Trajectories of depressive symptoms from adolescence to emerging adulthood: The influence of parents, peers, and siblings

The effects of childhood maltreatment and social support on the trajectories of depressive symptoms from adolescence to young adulthood

BACKGROUND

Depression is one of the most common mental health concerns among adolescents and young adults. Childhood maltreatment is a particularly potent risk factor for the subsequent development of depressive symptoms. Meanwhile, social support has been identified as a robust protective factor against depressive symptoms. However, limited research has investigated the effects of childhood maltreatment and social support on the trajectories of depressive symptoms from adolescence to young adulthood.

OBJECTIVE

The present study aimed to explore trajectories of depressive symptoms from adolescence to young adulthood as well as identify childhood maltreatment as a potential risk factor and social support as a protective factor to depressive symptoms over time.

METHODS

We conducted growth curve modeling using public-use data from Add Health. Main variables (childhood maltreatment, social support, depressive symptoms from Wave I to Wave IV) and control variables (e.g., gender, race, poverty) were included in the analysis.

RESULTS

Depressive symptoms demonstrated a quadratic pattern, with a decline from adolescence to emerging adulthood, and a slight increase in young adulthood. Childhood maltreatment was only significantly associated with the initial level of depressive symptoms but not the trajectories of depressive symptoms. Social support was not only associated with the initial level of depressive symptoms, but also the changes of depressive symptoms over time.

CONCLUSION

The present study provides an avenue towards untangling potential factors contributing to the heterogeneity of depressive symptoms. Identifying risk and protective factors with varying trajectories of depressive symptoms will potentially improve related treatments and interventions.

Application of the Actor-Partner Interdependence Model in Parent-Adolescent Mental Health Knowledge and Depression

AIM

To explore the individual and interpersonal association between mental health knowledge (MHK) and depression in adolescents and one of their parents, and to explore whether gender differences exist between fathers and mothers in these associations.

METHODS

Participants were 3456 father-adolescent dyads and 4478 mother-adolescent dyads, recruited from eight middle schools in Wuhan, who completed self-report assessments of MHK and depression from September to October 2021.

RESULTS

With the application of the actor-partner interdependence model, A positive actor effect between MHK and depression in adolescents was found. Adverse partner effects from fathers' MHK and mothers' MHK to adolescent depression were noted and showed no significant difference. Adolescents' depression was significantly associated with parental depression in both fathers and mothers.

CONCLUSION

It is implied that milder adolescent depression was associated with lower levels of adolescent MHK, along with higher levels of MHK in both fathers and mothers. For parents, it is important to emphasise the improvement of their own MHK and increase their attention to adolescent mental health problems, as this may contribute to enhancing the mental health of adolescents.

IMPLICATIONS FOR THE PROFESSION AND/OR PATIENT CARE

This study is instructive and related to family-based nursing interventions for mental health, emphasising the potential influence of parents in the family on adolescent depressive symptoms. The findings suggest that parental involvement should be encouraged and that the family's role in supporting the child's mental health should be recognised, contributing to the development of relevant policies.

IMPACT

This study highlights that higher parental MHK is associated with lower levels of adolescent depression, with no gender differences between fathers and mothers. Family-based nursing interventions that emphasise mental health education for parents may have an impact on improving depression in adolescents.

REPORTING METHOD

Guidelines were followed using the STROBE reporting method.

PATIENT OR PUBLIC CONTRIBUTION

None.

Perceived changes in peer relationships and behavioral health among college students during covid-19

Objective: Covid-19 has resulted in changes to college students' daily lives due to recommendations to socially distance. Social distance is likely to affect youths' peer relationships at a time when these relationships remain important for development. Participants and Methods: The current study utilized survey data to examine perceived changes in peer relationships and the association with behavioral health among 275 college students (Mage = 18.69, SD =.72) during the fall/spring of 2020-2021. Results: Quantitative results indicated that participants reported significant perceived decreases in peer support but did not report significantly worse quality of closest friendships. Qualitative responses from an open-ended survey question supported these quantitative results suggesting that although many participants perceived decreases in quality of relationships, there was also the perception that friendships became closer. Participants who perceived decreased peer relationship support and quality were more likely to report depressive symptoms and loneliness when compared to participants who perceived no changes.

Illuminating the landscape of sibling relationship quality: An evidence and gap map

This paper used an evidence and gap map (EGM) to advance the scientific understanding of sibling relationship quality among children aged 2 to 18 years by synthesizing literature on 277 empirical studies from 1985 to 2022 to delineate patterns of study design, sampling, and measurement. Most existing research has utilized majority of White, middle-to-upper class, and/or two-caregiver family samples. Nearly 85% (n = 235) of studies used quantitative methods to measure sibling relationship quality across eight domains: conflict, warmth/affection, quality, cohesion, hostility, power/control, positive engagement, and conflict management. A total of 122 studies used a measure of sibling relationship quality as a predictor of sibling behavior, social, psychological, cognitive, health, or physiological outcomes. Future directions for research are discussed.

Parent-child relationship, parenting behaviors, and adolescents' depressive symptoms after an earthquake: unraveling within-adolescent associations from between-adolescent differences

This study assessed temporal associations between parent-child relationship, parenting behaviors (i.e., warmth, rejection, and overprotection), and adolescents' depressive symptoms after trauma, using random-intercept cross-lagged panel models to distinguish between- and within-adolescent differences. We surveyed Chinese adolescents 12 (Aug 2018; T1), 21 (May 2019; T2), 27 (Nov 2019; T3) months after the Jiuzhaigou earthquake that occurred in August 2017. Of the 585 adolescents who participated in at least two waves of the study, mean age at T1 was 15.50 years old (SD = 1.58 years) and 57.8% were girls. Controlling adolescents' gender, age, ethnicity, trauma exposure at T1, and parents' marital status, between-adolescent results showed that parent-child relationship and parenting behaviors, parent-child relationship and depressive symptoms were correlated across models of parental warmth, rejection, and overprotection, whereas depressive symptoms were only correlated with parental rejection and overprotection. Within-adolescent results indicated that parent-child relationship and adolescents' depressive symptoms had bidirectional associations via the mediation of parental warmth from T1 to T3. Over the longer term following the earthquake, we found that parental rejection was bidirectionally associated with adolescents' depressive symptoms, whereas parental overprotection was unidirectionally influenced by adolescents' depressive symptoms from T2 to T3. In addition, more depressive symptoms in adolescents were associated with worsening parent-child relationship from T2 to T3. In conclusion, shortly after trauma, interventions should focus on improving parent-child relationship and relieving adolescents' depressive symptoms. Over the longer term after trauma, relieving adolescents' depressive symptoms should be prioritized to avoid its eroding effects on parent-child relationship and parenting behaviors, and to break the "vicious cycle".

