectal cancer, but the upstream molecular mechanism of its anticancer effects remains unclear. In this study, A. cinnamomea extracts showed cytotoxicity in HCT116, HT29, SW480, Caco-2 and, Colo205 colorectal cancer cells. Whole-genome expression profiling of A. cinnamomea extracts in HCT116 cells was performed. A. cinnamomea extracts upregulated the expression of the endoplasmic reticulum stress marker CHOP and its downstream gene TRB3. Moreover, dephosphorylation of Akt and mTOR as well as autophagic cell death were observed. Gene expression and autophagic cell death were reversed by the knockdown of CHOP and TRB3. Autophagy inhibition but not apoptosis inhibition reversed A. cinnamomea-induced cell death. Finally, we demonstrated that A. cinnamomea extracts significantly suppressed HCT116 tumour growth in nude mice. Our findings suggest that autophagic cell death via the CHOP/TRB3/Akt/mTOR pathway may represent a new mechanism of anti-colorectal cancer action by A. cinnamomea. A. cinnamomea is a new CHOP activator and potential drug that can be used in colorectal cancer treatment.

Curcumin's Metabolites, Tetrahydrocurcumin and Octahydrocurcumin, Possess Superior Anti-inflammatory Effects in vivo Through Suppression of TAK1-NF-κB Pathway

Curcumin (CUR), a promising naturally occurring dietary compound, is commonly recognized as the potential anti-inflammatory agent. While the application of CUR was hampered by its low stability and poor systemic bioavailability, it has been suggested that the biological activities of CUR are intimately related to its metabolites. In the current investigation, we aimed to comparatively explore the anti-inflammatory effects of tetrahydrocurcumin (THC), octahydrocurcumin (OHC), and CUR, and to elucidate the underlying action mechanisms on experimental mice models of acute inflammation, i.e., xylene-induced ear edema, acetic acid-induced vascular permeability, and carrageenan-induced paw edema. The results showed that THC and OHC exerted significant and dose-dependent inhibitions on the formation of ear edema induced by xylene and paw edema provoked by carrageenan and inhibited the Evans blue dye leakage in peritoneal cavity elicited by acetic acid. Moreover, THC and OHC treatments were more effective than CUR in selectively inhibiting the expression of cyclooxygenase 2 (COX-2) and suppressing nuclear factor-κB (NF-κB) pathways via transforming growth factor β activated kinase-1 (TAK1) inactivation in the carrageenan-induced mouse paw edema model.

Analogous corticosteroids, 9A and EK100, derived from solid-state-cultured mycelium of Antrodia camphorata inhibit proinflammatory cytokine expression in macrophages

Antrodia camphorata mycelium is used in traditional Chinese medicine in Taiwan. The wild-type mycelium is rare and expensive, so a solid-state-cultured mycelium of A. camphorata (SCMAC) has been developed. Previous studies have found SCMAC to have anti-inflammatory effects. However, the immunomodulatory effects of SCMAC and of its active phytosterol compounds EK100 and 9A on asthma remain unknown. In this study, BALB/c mice were repeatedly exposed to Dermatogoides pteronyssinus (Der p) at 1-week intervals and were orally administered crude SCMAC extract before the Der p challenge. The mice were sacrificed 72 h after the last challenge to examine the airway remodeling, inflammation, and expression profiles of cytokines and various genes. Then, 30-µg/mL Der p-stimulated MH-S cells with 9A or EK100 were collected for real-time PCR analysis, and the effects of 9A and EK100 on macrophages were evaluated. The crude extract reduced Der p-induced airway hyperresponsiveness, total serum immunoglobulin E levels, and recruitment of inflammatory cells to the bronchoalveolar lavage fluid through cytokine downregulation and Th1/Th2/Th17 response modulation. Additionally, 9A and EK100 inhibited IL-1β and IL-6 expression in alveolar macrophages. These results indicate that the pharmacologically active compounds in a crude SCMAC extract exert synergistic effects on multiple targets to relieve asthma symptoms.

Antinociceptive and anticonvulsant effects of the monoterpene linalool oxide

CONTEXT

Linalool oxide (OXL) (a monoterpene) is found in the essential oils of certain aromatic plants, or it is derived from linalool. The motivation for this work is the lack of psychopharmacological studies on this substance.

OBJECTIVE

To evaluate OXL's acute toxicity, along with its anticonvulsant and antinociceptive activities in male Swiss mice.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

OXL (50, 100 and 150 mg/kg, i.p.) was investigated for acute toxicity and in the Rota-rod test. Antinociceptive activity was evaluated by the acetic acid-induced writhing test, and by formalin testing. Anticonvulsant effects were demonstrated by testing for pentylenetetrazol (PTZ)-induced seizures and by Maximum Electroshock headset (MES) test. OXL was administered to the animals intraperitoneally 30 min before for pharmacological tests.