A systematic review of the association between parent-child communication and adolescent mental health

Background

This systematic review addresses how adolescent-rated parent-child communication (PCC) quality is related to adolescent mental health.

Methods

We performed a systematic literature search in Medline and APA PsycInfo, including peer-reviewed quantitative studies examining associations between adolescent-rated dyadic PCC quality and general as well as specific measures of adolescent mental health. Qualitative and case studies were excluded, as were studies reporting only parent-rated communication quality or instruments assessing other constructs than dyadic PCC. We screened 5314 articles, of which 37 were included in the review. We assessed study quality with the Mixed Methods Appraisal Tool.

Results

We synthesized the findings in a table and narratively, reporting the main outcomes organized according to mental health constructs. The included studies were mainly cross-sectional. The results showed that adolescent-rated PCC quality is negatively associated with mental health constructs, demonstrating small to large effects across different mental health constructs and populations. The associations were found for general mental health and specific domains, including depression, anxiety, psychosis, suicidal ideation, post-traumatic stress symptoms, and addictive internet use/gaming.

Conclusions

The findings demonstrate that PCC is a relevant variable to consider in assessing adolescent mental health and preventive efforts. Limitations include the exclusive focus on adolescent-reported PCC questionnaires since parent- and observer-rated instruments may lead to different results. Also, PCC is related to other constructs, such as dyadic relationships, that were not included in this review. We conclude that PCC is a relevant variable to consider in mental health research. Our findings suggest that PCC may be considered in mental health practice, both in terms of assessing its quality and potentially by tailoring interventions to enhance PCC. These may represent a mean to promote adolescent mental health.

Trajectories of parental harshness and exposure to community violence differentially predict externalizing and internalizing mental health problems in legal system-involved youth

Youth with legal system involvement are especially likely to experience parental harshness (PH) and exposure to community violence (ETV), two common forms of life stress. However, most studies examine these stressors separately or collapse across them in ways that preclude examination of their co-occurrence. Consequently, it is unclear 1) how PH and ETV simultaneously fluctuate across development and 2) how these fluctuations predict future mental health problems in legal system-involved youth. We used group-based multi-trajectory modeling to estimate simultaneous trajectories of PH and ETV in 1027 legal system-involved youth and regression analyses to understand how trajectory membership predicted mental health problems three years later. Four trajectories of co-occurrence were identified (1: Low; 2: Moderate and Decreasing; 3: Moderate PH/High ETV; 4: High PH/Moderate ETV). Compared to the Low trajectory, all trajectories with PH/ETV elevations predicted violent crime and substance problems; trajectory 3 (Moderate PH/High ETV) predicted nonviolent crime and depression/anxiety symptoms; trajectory 4 (High PH/Moderate ETV) predicted depression diagnosis. These results elucidate how PH and ETV typically co-occur across adolescence for legal system-involved youth. They also reveal important commonalities and dissociations among types of mental health problems.

What challenges do siblings of children with chronic disorders express to their parents? A thematic analysis of 73 sibling-parent dialogues

PURPOSE

The study explored challenges experienced by siblings of children with chronic disorders, as expressed by siblings in parent-child dialogues.

DESIGN AND METHODS

Seventy-three parent-child dialogues (M duration = 28.6 min) were analyzed using qualitative thematic analysis. The dialogues took place within the SIBS group intervention for siblings and parents of children with chronic disorders. The siblings (aged 8 to 14 years) had brothers and sisters with autism spectrum disorders, ADHD, rare disorders, cerebral palsy, or severe mental health disorders. The data are from session 5 in the SIBS intervention, in which the siblings are to express their wishes about family-related challenges (e.g., desired changes) to their parents. The parents are encouraged to listen, explore, and validate the child's perspective before discussing solutions.

RESULTS

Most of the family-oriented challenges the siblings expressed were related to the diagnosis of the brother or sister with a disorder. Four main themes were identified: (1) Family life (e.g., limitations in family activities); (2) The diagnosis (e.g., concerns about the future); (3) Violence; and (4) Important relationships.

CONCLUSION

The siblings experienced challenges and difficult emotions in interactional processes in which the diagnosis affected family life and relationships. The study adds a new dimension to the field by identifying siblings' expressed challenges based on parent-child dialogues.

PRACTICE IMPLICATIONS

Identified themes can guide how parents should meet and address siblings' needs, how health care providers inform and support parents in doing so, and emphasize the relevance of interventions targeting family-level risk and resilience factors.

Growing up with a sibling with depression: A qualitative study in Israel

Depression has major consequences for the entire family, among them emotional distress, disrupted daily routine and social damage caused by negative stigmas. The aim of this study was to explore the retrospective experiences of young adults who lived with a sibling with depression while they were adolescents. The present study adopted a qualitative-phenomenological approach. The research participants were recruited via purposive sampling on social networks across Israel from May to September 2022. Semi-structured interviews were conducted with 21 participants aged 18-29 who lived with a sibling with depression during their adolescence. Data collection continued until saturation of concepts was reached. The results underwent thematic analysis. Three themes emerged from the qualitative analyses: 1) "I felt like I was living in a minefield": Adolescence while living with a sibling with depression; 2) "One step forward and two steps back": Siblings' coping strategies; 3) "My parents were not there for me when I needed them": Participants' experiences with their parents during their adolescence. The research findings indicate that adolescents who grew up with a sibling affected by depression had to cope with an acute family crisis, whose serious ramifications required emotional and social support. Mental health professionals and counselors working within educational institutions and the broader community should provide support and intervention for adolescents who have siblings struggling with depression. This intervention may take the form of individual or group therapy that aims to foster a sense of belonging and help affected individuals. Creating a supportive environment that meets the needs of the affected siblings is also crucial in addressing this issue effectively.