RESULTS

OXL showed an LD₅₀ of ∼721 (681-765) mg/kg. In the Rota-rod test, it was observed that OXL caused no damage to the animal's motor coordination. OXL significantly reduced (p < .001) the number of writhings. OXL also significantly decreased (p < .05, p < .01 or p < .001) paw-licking time in the two phases of the formalin test. OXL significantly reduced (p < .01 or p < .001) the duration of tonic seizures in the MES test, and at the dose 150 mg/kg, significantly increased (p < .01) the latency to first seizure in the PTZ test.

CONCLUSION

The tested doses of OXL were safe, with no motor impairment, and show clear antinociceptive and anticonvulsant potential. Future investigations with this monoterpene may lead to the development of a new molecule with even higher potency and selectivity.

In vivo anti-inflammatory activity of aqueous extract of Teucrium polium against carrageenan-induced inflammation in experimental models

The aim of this study was to evaluate the anti-inflammatory activity of Teucrium polium (TP). Rats were divided into four groups: group 1 controls received standard diet; group 2 inflamed by carrageenan (Carr) (1% Carr); group 3 as reference inflamed with Carr and treated with Indometacine (Ind) (150 mg/kg bw) and group 4 inflamed with Carr and pre0treated with TP (5 g/L). Oedema volume was measured 1 h to 5 h after injection. Administration of TP or Ind decreased the levels of hematology parameters relative to Carr and reduced the volume of rats induced by Carr. TP reduced levels of CRP, fibrinogen compared to treated, a decrease in oxidative stress (LP) and AOPP with an increase in the levels of SOD, CAT, GPx and Vit C in skin and erythrocytes. Carr increased the levels of lipid peroxidation and decreased levels of antioxidant enzymatic and Vit C. Our results were confirmed by histological sections of skin.

Meroterpenoids from a Medicinal Fungus Antrodia cinnamomea

Antrodia cinnamomea, a medicinal fungus indigenous to Taiwan, has been shown to exhibit a broad spectrum of bioactivities for the treatments of alcoholic intoxication, diarrhea, abdominal pain, and fatigue, and a number of active principles have been identified. Among the bioactive entities, clinical trials of antroquinonol and 4-acetyl antroquinonol B are being carried out for curing cancer, hypercholesterolemia, and hyperlipidemia. The total synthesis of antroquinonol has been achieved; however, investigating the structure-activity relationship of this class of compounds remained difficult due to the lack of available analogues. Twenty antroquinonols isolated from A. cinnamomea IFS006 are reported herein. Their structures were elucidated using spectral analysis and by comparison with literature values. Of these, 11 antroquinonol analogues, namely, antroquinonols N-X (1-11), were previously unreported. The growth inhibitory activity of all the antroquinonol analogues was evaluated against human A549 and PC-3 cancer cell lines, and antroquinonol A exhibited the most potent activity, with GI₅₀ values of 5.7 ± 0.2 and 13.5 ± 0.2 μM, respectively. Antroquinonols V (9) and W (10) also showed growth inhibitory activity against A549 cells with GI₅₀ values of 8.2 ± 0.8 and 7.1 ± 2.1 μM, respectively, compared to 5-fluorouracil (GI₅₀ = 4.2 ± 0.2 μM).

Chemical composition, phytochemical constituents, antioxidant and anti-inflammatory activities of Urtica urens L. leaves

OBJECTIVE

The aim of this study was to investigate the chemical composition and antioxidant properties of Urtica urens L.(Uu) as well as its anti-inflammatory effect on carrageenan (CARR)-induced paw oedema in rats.

METHODS

The leaves were extracted using ethanol (EtOH) and water. The extracts were analysed for proximate composition and antioxidant activity using standard chemical analysis methods.

RESULTS

The proximate analysis showed that Uu leaves contained appreciable percentages of dry mass, ashes, carbohydrates, proteins, lipids, sugars, anthocyanin, carotenoid and fibre. Results showed that EtOH extract contained the highest amount of total phenolics, flavonoids, tannins, ortho-diphenols and flavonols. It decreased the paw oedema after CARR administration, and ameliorated the activities of catalase (CAT), superoxide dismutase (SOD), glutathione peroxidase (GPx), and the malondialdehyde (MDA).

CONCLUSIONS

Uu displayed a high potential as a natural source of minerals, phytochemicals and antioxidant properties. EtOH extract exhibited a significant inhibition against CARR-induced inflammation.