"I wanted to hide but also to be found": the high school experiences of young adults who grew up in the same home as a sibling with depression

BACKGROUND

Depression is a mental health condition that can have far-reaching consequences for the entire family, not just for the affected individual. Siblings are particularly vulnerable in that the unremitting stress and guilt at home can affect multiple aspects of their lives, including relationships, added responsibilities, and health. This pressure may affect siblings' own emotional well-being and academic success. Most studies in this field have examined the impact of depression on the affected adolescents or their parents, whereas few have examined the impact on siblings. Sibling studies have been limited by lack of sample homogeneity, especially in the context of coping in high school. This study sought to examine the retrospective experiences of young adults who lived in the same house as a sibling with depression while they were in high school.

METHODS

This qualitative study examined 21 young adults (aged 18-29) who grew up with a sibling with depression. In-depth, semi-structured interviews were conducted from May to September 2022. The interviews were recorded and transcribed and underwent thematic analysis.

RESULTS

Three main themes emerged from the interviews: (1) "School as a place of refuge": The perspective of participants who grew up with a sibling with depression regarding their high school experience. (2) "I wanted the adults at school to see me": Relations between research participants and the school educational staff. (3) "I was afraid people would relate to me as the sibling of a crazy person": Participants' relationships with their peers.

CONCLUSIONS

This study sheds light on the experiences of adolescents who grew up with a sibling with depression. The findings point to feelings of being invisible, self-nullification, avoiding sharing with others, and transparency. The participants were afraid that if their peers found out about their sibling they would also be stigmatized and alienated. The study shows that adolescents living with a sibling with depression need support at school.

Coping with Transitions: A Promising Intensive Outpatient DBT Program for Emerging Adults and Their Families

Emerging adulthood is a period of significant exploration, transformation, variability, and growth. Simultaneously, this developmental period presents unique challenges as emerging adults work to achieve developmental milestones including self-identity formation, the establishment of long-term intimate relationships, career advancement, and independence from parents. For those who are vulnerable, this period is also marked by the development of significant mental health problems and associated impairment, which prevents individuals from successfully reaching these developmental milestones. To address the various challenges unique to this developmental period, we created and implemented a multifaceted DBT treatment protocol to specifically address emotional dysregulation within emerging adults. The current study presents an evaluation of a novel, intensive, outpatient DBT program called System for Adult Growth and Emergence-Foundations (SAGE-F). We aim to first introduce the SAGE-F treatment protocol, and then to assess both its short and long-term therapeutic value. Participants enrolled in SAGE-F were administered a testing battery assessing symptom severity, functioning capacities, and coping strategies at intake, upon completion of the program 6-weeks later, and at 3-month follow-up. It was found participants who completed SAGE-F reported significant reductions in depression and anxiety symptoms, as well as non-suicidal self-injurious behaviors. Simultaneously, participants also reported improvements in their daily functioning and coping capacities. Follow-up assessments indicated therapeutic progress remained.

Perceived Support from Best Friends and Depressive Symptoms During Adolescence: Disentangling Personal from Dyadic Level Effects

Support from best friends is an important interpersonal factor in adolescent depression development but is often studied from an individual perspective in which dyadic effects are overlooked. This study aims to a) test whether differences in support vary at the individual level and are related to individual differences in the development of depressive symptoms, whether these differences vary at the dyadic level and are related to dyadic depression symptom development, or both, b) explore whether these associations are moderated by initial levels of depressive symptoms on the individual and/or dyadic level. Data from 452 adolescents (Mage = 13.03), nested in 226 same-gender friendship dyads (60.6% boy-dyads) who participated in the RADAR-Y project were included. Best friends self-reported annually (2006-2008; 3 waves) on their own depressive symptoms and perceived support from their friend. Multilevel models showed no direct association between support and depression development on the individual or dyadic level. However, the initial level of dyads' depressive symptoms moderated the association between dyadic support and dyads' subsequent depression symptom development. When dyads experienced relatively more initial depressive symptoms, higher levels of dyadic support were associated with relative increasing dyadic depressive symptoms. When dyads experienced relatively few initial depressive symptoms, higher levels of dyadic support were associated with relative decreasing dyadic depressive symptoms. Findings suggest that support from best friends can either protect against or exacerbate the development of depressive symptoms for friends, depending on the initial level of depressive symptoms of the dyad.

Family dynamics and adjustment across Latino/a students' transition to college: Disentangling within- and between-person reciprocal associations

Latino/a adolescents are increasingly represented in higher education. Whereas previous work suggests that positive aspects of the family can promote adjustment during the college transition, less is known regarding the longitudinal, reciprocal nature of these associations. The current study examined changes in parenting, family dynamics, and adjustment across the transition from high school to college among 207 Latino/a young adults (Mage = 18.10; 65.0% female identifying) in the Southwestern United States and investigated within- and between-person reciprocal relations using standard and random-intercept cross-lagged panel models. Participants self-reported on parental support, parental monitoring, family communication, depressive symptoms, and alcohol use during their senior year of high school (Time 1; spring/summer 2017), first semester of college (Time 2; fall 2017), and second semester of college (Time 3; spring/summer 2018). Parental support, family communication, depressive symptoms, and alcohol use increased across the initial transition from high school to college, whereas parental monitoring decreased across time. Reciprocal effects were largely between-person driven. Family communication in high school was concurrently and prospectively related to fewer depressive symptoms. Higher parental monitoring during the first semester of college was related to less alcohol use within and across semesters. In addition, students who experienced within-person increases in depressive symptoms during the first semester of college perceived less parental support than usual the next semester. Study findings point to the importance of developmental timing and further highlight the role that family plays during Latino/a students' transition to college. Implications for family-based prevention efforts are discussed. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2023 APA, all rights reserved).