Chemicals Compositions, Antioxidant and Anti-Inflammatory Activity of Cynara scolymus Leaves Extracts, and Analysis of Major Bioactive Polyphenols by HPLC

Objective. Artichoke (Cynara scolymus L.) was one of the plant remedies for primary health care. The present study was focused on the determination of chemical composition, antioxidant activities, and anti-inflammatory activity and on analyzing its major bioactive polyphenols by HPLC. Methods. Artichoke Leaves Extracts (ALE) were analyzed for proximate analysis and phytochemical and antioxidant activity by several methods such as DDPH, ABTS, FRAP, and beta-carotene bleaching test. The carrageenan (Carr) model induced paw oedema in order to investigate the anti-inflammatory activity. Identification and quantification of bioactive polyphenols compounds were done by HPLC method. The oxidative stress parameters were determined; CAT, SOD, GSH, MDA, and AOPP activities and the histopathological examination were also performed. Results. It was noted that EtOH extract of ALE contained the highest phenolic, flavonoid, and tannin contents and the strongest antioxidants activities including DDPH (94.23%), ABTS (538.75 mmol), FRAP assay (542.62 umol), and β-carotene bleaching (70.74%) compared to the other extracts of ALE. Administration of EtOH extract at dose 400 mg/kg/bw exhibited a maximum inhibition of inflammation induced by Carr for 3 and 5 hours compared to reference group Indomethacin (Indo). Conclusion. ALE displayed high potential as natural source of minerals and phytochemicals compounds with antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties.

Effects of antrosterol from Antrodia camphorata submerged whole broth on lipid homeostasis, antioxidation, alcohol clearance, and anti-inflammation in livers of chronic-alcohol fed mice

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Antrodia camphorata is a functional fungus in Taiwan and owns several pharmacological functions. Antrosterol, a bioactive constitute of sterols in edible Antrodia camphorata submerged whole broth, can protect liver from CCl₄ damage via enhancing antioxidant and anti-inflammatory capacities.

AIM OF THE STUDY

The aim of this study was to investigate the hepatoprotection of antrosterol (named as EK100) against alcohol consumption.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

A Lieber-DeCarli regular EtOH diet (EtOH liquid diet, 5% (v/v) alcohol) was applied to induce alcoholic liver damage. Mice were randomly divided into 5 groups: (1) Control: control liquid diet; (2) EtOH: EtOH liquid diet; (3) EK100_1X: EtOH liquid diet and 1mg EK100 (Antrosterol)/Kg body weight (bw); (4) EK100_5X: EtOH liquid diet and 5mg EK100/Kg bw; (5) EK100_10X: EtOH liquid diet and 10mg EK100/Kg bw. At the end of experiment, the livers were collected for histo-pathological analyses, RNA and protein extraction, and enzymatic activities.

RESULTS

Antrosterol reduced serum/liver lipids of alcohol-diet fed mice which highly related to upregulated fatty acid β-oxidation and downregulated lipogenesis, and increased fecal lipid/bile-acid outputs. Antrosterol enhanced hepatic antioxidant capabilities in alcohol-diet fed mice while it also lowered serum alcohol level, as well as increased alcohol dehydrogenase (ADH) and catalase (CAT) activities and decreased CYP2E1 protein expression in livers of alcohol-diet fed mice. Besides, antrosterol lowered hepatic inflammation and fibrosis related gene expressions, as well as serum AST/ALT values and TNF-α/IL-1β contents in alcohol-diet fed mice.

CONCLUSION

Based on the results, hepatoprotection of antrosterol is mostly attributed to its regulations of lipid homeostasis, antioxidant capability, alcohol metabolism, and anti-inflammation.

N-(4-methoxyphenyl) caffeamide-induced melanogenesis inhibition mechanisms

Background

The derivative of caffeamide exhibits antioxidant and antityrosinase activity. The activity and mechanism of N-(4-methoxyphenyl) caffeamide (K36E) on melanogenesis was investigated.

Methods

B16F0 cells were treated with various concentrations of K36E; the melanin contents and related signal transduction were studied. Western blotting assay was applied to determine the protein expression, and spectrophotometry was performed to identify the tyrosinase activity and melanin content.

Results

Our results indicated that K36E reduced α-melanocyte-stimulating hormone (α-MSH)-induced melanin content and tyrosinase activity in B16F0 cells. In addition, K36E inhibited the expression of phospho-cyclic adenosine monophosphate (cAMP)-response element-binding protein, microphthalmia-associated transcription factor (MITF), tyrosinase, and tyrosinase-related protein-1 (TRP-1). K36E activated the phosphorylation of protein kinase B (AKT) and glycogen synthase kinase 3 beta (GSK3β), leading to the inhibition of MITF transcription activity. K36E attenuated α-MSH induced cAMP pathways, contributing to hypopigmentation.

Conclusions

K36E regulated melanin synthesis through reducing the expression of downstream proteins including p-CREB, p-AKT, p-GSK3β, tyrosinase, and TRP-1, and activated the transcription factor, MITF. K36E may have the potential to be developed as a skin whitening agent.

In Vivo Evaluation of the Anti-Inflammatory Effect of Pistacia lentiscus Fruit Oil and Its Effects on Oxidative Stress

In order to find new topical anti-inflammatory agents, we had recourse to a medicinal plant. This work was designed to determine the topical anti-inflammatory effect of Pistacia lentiscus fruit oil (PLFO), using carrageenan-induced paw edema rat model, and to evaluate its effects on oxidative stress. The topical anti-inflammatory activity of PLFO was compared to Inflocine® and estimated by measuring the diameter of paw edema, for 5 hours at a 1-hour interval. After that the rats were scarified and the inflamed paw tissue was removed for the exploration of some parameters of oxidative stress and histopathology. PLFO showed a significant anti-inflammatory activity in comparison with the Inflocine. The percentages of edema inhibition were 70% and % 51.5% (p < 0.01), respectively, after five hours. The treatment with PLFO and Inflocine led to significant increases (p ≤ 0.05) in the activities of CAT, SOD, and GPX and significant decreases in the MDA level and AOPP activity in the paw tissue after Carr injection, in comparison with the Carr group. Therefore, our findings demonstrate that PLFO might accelerate the development of new drugs which could be used scientifically as a source for natural health products in the treatment of topical inflammation.

Antiinflammatory and Antiphotodamaging Effects of Ergostatrien-3β-ol, Isolated from Antrodia camphorata, on Hairless Mouse Skin

Ergostatrien-3β-ol (EK100), isolated from the submerged whole broth of Antrodia camphorata, has antidiabetic, hyperlipidemic, and hepatoprotective activities. However, the antiphotodamage activity of EK100 has still not been revealed. Inflammation and collagen degradation contribute to skin photodamage and premature aging. In the present study, in vivo experiments were designed to investigate the antiinflammatory and antiphotodamaging activities of EK100 in hairless mice by physiological and histological analysis of the skin. Results indicated that topical application of EK100 (25 and 100 μM) for 10 weeks efficiently inhibited ultraviolet B (UVB)-induced wrinkle formation, erythema, and epidermal thickness in the mice skin. EK100 also restored UVB-induced collagen content reduction in hairless mice skin. In addition, the immunohistochemistry results indicated that EK100 significantly inhibited the UVB-induced expression of matrix metalloproteinase-1 (MMP-1), interleukin-6 (IL-6), inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS), and nuclear factor kappaB (NF-κB) in the mouse skin. The expression of these proteins was similar to the Normal group after 100 μM EK100 treatment. EK100 inhibited collagen degradation in the skin through MMP-1 inhibition and antiinflammation. EK100 significantly reduced the transepidermal water loss (TEWL), indicating that EK100 protected skin from UVB-induced damage. Our findings strongly suggest that EK100 has significant beneficial antiinflammatory and antiphotoaging activities and that EK100 can be developed as an antiphotodamaging agent.

A study of the mechanisms underlying the anti-inflammatory effect of ellagic acid in carrageenan-induced paw edema in rats

OBJECTIVES

Ellagic acid (EA) has shown antinociceptive and anti-inflammatory effects. Inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS), cyclooxygenase 2 (COX-2) enzymes and also cytokines play a key role in many inflammatory conditions. This study was aimed to investigate the mechanisms involved in the anti-inflammatory effect of EA.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Carrageenan-induced mouse paw edema model was used for induction of inflammation.

RESULTS

The results showed that intraplantar injection of carrageenan led to time-dependent development of peripheral inflammation, which resulted in a significant increase in the levels of tumor necrosis factor α (TNF-α) and interleukin 1 (IL-1) β, nitric oxide (NO) and prostaglandin E2 (PGE2) and also iNOS and COX-2 protein expression in inflamed paw. However, systemic administration of EA (1-30 mg/kg, intraperitoneal [i.p.]) could reduce edema in a dose-dependent fashion in inflamed rat paws with ED50 value 8.41 (5.26-14.76) mg/kg. It decreased the serum concentration of NO, PGE2, aspartate aminotransferase and alanine aminotransferase, and suppress the protein expression of iNOS, COX-2 enzymes, and attenuated the formation of PGE2, TNF-α and IL-1 β in inflamed paw tissue. We also demonstrated that EA significantly decreased the malondialdehyde (MDA) level in liver at 5 h after carrageenan injection. Moreover, histopathological studies indicated that EA significantly diminished migration of polymorphonuclear leukocytes into site of inflammation, as did indomethacin.

CONCLUSIONS

Collectively, the anti-inflammatory mechanisms of EA might be related to the decrease in the level of MDA, iNOS, and COX-2 in the edema paw via the suppression of pro-inflammatory cytokines (TNFα, IL1 β), NO and PGE2 overproduction.