A Systematic Review of Parent-Child Communication Measures: Instruments and Their Psychometric Properties

Parent-child communication represents an important variable in clinical child and family psychology due to its association with a variety of psychosocial outcomes. To give an overview of instruments designed to measure the quality of parent-child communication from the child's (8-21 years) perspective and to assess the psychometric quality of these instruments, we performed a systematic literature search in Medline and PsycInfo (last: February 25, 2022). Peer-reviewed journal articles published in English with a child-rated instrument measuring the quality of parent-child communication were included. Initial screening for eligibility and inclusion, subsequent data extraction, and quality assessment were conducted by couples of review team members. Based on the screening of 5115 articles, 106 studies reported in 126 papers were included. We identified 12 parent-child communication instruments across the studies. The Parent-Adolescent Communication Scale (PACS) was used in 75% of the studies. On average, the evidence for psychometric quality of the instruments was low. Few instruments were used in clinical and at-risk samples. Several instruments are available to rate parent-child communication from the child's perspective. However, their psychometric evidence is limited and the theoretical foundation is largely undocumented. This review has limitations with regard to selection criteria and language bias.Registration PROSPERO: CRD42021255264.

Sometimes Less is More: Switching Influence of Social Support on Posttraumatic Growth over Time after a Natural Disaster

Few studies have investigated the causal link between social support and posttraumatic growth. Using a four-wave longitudinal design, the present study examined the reciprocal relationship between posttraumatic growth and social support in family and school contexts. A total of 285 adolescents (61.3% female) were recruited to complete self-report questionnaires 12, 18, 24, and 30 months after the Wenchuan earthquake. The data were analyzed using a random intercept cross-lagged panel model. Results revealed a trend for total social support initially promoting posttraumatic growth, followed by no influence, and finally a hindering of growth. This pattern varied between different sources of support. Specifically, the influence of support from parents and peers was consistent with the pattern for total support, whereas that from teachers and others prevented posttraumatic growth during later stages. These results suggest that timing is an important issue in posttraumatic growth and that providing more support for a prolonged period following a traumatic event constrains adolescents' autonomy and thus inhibits posttraumatic growth.

A prospective investigation of the relation between dysfunctional family communication and suicidal ideation severity in a clinical adolescent sample: A serial mediation model

BACKGROUND

Extant research has documented a relation between the quality of family communication and adolescent suicidal ideation. However, few studies have examined this relation longitudinally or explored potential mechanisms of this effect. In the present study, unhealthy family communication was hypothesized to be associated with suicidal ideation severity over 18 months via a serial mediation pathway through emotion regulation difficulties and depressive symptom severity.

METHODS

The sample consisted of 147 adolescents (Mage = 14.91, SD = 1.51, range = 12-18 years; 76.2% female, 85.5% White) enrolled in a randomized clinical trial. Family communication quality was assessed at baseline using the Family Assessment Device. Emotion regulation difficulties and depressive symptoms were assessed using the Difficulties in Emotion Regulation Scale and Children's Depression Inventory-2, respectively, at baseline, 6-, and 12-months. Suicidal ideation was assessed using the Suicidal Ideation Questionnaire-JR at baseline and 18-months. Path analysis was used to analyze temporal relations between constructs.

RESULTS

After accounting for participant's age, sex, treatment condition, and baseline levels of variables of interest, analyses supported the indirect relation between baseline family communication and 18-month suicidal ideation severity through 6-month emotion regulation difficulties and 12-month depressive symptom severity.

LIMITATIONS

Data were exclusively collected via self-report, and the sample was racially homogenous.

CONCLUSIONS

Treatment aimed at improving family communication may help bolster emotion regulation abilities, lower depressive symptoms, and subsequently, suicide risk.

Investigating the feasibility and effectiveness of a modular treatment program for children and adolescents with depression and interpersonal problems: study protocol of a quasi-experimental pilot feasibility trial (CBASP@YoungAge)

BACKGROUND

Depression is a serious disorder in childhood and adolescence. Affected children and adolescents show significant impairments in various aspects of life. Studies on the effectiveness or efficacy of psychotherapy in depressed children and adolescents are qualitatively very heterogeneous and reveal small effect sizes. There is thus a need to better tailor psychotherapy approaches to these age groups to improve outcomes like parent-child relationship, symptomatology, or quality of life. To address this gap, we designed a modular, individualized treatment program for children and adolescents based on the Cognitive Behavioral Analysis System of Psychotherapy (CBASP) including caregiver involvement.

METHOD

This quasi-experimental pilot feasibility trial is a phase 1 to phase 2 study investigating the feasibility and effectiveness of CBASP@YoungAge by including an intervention group (CBASP@YoungAge) and a treatment-as-usual control group. The treatment of depressive symptoms as well as interpersonal problems with primary caregivers are the main targets of CBASP@YoungAge. Personalization is ensured concerning the treatment course, caregivers' involvement, and the patient's age. The primary outcome relates to two areas: the feasibility of the CBASP@YoungAge treatment program in an outpatient context and a change in patients' depressive symptomatology from before to after treatment. We conduct a brief process evaluation after each session in the intervention group to closely monitor the treatment process and examine feasibility from the therapists' and patients' perspectives and mechanisms of symptom change. In addition, we consider interpersonal behavior between children and caregivers, parenting behavior, and monitor the global-health-index in children and parents as secondary outcomes. Pre-, post-, and follow-up data are evaluated.

DISCUSSION

This is the first study of a modular-based intervention program for children and adolescents with depression and a clear focus on the interpersonal problems between the depressed young patient and her/his caregiver. It will provide important knowledge on the feasibility and effectiveness of the program and potential benefits of including caregivers in psychotherapy. Based on this study's results, we plan a multicenter, randomized, controlled trial whose long-term aim is to improve the psychotherapeutic care of young patients with depression while preventing persistent courses of depressive disorders.

TRIAL REGISTRATION

German Clinical Trials Register, DRKS (identifier DRKS00023281 ). Registered 17 November 2020-Retrospectively registered.

Network Analysis of Time Use and Depressive Symptoms Among Emerging Adults: Findings From the Guizhou Population Health Cohort Study

Background

To date, the relationship between diverse time use behaviors and depression status among emerging adults have not been disentangled in the literature. Therefore, if and how the time displacement mechanism activates depressive symptoms among emerging adults remains unclear.