4,7-Dimethoxy-5-methyl-1,3-benzodioxole from Antrodia camphorata inhibits LPS-induced inflammation via suppression of NF-κB and induction HO-1 in RAW264.7 cells

Several benzenoid compounds have been isolated from Antrodia camphorata are known to have excellent anti-inflammatory activity. In this study, we investigated the anti-inflammatory potential of 4,7-dimethoxy-5-methyl-1,3-benzodioxole (DMB), one of the major benzenoid compounds isolated from the mycelia of A. camphorata. DMB significantly decreased the LPS-induced production of pro-inflammatory molecules, such as nitric oxide (NO), interleukin-1β (IL-1β), and tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α) in RAW264.7 cells. In addition, DMB suppressed the protein levels of inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS) and cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2) in a dose dependent manner. Moreover, DMB significantly suppressed LPS-induced nuclear translocation of nuclear factor-κB (NF-κB), and this inhibition was found to be associated with decreases in the phosphorylation and degradation of its inhibitor, inhibitory κB-α (IκB-α). Moreover, we found that DMB markedly inhibited the protein expression level of Toll-like receptor 4 (TLR4). Furthermore, treatment with DMB significantly increased hemoxygenase-1 (HO-1) expression in RAW264.7 cells, which is further confirmed by hemin, a HO-1 enhancer, significantly attenuated the LPS-induced pro-inflammatory molecules and iNOS and TLR4 protein levels. Taken together, the present study suggests that DMB may have therapeutic potential for the treatment of inflammatory diseases.

Antidiabetic and Antihyperlipidemic Properties of a Triterpenoid Compound, Dehydroeburicoic Acid, from Antrodia camphorata in Vitro and in Streptozotocin-Induced Mice

The aim of this study was to examine the effects of dehydroeburicoic acid (TT) on type 1 diabetes mellitus and dyslipidemia in streptozotocin (STZ)-induced diabetic mice. STZ-induced diabetic mice were randomly divided into six groups and given orally by gavage TT (at three dosages), metformin (Metf), fenfibrate (Feno), or vehicle for 4 weeks. STZ-induced diabetic mice showed elevations in blood glucose levels (P < 0.001). TT treatment markedly decreased blood glucose levels by 42.6-46.5%. Moreover, STZ-induced diabetic mice displayed an increase in circulating triglyceride (TG) and total cholesterol (TC) levels (P < 0.001 and P < 0.01, respectively) but a decrease in blood insulin and adiponectin levels (P < 0.01 and P < 0.05, respectively). These substances are also reversed by TT treatment, indicating TT ameliorated diabetes and dyslipidemia. Membrane skeletal muscular expression levels of glucose transporter 4 (GLUT4) and expression levels of AMPK phosphorylation (phospho-AMPK) in both liver and skeletal muscle were reduced in STZ-induced diabetic mice, which normalized upon TT treatment and correction of hyperglycemia accompanied with a decrease in mRNA levels of phosphoenolpyruvate carboxykinase (PEPCK) and glucose-6-phosphatase (G6 Pase), which was related to the inhibition of hepatic glucose production and attenuating diabetic state. In addition, TT also showed hypolipidemic effect by increasing hepatic expression levels of peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor α (PPARα) and mRNA levels of carnitine palmitoyl transferase Ia (CPT-1a) but decreasing expression levels of fatty acid synthase (FAS), which further contributed to a decrease in circulating TG levels. TT-treated mice displayed decreased SREBP2 mRNA levels and reduced blood TC levels. These findings strongly support that TT prevents diabetic and dyslipidemic states in STZ-induced diabetic mice evidenced by regulation of GLUT4, PPARα, FAS, and phosphorylation of AMPK.

Ergostatrien-3β-ol from Antrodia camphorata inhibits diabetes and hyperlipidemia in high-fat-diet treated mice via regulation of hepatic related genes, glucose transporter 4, and AMP-activated protein kinase phosphorylation