Methods

To fill this gap in the literature, we employed a network analysis to make estimations. The emerging adult sample (N = 1,811) was collected by the Guizhou Population Health Cohort Study. Time use behaviors were measured by an adaption of the self-administered International Physical Activity Questionnaire, and depressive symptoms were assessed using the 9-item Patient Health Questionnaire (PHQ-9).

Results

The results revealed that the time displacement mechanism of emerging adults differed from that of adolescents. Sleep duration was not crowded out by other activities, while the time spent on computer use was found to be negatively related to time spent on heavy work activities. Moreover, computer use behavior triggered three depressive symptoms ("Anhedonia," "Guilt," and "Motor"), but inhibited "Suicide." The results of the directed acyclic graph revealed that females and heavy drinkers were at risk of depression.

Limitations

The study sample was confined to only one province, which may limit its generalizability. The cross-sectional design impeded the ability to draw causal inferences.

Conclusion

Our results enhance the current understanding of the internal mechanism of how time use behaviors influence depressive symptoms among emerging adults.

Gender differences in the relationships between parental phubbing and adolescents' depressive symptoms: The mediating role of parent-adolescent communication

Phubbing, as a common phenomenon in modern society's communication, describes the act of using one's phone in face-to-face interactions. In recent years, parental phubbing has attracted the attention of researchers, and it is imperative to explore the relationship between father phubbing (Fphubbing), mother phubbing (Mphubbing) and adolescent development. Therefore, this study investigated 4213 adolescents (mean age = 16.41, SD = 0.77, 52.5% were boys) and explored the relationship between Fphubbing and Mphubbing and adolescents' depressive symptoms. Our single-group path analysis showed that both Fphubbing and Mphubbing were positively associated with adolescents' depressive symptoms. These positive associations were mediated by father-adolescent communication and mother-adolescent communication. Furthermore, multiple-group path analysis revealed that, compared to male adolescents, the relationship between Fphubbing and father-adolescent communication, and the relationship between Mphubbing and mother-adolescent communication were stronger in female adolescents. These findings offer a more ecological and comprehensive understanding of how parental phubbing associates with parent-adolescent communication and adolescents' depressive symptoms.

Profiles and transition of mental health problems among Chinese adolescents: The predictive role of friendship quality, parental autonomy support, and psychological control

INTRODUCTION

Mental health problems have become a global crisis of the 21st century, with adolescence being a typical period of the outbreak of these problems. However, the profiles and transition of mental health problems in Chinese adolescents remain unclear. In addition, protective and risk factors that shape mental health problems require further clarification.

METHODS

We measured depression, anxiety, and stress as indicators to identify the profiles and transition patterns of mental health problems among Chinese adolescents, as well as environment-related predictors (i.e., friendship quality, parental psychological control, and autonomy support). A total of 722 participants (376 females; M_age  = 15.21, SD_age  = 0.74) completed a set of questionnaires at two time points with a 1-year interval (T1: November 2018; T2: November 2019).

RESULTS

The profile analysis revealed two groups: healthy and troubled. The development of mental health problems included four trajectories: steady low, steady high, increasing, and decreasing. Results indicated that parental autonomy support and friendship quality exerted protective and buffering effects, whereas parental psychological control acted as a risk factor for mental health problem profiles. Furthermore, friendship quality had a unique predictive effect on the decreasing trajectory.

CONCLUSIONS

The profiles of mental health problems showed high concurrency of depression, anxiety, and stress symptoms, and developmental trajectories were largely stable over time. Friendship quality, parental autonomy support, and psychological control predicted the profiles of the mental health problems of Chinese adolescents, and only friendship quality predicted the transition from a troubled to healthy profile over 1 year.

Testing a Developmental Model of Positive Parenting, Amygdala–Subgenual Anterior Cingulate Cortex Connectivity, and Depressive Symptoms in Adolescents Before and During the COVID-19 Pandemic

Background

Neurobiological measures may inform our understanding of individual differences in adolescents’ general risk for and resilience to depressive symptoms, including during the COVID-19 pandemic. We tested a developmental model linking variation in amygdala–subgenual anterior cingulate cortex (sgACC) resting-state connectivity to perceived parenting experiences earlier in adolescence, to concurrent depressive symptoms before the pandemic, and to subsequent depressive symptoms during the pandemic.

Methods

We used data from a longitudinal study that included three waves (N = 214 adolescents; ages 9–15 years at time 1 [T1], 11–17 years at T2, and 12–19 years during the pandemic at T3). We assessed positive parenting (warm and supportive) (T1), depressive symptoms (T1 to T3), and functional connectivity between the sgACC and basolateral (BLA) and centromedial amygdala (T1 and T2). We modeled associations among earlier positive parenting, amygdala–sgACC connectivity, and depressive symptoms before and during the pandemic.

Results

Less positive parenting at T1 was associated prospectively with stronger BLA–sgACC connectivity at T2 (β = −0.22) over and above the effect of BLA–sgACC connectivity at T1. Stronger BLA–sgACC connectivity, in turn, was associated with heightened depressive symptoms, both before the pandemic (r = 0.21) and during the pandemic (β = 0.19; independent of the effect of pre-pandemic symptoms).

Conclusions

Adolescents who experience less positive parenting may develop a pattern of BLA–sgACC connectivity that increases their risk for mental health problems. BLA–sgACC connectivity may be associated with depressive symptoms in general, including during periods of heightened risk for adolescents, such as the pandemic.

Research Review: Developmental origins of depression - a systematic review and meta-analysis

BACKGROUND

Many observational studies have found a direct association between adverse in utero, perinatal and postnatal exposures and offspring's depression. These findings are consistent with the 'developmental origins of disease hypothesis'. But no review has comprehensively summarized the roles of these exposures. This review aims to systematically scrutinize the strength of associations between individual prenatal, perinatal, and postnatal exposures and subsequent depression in offspring.

METHODS

We conducted a systematic review and meta-analysis to synthesize the literature from the EMBASE, HealthStar, PsychoInfo, and Medline databases since their inception to September 1, 2019. English language articles on population-based prospective cohort studies examining the associations between in utero, perinatal, and postnatal exposures and offspring's depression were searched. Random-effects models were used to calculate pooled estimates, and heterogeneity and sensitivity tests were conducted to explore potential confounders in the relationships of depression and early-life factors. Qualitative analysis was also conducted.

RESULTS

Sixty-four prospective cohort studies with 28 exposures studied in the relationships to offspring's depression met inclusion criteria. The meta-analysis found 12 prenatal, perinatal, and postnatal characteristics were associated with an increased risk of depression in offspring: low birth weight, premature birth, small gestational age, maternal education, socioeconomic status, having younger parents (<20 years), having older parents (≥35 years), maternal smoking, paternal smoking, maternal stress, maternal anxiety, and prenatal depression. Heterogeneity and sensitivity tests supported the findings. By and large, study characteristics had no effects on conclusions. Qualitative analyses generally supported the findings of meta-analysis and reported on additional risk factors.

CONCLUSIONS

This review provides a robust and comprehensive overview of the lasting psychopathological effects of in utero, perinatal, and postnatal exposures. The findings highlight the need for clinical and public health interventions focusing on the identified risk factors. Large prospective cohort studies are warranted to investigate the combined effects of multiple co-existing early-life exposures.

Self-Injury and Domestic Violence in Young Adults During the COVID-19 Pandemic: Trajectories, Precursors, and Correlates

We examined the longitudinal course of, and pre- and during-pandemic risk factors for, self-injury and domestic physical violence perpetration in young adults during the COVID-19 pandemic. Data came from a Swiss longitudinal study (N = 786, age ˜22 in 2020), with one prepandemic (2018) and four during-pandemic assessments (2020). The prevalence of self-injury did not change between April (during the first Swiss national lockdown) and September 2020 (postlockdown). Domestic violence perpetration increased temporarily in males. Prepandemic self-injury was a major risk factor for during-pandemic self-injury. Specific living arrangements, pandemic-related stressor accumulation, and a lack of adaptive coping strategies were associated with during-pandemic self-injury and domestic violence. Stressor accumulation had indirect effects on self-injury and domestic violence through negative emotions.

Dynamic Associations of Parent-Adolescent Closeness and Friend Support With Adolescent Depressive Symptoms Across Ages 12-19

Supportive relationships with parents and friends reduce adolescent risk for depression; however, whether and how the strength of these associations changes across adolescence remains less clear. Age-varying associations of mother-adolescent and father-adolescent closeness and friend support with depressive symptoms were examined across ages 12.5-19.5 using data from the National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent to Adult Health (N = 4,819). Positive relationships with mothers, fathers, and friends were associated with lower depressive symptoms across adolescence, and the associations were generally stable across age. The association between father-adolescent closeness and depressive symptoms was stronger for girls than for boys during mid-adolescence. Mother-adolescent closeness was more strongly negatively associated with depressive symptoms in the context of higher friend support during mid-adolescence.

Parent-Adolescent Communication and Early Adolescent Depressive Symptoms: The Roles of Gender and Adolescents' Age

Positive parent-adolescent communication has been found to be negatively related to adolescent depressive symptoms; however, few studies have investigated the moderating effects of adolescent gender and age on this relationship, especially during early adolescence in China. The present study investigated the joint moderating effects of adolescent gender and age on the linkage of father-adolescent and mother-adolescent communication with adolescents' depressive symptoms. A total of 11,455 Chinese junior high school students (M age = 14.15 years, SD = 1.22 years; 49.86% boys; N grade7 = 5712, N grade9 = 5743) completed ad hoc questionnaires of parent-adolescent communication and depressive symptoms. Multiple linear regression analyses were conducted. Results indicated that gender and age jointly moderated the association between parental communication and adolescent depressive symptoms. Specifically, for girls, the negative effects of both father-adolescent and mother-adolescent communication on depressive symptoms were stronger in 9th grade students than in 7th grade students, while for boys, the negative effects were not different between 7th grade students and 9th grade students. These findings suggest that in China, the protective effects of positive parent-adolescent communication on adolescents' depressive symptoms may be most salient among senior-grade girls in junior high school.

Maternal Depression History Moderates the Association Between Criticism (but not Praise) and Depressive Symptoms in Youth

Children of mothers with past depression are at increased risk for developing the disorder themselves; however, the specific factors that increase their risk are unclear. Aberrant reactivity to social experiences may be one characteristic that increases risk for depression in offspring. This study investigates whether mothers' depression history is associated with increased reactivity to criticism and decreased reactivity to praise in offspring by examining 72 youths (ages 8-15). Every evening for 21 days, youths reported their depressive symptoms and whether they were criticized and/or praised by their mothers, fathers, siblings, and friends, resulting in 1,382 data entries across participants. Mothers reported their own depression history and current depressive symptoms. Maternal depression history moderated offspring's response to criticism. Although all youths reacted to perceived criticism from family members with transient increases of depressive symptoms, only children of mothers with higher (vs. lower) levels of past depression exhibited cumulative, person-level associations between perceived criticism and their own depressive symptoms. Additionally, only children of depressed mothers exhibited increases in depressive symptoms on days in which they were criticized by friends. Perceived parental praise was associated with lower levels of depression in youths regardless of maternal depression. Youth depressive symptoms were more strongly related to their parents' (vs. siblings or friends) criticism and praise, highlighting parents' more central role in youth depression risk. Taken together, our results reveal that maternal depression history is associated with increased reactivity to perceived criticism across relational contexts potentially contributing to youths' risk for developing depression.

Rural Chinese youth during the transition into adulthood: Family dynamics and psychological adjustment

Rural youth in China experience numerous challenges during their transition into adulthood. Yet, research on this transition and its relevant influential factors is rare. Through the lens of family systems theory, this study examined the impacts of family dynamics (i.e., interparental and parent-adolescent interactions) in adolescence on the psychological adjustment of youth as they transition into adulthood. Participants were 1330 youth and their mothers in rural Gansu. In 2004, mothers completed questionnaires of interparental and parent-adolescent interactions when youth were adolescents (M_age  = 15.03, SD = 1.15). In 2009, youth completed questionnaires of depression and self-esteem when they were emerging adults (M_age  = 20.03, SD = 1.15). Results of structural equation modelling suggested that while interparental interactions in adolescence were not associated with the psychological adjustment of youth in emerging adulthood, positive parent-adolescent interactions in adolescence predicted better psychological adjustment of youth in emerging adulthood. Furthermore, mediation analysis showed that although interparental interactions did not directly affect the psychological adjustment of youth, they were positively associated with parent-adolescent interactions, which in turn contributed to the psychological adjustment of youth. The results reveal an enduring influence of family dynamics on psychological adjustment among rural Chinese youth during the transition into adulthood.