This study was designed to explore the effects and mechanism of ergostatrien-3β-ol (EK100) from the submerged whole broth of Antrodia camphorata on diabetes and dyslipidemia in high fat diet (HFD)-fed mice for 12 weeks. The C57BL/6J mouse fed with a high fat diet (HFD) could induce insulin resistance and hyperlipidemia. After 8 week of induction, mice were receiving EK100 (at three dosages) or fenofibrate (Feno) or rosiglitazone (Rosi) or vehicle by oral gavage 4 weeks afterward. HFD-fed mice display increased blood glucose, glycated hemoglobin (HbA1c), total cholesterol (TC), triglyceride (TG), insulin, and leptin levels. These blood markers were significantly lower in EK100-treated mice, and finally ameliorated insulin resistance. EK100 treatment exhibited reduced hepatic ballooning degeneration and size of visceral adipocytes. Glucose transporter 4 (GLUT4) proteins and phosphorylation of Akt in skeletal muscle were significantly increased in EK100- and Rosi-treated mice. EK100, Feno, and Rosi treatment led to significant increases in phosphorylation of AMP-activated protein kinase (phospho-AMPK) protein in both skeletal muscle and liver. Moreover, EK100 caused a decrease in hepatic expressions of phosphenolpyruvate carboxykinase (PEPCK) and glucose-6-phosphatase (G6 Pase), and decreased glucose production. EK100 lowered blood TG level by inhibition of hepatic fatty acid synthesis by dampening sterol response element binding protein-1c (SREBP-1c) but increasing expression of peroxisome proliferator activated receptor α (PPARα). Moreover, EK100-treated mice reduced blood TC levels by decreased hepatic expressions of SREBP2, which plays a major role in the regulation of cholesterol synthesis. EK100 increased high-density lipoprotein cholesterol (HDL-C) concentrations by increasing expressions of apolipoprotein A-I (apo A-I) in liver tissue. Our findings manifest that EK100 may have therapeutic potential in treating type 2 diabetes associated with hyperlipidemia in HFD-fed mice by regulation of GLUT4, PEPCK, G6 Pase, SREBP1c, SREBP2, apo A-I, and AMPK phosphorylation.

Anti-inflammatory effects of Antrodia camphorata, a herbal medicine, in a mouse skin ischemia model

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL EVIDENCE

Antrodia camphorata, a highly valued polypore mushroom native only to Taiwan, has been traditionally used as a medicine for anti-inflammation.

AIM OF THE STUDY

In this study, anti-inflammatory effects of Antrodia camphorata (AC) and its active compound, ergostatrien-3β-ol (ST1), were investigated in a mouse skin ischemia model induced by skin flap surgery on the dorsal skin.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

A U-shaped flap was elevated on the dorsal skin of the nine-week-old male mice. Mice were randomly assigned to six groups for treatment (n=6) including normal skin/propylene glycol (PG), surgical skin flap/PG, solid-state-cultured AC (S/AC), wood-cultured AC (W/AC), high-dose ST1 (H-ST1), low-dose ST1 (L-ST1). Antrodia camphorata was dissolved in 25μL PG and smeared on the skin flap every six hours for 24h. At the end of the experiment, each mouse was anesthetized, and skin tissues were collected from their back for histopathological analysis, extracting RNA and protein according to our previous reports.

RESULTS

Skin-flap-induced ischemia damage significantly increased the expression of the iNOS, COX2, and IL-6 proteins and decreased the expression of IκB protein. In addition, focal, moderate coagulative necrosis with inflammatory cell infiltration was found in the epidermis, and moderate inflammatory cells and necrosis with slight edema was noted in the sub-dermis at 24h after skin flap surgery. However, treatment with solid-state-cultured or wood-cultured AC, or with its derived ST1 active compound, significantly reduced the necrosis and inflammatory cell infiltration in both the epidermis and sub-dermis of the skin flap. The treatments also reduced the inflammatory response by decreasing the expression of inflammation-related genes including iNOS, IL-6, TNF-α, and NF-κB, as shown by changes in RNA and protein expression, when compared with the surgical skin flap procedure alone.

CONCLUSIONS

These results demonstrated that methanolic extracts of wood-cultured fruiting bodies and solid-state-cultured mycelia from Antrodia camphorata have excellent anti-inflammatory activities and thus have great potential as an addition for hydrocolloid dressings.

Anti-Inflammatory Effects of Trilinolein from Panax notoginseng Through the Suppression of NF-κB and MAPK Expression and Proinflammatory Cytokine Expression

In this study, we have investigated the anti-inflammatory effects of trilinolein (TL) using a lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-stimulated mouse macrophage (RAW264.7) and carrageenan (Carr)-induced mouse paw edema model. When RAW264.7 macrophages were treated with different concentrations of TL together with LPS, a significant concentration-dependent inhibition of nitric oxide (NO), tumor necrosis factor (TNF-α), interleukin-1 (IL-1β), and IL-6 production was detected. Western blotting revealed that TL blocked the protein expression of inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS), cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2), nuclear factor-κB (NF-κB), IκBα, and mitogen-activated protein kinases (MAPKs). In the anti-inflammatory test, TL decreased the paw edema at the 5th h after λ-Carr administration in paw edema. We also demonstrated TL significantly attenuated the malondialdehyde (MDA) level in the edema paw at the 5th h after Carr injection. TL decreased the NO and TNF-α levels on the serum level at the 5th h after Carr injection. Western blotting revealed that TL decreased Carr-induced iNOS and COX-2 expressions at the 5th h in the edema paw. The anti-inflammatory mechanisms of TL might be related to the decrease in the level of iNOS, COX-2, IκBα, and MAPK pathway through the suppression of TNF-α, IL-1β, and IL-6.