Police Interactions, Perceived Respect, and Longitudinal Changes in Depression in African Americans

Introduction: We examined police exchanges' and feelings of discrimination's impact on changes in adolescent depression symptoms. Relative to other races, police speak more disrespectfully to African Americans and often exert unnecessary force. We investigated the impact of these exchanges on depression.

Methods: Adolescent Health Study data were analyzed. Latent growth curve modeling with mediation illustrated relationships between police exchanges, perceived discrimination, and depression changes.

Results: African American adolescents had significantly higher levels of initial depression than other racial/ethnic identity groups. For African Americans, police exchanges predicted depression changes. Perceived respect predicted levels and changes of depression for both groups, but mediated the relationship between police exchanges and depression changes only in the “other” racial/ethnic identity group.

Discussion: Police stoppings impacted depression changes for African Americans independent of perceived respect. Findings highlight a potentially unique relationship between depression and police exchanges among African Americans. Future studies may investigate roles of individual differences.

The link between parental psychological control, depressive symptoms and epigenetic changes in the glucocorticoid receptor gene (NR3C1)

AIMS

This paper examines the relationship between parental Psychological Control (PC) and depressive symptoms in adolescents and assesses whether this relationship was mediated by DNA methylation, focusing on the glucocorticoid receptor gene (NR3C1), which plays a crucial role in HPA-axis functioning and is linked to environmental stress and depression. This is among the very few studies that looked at the relation between DNA methylation, environmental stress and depression in family trios.

METHODS

The study cohort consisted of 250 families: father, mother and a biologically related adolescent (adolescents (48.9% boys), mean age: 15.14, SD= 1.9; mean age mothers: 45.83, SD= 4.2; mean age fathers: 47.77, SD= 4.7). Depressive symptoms and PC were measured in adolescents and in both parents. DNA methylation levels in NR3C1 were examined in all participants.

RESULTS

Depressive symptoms in adolescents were predicted by PC of both mothers and fathers. Moreover, maternal depressive symptoms were associated with maternal PC, and fathers' depressive symptoms and PC. In fathers, only the level of their self-reported PC was associated with their depressive symptoms. There was no relation between adolescents' DNA methylation and depressive symptoms or the level of parental PC. Yet, there was a significant association between maternal depressive symptoms and maternal epigenetic patterns in NR3C1.

CONCLUSIONS

These findings highlight the need for more research in order to better understand the biological and contextual mechanisms through which parenting and parental emotional well-being is related to the development of psychopathology.

Longitudinal associations between mother-child conflict and child internalizing problems in mid-childhood

Several aspects of mother-child relationships are associated with children's internalizing problems. We examined longitudinal associations between mother-child conflict and children's internalizing problems in middle childhood. Specifically, we examined whether conflict and children's internalizing problems predict each other longitudinally in a sample of children from 3rd through 6th grade (N = 1,364) and their mothers using a cross-lagged panel model with random intercepts. In line with expectations, we found stable between-family differences in both mother-child conflict and children's internalizing problems. Contrary to expectations, we did not find that mother-child conflict and children's internalizing problems showed significant cross-lagged associations. However, mother-child conflict and children's internalizing problems had correlated errors at each wave, indicating that these two constructs covary with each other concurrently at multiple times across development, independent of stable between-family associations (i.e., as one increases, so does the other, and vice versa). The results of this study point to the importance of using statistical approaches that can disentangle between-family differences from within-family processes. In future studies, shorter time scales (e.g., weeks or months) may better capture dynamic associations between parent-child conflict and internalizing problems.

Loneliness, Social Anxiety Symptoms, and Depressive Symptoms in Adolescence: Longitudinal Distinctiveness and Correlated Change

Loneliness, social anxiety symptoms, and depressive symptoms are internalizing problems that are highly intertwined and often co-occur during adolescence. This overlap and co-occurrence raises the question whether three different labels are used for the same underlying phenomenon. The present study adopts a comprehensive approach to this issue by investigating the development of the three phenomena simultaneously. Specifically, this study aimed to investigate (1) the developmental trend for all three internalizing problems separately, (2) whether they are best described by a single developmental trend, (3) how they co-develop across adolescence, and (4) gender differences in this co-development. The analyses were run in three three-wave longitudinal samples of adolescents with one-year intervals in order to verify the robustness of the findings. Sample 1 (roughly ages 15, 16, and 17) comprised 549 adolescents (63% girls), and Samples 2 and 3 (roughly ages 13, 14, and 15) comprised 811 adolescents (46% girls) and 1101 adolescents (52% girls), respectively. Latent growth curve modeling for the three phenomena separately showed either small increases or stable patterns. A comparison of a Multiple Indicator Latent Growth Model (MILGM) with a Parallel Process Latent Growth Curve Modeling (PPLGCM) showed that the three internalizing problems followed unique, but related, developmental trends across adolescence. The intercepts of the three phenomena were positively correlated with one another in all samples and increases in loneliness were associated consistently with increases in social anxiety symptoms. Only in Sample 3 evidence was found for a similar association between loneliness and depressive symptoms and between social anxiety symptoms and depressive symptoms. Except for differences in initial levels, gender differences in the development of the three problems were limited. Overall, the results of the present study clearly indicate that the three internalizing problems are longitudinally distinct from one another, but co-develop across adolescence.

Examining the Role of Anxiety and Depression in Dietary Choices among College Students

This study examines the role of anxiety and depression symptoms in predicting dietary choices in emerging adults while accounting for sex differences in these relationships. Participants were 225 English speaking undergraduates enrolled in a university in southeastern United States. Participants were recruited through an online research recruitment application utilized by the university. Participants volunteered for a two-phased anonymous survey monitoring the effects of eating habits and gastrointestinal health in young adults. As part of this effort, participants completed self-reporting measures related to anxiety and depression, as well as an automated, self-administered 24-h diet recall. Multigroup path analysis was used to test primary hypotheses. Overall, a decrease in total caloric intake and an increase in sugar consumption were found as self-reported symptoms of anxiety and depression increased. In addition, there were sex differences in the relationship between depression and food choices. Men consumed more saturated fat as well as less fruits and vegetables as self-reported symptoms of depression increased. Results suggest symptoms of depression are a greater risk factor for poor nutrition in male college students than females. The findings provide another justification to screen for psychological distress in student health services given the implications on behavioral lifestyle and health.

Aggressive-Depressive Trajectories in Childhood and Their Associations with Drinking Behaviors and Problems in Adolescence and Emerging Adulthood

Research indicates that externalizing and internalizing pathways emanated in childhood are connected to later drinking behaviors; however, no study has investigated the contemporaneous effects of the two pathways using a person-centered approach that categorizes individuals based on their various developmental patterns. This study examined the distinct patterns of concurrent development of aggression and depressive symptoms in childhood and their associations with later drinking behaviors using data from a 15-year Taiwanese cohort since age 8 (N = 2854, 49% females). Group-based multi-trajectory modeling identified four aggressive-depressive trajectory groups: Moderate, Aggressive, Depressive, and Comorbid, which manifested a sequential risk gradient in alcohol use. Comorbid group, characterized by persistently high levels of aggression and depressive symptoms, has the highest levels of alcohol use and drinking problems and the earliest onset of drinking. Aggressive and Depressive groups have higher levels of alcohol use and earlier onset of drinking than Moderate group. These findings imply the importance of monitoring aggression and depressive symptoms simultaneously and continually in childhood to prevent later drinking.

Psychosocial risk factors associated with depressive symptoms among adolescents in secondary schools in mainland china: A systematic review and meta-analysis

BACKGROUND

The objective of the study is to systematically estimate the effect size of psychosocial risk factors for depressive symptoms among adolescents in secondary schools in mainland China.

METHOD

A literature search was conducted in both English and Chinese databases. This meta-analysis used a random-effects model to estimate the effect size.

RESULTS

Fifteen psychosocial risk factors were identified in a total of 164 articles. The results revealed the absolute value of effect size ranging from 0.16 to 0.43. Among them, poor parent-child communication (r = 0.43), negative life events (r = 0.40), academic pressure (r = 0.40), abuse (r = 0.33), poor family functioning (r = 0.33), bullying (r = 0.32), and poor family cohesion (r = 0.32) were associated with depression with a medium to large effect. Moderator analysis shows that grade, study quality, mean age, and gender were significant moderators of at least one factor for depression.

LIMITATIONS

Limitations included the heterogeneity which is largely unexplained, and the inability to investigate the interactions of different factors and to determine the direction of causal relationships between psychosocial factors and depression in the present meta-analysis.

CONCLUSIONS

This study suggests that family-related factors and school-related factors may be significantly associated with depressive symptoms in Chinese secondary school students. Further research is needed to develop effective strategies to modify these factors in depression prevention programmes.

Prevalence and associated factors of depression among Korean adolescents

This study aimed to identify factors significantly associated with recent depressive mood with respect to health-related behavioral patterns at the individual level, perceived safety in the school environment, and willingness to share concerns with family and social networks. Self-reported responses to questions regarding recent feelings of depression, health-related behaviors in physical, psychological, and spiritual subdomains, school refusal and perceived safety at school, and perceived social support were obtained from 1,991 in-school adolescents (mean [SD] age = 15.3 [1.7] years; male/female = 936/1055). Multivariate logistic regression analyses were used to identify explanatory factors significantly associated with recent depression, defined as feelings of sadness or hopelessness for more than 2 weeks (during the last 12 months) that interfered with everyday functioning. Of the 1,991 students, 271 (13.6%) reported recent depression. Multivariate logistic regression analyses revealed higher odds of recent depression in adolescents with frequent thoughts of school refusal (odds ratio [95% confidence interval] = 3.25 [2.44-4.32]) and those who engaged in regular physical exercise (1.57 [1.19-2.07]), whereas a positive mindset (0.65 [0.49-0.86]), perceived safety at school (0.62 [0.47-0.82]), and perceived social support from one's mother (0.54 [0.40-0.72]) were associated with lower odds of recent depression. Taken together, our findings suggest that parents and teachers should talk regularly with adolescents about recent life (dis)satisfaction and stressors, particularly when they report frequent thoughts of school refusal. Perceived social support would increase perceived safety on school grounds and make it easier for teenagers to share their concerns with parents, thereby reducing the risk for depressive symptoms. School-based programs that promote a positive mindset would be helpful in preparing students for the challenges of adulthood.

The Mediating Role of Family and Food-Related Life Satisfaction in the Relationships between Family Support, Parent Work-Life Balance and Adolescent Life Satisfaction in Dual-Earner Families

This study explored the associations between family support and satisfaction with life, food-related life and family life. It also assessed the associations between both parents' work-life balance and satisfaction with life, food-related life and family life among adolescent children from dual-earner families. Questionnaires were administered to 303 dual-earner families with one child between 10 and 17 years in Temuco, Chile. Adolescents answered the Satisfaction with Life Scale (SWLS), Satisfaction with Food-related Life scale (SWFoL), Satisfaction with Family Life scale (SWFaL) and the Family subscale of the Multidimensional Scale of Perceived Social Support. Both parents answered the Work-life Balance (WLB) scale. Using structural equation modelling and having controlled for adolescents' gender, age and socioeconomic status, we confirmed that adolescent life satisfaction is associated with satisfaction with family life and food-related life. Food-related life satisfaction and family life satisfaction had complete mediating roles between perceived family support and adolescents' life satisfaction. Satisfaction with food-related life also had a complete mediating role between both parents' WLB and adolescents' life satisfaction. Satisfaction with family life had a complete mediating role between mothers' WLB and adolescents' life satisfaction. In addition, mothers' WLB was positively associated with perceived family support among adolescents. These findings suggest the need to improve family support and work-life balance among mothers in order to enhance adolescents' satisfaction with different domains of life in dual-earner families.