New and Cytotoxic Components from Antrodia camphorata

The solid-state cultured products of Antrodia camphorata as health foods has been blooming for the past few decades in Taiwan. In continuing our studies on the chemical constituents of the solid-state cultured products of this fungus, 6-methoxy-4-methyl-2,3-(methylenedioxy)phenol (1) and 4,4'-(ethane-1,2-diyl)bis(2,3,6-trimethoxyphenol)(2) together with 2,3,6-trimethoxy-4-methylphenol (3), 1(10→6)abeo-ergosta-5,7,9,22-tetraen-3α-ol (4), citreoanthrasteroid B (5) and dankasterones A (6) and B (7) were purified by a series of column chromatography. Their structures were elucidated by spectral data analysis. For bioactivity assay, compounds 4–7 showed significant cytotoxicity toward murine colorectal CT26 and human leukemia K562 cancer cell lines with IC₅₀ values ranging from 6.7 to 15.3 µM and from 12.5 to 23.1 µM, respectively.

Genomic and transcriptomic analyses of the medicinal fungus Antrodia cinnamomea for its metabolite biosynthesis and sexual development

Antrodia cinnamomea, a polyporus mushroom of Taiwan, has long been used as a remedy for cancer, hypertension, and hangover, with an annual market of over $100 million (US) in Taiwan. We obtained a 32.15-Mb genome draft containing 9,254 genes. Genome ontology enrichment and pathway analyses shed light on sexual development and the biosynthesis of sesquiterpenoids, triterpenoids, ergostanes, antroquinonol, and antrocamphin. We identified genes differentially expressed between mycelium and fruiting body and 242 proteins in the mevalonate pathway, terpenoid pathways, cytochrome P450s, and polyketide synthases, which may contribute to the production of medicinal secondary metabolites. Genes of secondary metabolite biosynthetic pathways showed expression enrichment for tissue-specific compounds, including 14-α-demethylase (CYP51F1) in fruiting body for converting lanostane to ergostane triterpenoids, coenzymes Q (COQ) for antroquinonol biosynthesis in mycelium, and polyketide synthase for antrocamphin biosynthesis in fruiting body. Our data will be useful for developing a strategy to increase the production of useful metabolites.

Effect of Antrodia camphorata on inflammatory arterial thrombosis-mediated platelet activation: the pivotal role of protein kinase C

Antrodia camphorata is a rare Taiwanese medicinal mushroom. Antrodia camphorata extract has been reported to exhibit antioxidant, anti-inflammation, antimetastasis, and anticancer activities and plays a role in liver fibrosis, vasorelaxation, and immunomodulation. Critical vascular inflammation leads to vascular dysfunction and cardiovascular diseases, including abdominal aortic aneurysms, hypertension, and atherosclerosis. Platelet activation plays a crucial role in intravascular thrombosis, which is involved in a wide variety of cardiovascular diseases. However, the effect of Antrodia camphorata on platelet activation remains unclear. We examined the effects of Antrodia camphorata on platelet activation. In the present study, Antrodia camphorata treatment (56-224 μg/mL) inhibited platelet aggregation induced by collagen, but not U46619, an analogue of thromboxane A2, thrombin, and arachidonic acid. Antrodia camphorata inhibited collagen-induced calcium (Ca(2+)) mobilization and phosphorylation of protein kinase C (PKC) and Akt. In addition, Antrodia camphorata significantly reduced the aggregation and phosphorylation of PKC in phorbol-12, 13-dibutyrate (PDBu) activated platelets. In conclusion, Antrodia camphorata may inhibit platelet activation by inhibiting of Ca(2+) and PKC cascade and the Akt pathway. Our study suggests that Antrodia camphorata may be a potential therapeutic agent for preventing or treating thromboembolic disorders.

Ginsenoside-Rd exhibits anti-inflammatory activities through elevation of antioxidant enzyme activities and inhibition of JNK and ERK activation in vivo

Our previous study has reported that ginsenoside-Rd significantly inhibited the production of pro-inflammatory cytokines and mediators in carrageenan (Carr)-induced rat paw edema, which might be due to its blocking of the nuclear factor-κB (NF-κB) signaling pathway. The aim of the present study was to clarify the more detailed mechanisms of anti-inflammatory activity of ginsenoside-Rd in Carr-induced rat paw edema model. Rats were pretreated with dexamethasone or ginsenoside-Rd 1 h before the Carr injection. Six hours after Carr injection, the malondialdehyde (MDA) level and myeloperoxidase (MPO), superoxide dismutase (SOD), glutathione peroxidase (GPx) and catalase (CAT) activities in inflamed paw tissues were determined. The levels of nitric oxide (NO) and prostaglandin E2 (PGE2) in serum were measured. The expressions of inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS), cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2) and NF-κB were detected by western blot. In addition, the extent of phosphorylation of extracellular signal-regulated protein kinase (ERK), p38 and c-Jun NH2-terminal kinase (JNK) was analyzed by western blot. The results showed that ginsenoside-Rd significantly attenuated MPO activity and MDA level, increased the activities of SOD, GPx and CAT, lowered the levels of NO and PGE2, down-regulated the expressions of iNOS, COX-2 and NF-κB, and suppressed the phosphorylation of ERK and JNK. Taken together, the possible mechanisms of anti-inflammatory activity of ginsenoside-Rd were: it could reduce the inflammatory cell infiltration into inflammatory sites, inhibit the tissue lipid peroxidation, increase the antioxidant enzyme activities, and suppress the proinflammatory enzyme expressions through the downregulation of NF-κB activation via suppression of ERK and JNK phosphorylation.

Methanol extract of Antrodia camphorata protects against lipopolysaccharide-induced acute lung injury by suppressing NF-κB and MAPK pathways in mice

Antrodia camphorata (AC) has been used as a herbal medicine for drug intoxication for the treatment of inflammation syndromes and liver-related diseases in Taiwan. This study demonstrates the protective effect of the methanol extract of AC (MAC) on lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced acute lung injury (ALI) in mice. Mice were treated with MAC 1 h before the intratracheal (I.T.) instillation of LPS challenge model. Lung injury was evaluated 6 h after LPS induction. Pretreatment with MAC markedly improved LPS-induced histological alterations and edema in lung tissues. Moreover, MAC also inhibited the release of pro-inflammatory mediators such as nitric oxide (NO), tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNF-α), interleukin-1 beta (IL-1β), and IL-6 at 6 h in the bronchoalveolar lavage fluid (BALF) during LPS-induced lung injury. Furthermore, MAC reduced total cell number and protein concentrations in the BALF the pulmonary wet/dry weight (W/D) ratio, and myeloperoxidase activity and enhanced superoxide dismutase (SOD) activity in lung tissues. MAC also efficiently blocked protein expression of inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS), cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2), and phosphorylation of mitogen-activated protein kinases (MAPKs) and inhibited the degradation of nuclear factor-kappa B (NF-κB) and IκBα. This is the first investigation in which MAC inhibited acute lung edema effectively, which may provide a potential target for treating ALI. MAC may utilize the NF-κB and MAPKs pathways and the regulation of SOD activity to attenuate LPS-induced nonspecific pulmonary inflammation.

Bioassay guided isolation and identification of anti-inflammatory active compounds from the root of Ficus formosana

Activity-directed fractionation and purification processes were employed to identify the anti-inflammatory active compounds using lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-stimulated mouse macrophage (RAW264.7) in vitro. Air-dried roots of Ficus formosana were extracted with methanol and separated into n-hexane, chloroform, ethyl acetate, n-butanol, and water layers. Among them, the chloroform layer showed strong activity and was subjected to separation and purification by using various chromatographic techniques. Five compounds showing potent activity were identified by comparing spectral data to be β-sitosterol, stigmasterol, psoralen, kaempferol, carpachromene, and syringic aldehyde. When macrophages were treated with psoralen and kaempferol together with LPS, a concentration-dependent inhibition of nitric oxide (NO) and tumor necrosis factor (TNF-α) productions were detected. Western blotting revealed that kaempferol, psoralen, and carpachromene blocked protein expression of inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS) and cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2) in LPS-stimulated macrophages. The results confirmed that the traditional use of F. formosana could be a potential anti-inflammatory agent.

Establishment of the metabolite profile for an Antrodia cinnamomea health food product and investigation of its chemoprevention activity

Antrodia cinnamomea is an edible fungus endemic to Taiwan that has been attributed with health promotion benefits. An A. cinnamomea mycelium health food product, which was produced by solid-state culture, was selected as the target for investigation in this study. Fourteen representative metabolites of A. cinnamomea mycelium (EMAC) were selected as index compounds to establish the metabolite profile for evaluation of EMAC product quality. It was also demonstrated that EMAC administration significantly reduced liver inflammation and serum oxidative stress in vivo. 4-Acetylantroquinonol B obtained by a bioactivity-guided fractionation from EMAC was able to not only inhibit LPS-induced nitric oxide formation in macrophages but also protect against ethanol-induced oxidative stress in liver cells. The results suggest this A. cinnamomea product might be a potent antioxidative and anti-inflammatory supplement for chemoprevention.