Socioeconomic status and the brain: mechanistic insights from human and animal research

Executive function and underlying brain network distinctions for callous-unemotional traits and conduct problems in adolescents

The complexity of executive function (EF) impairments in youth antisocial phenotypes of callous-unemotional (CU) traits and conduct problems (CP) challenge identifying phenotypic specific EF deficits. We can redress these challenges by (1) accounting for EF measurement error and (2) testing distinct functional brain properties accounting for differences in EF. Thus, we employed a latent modeling approach for EFs (inhibition, shifting, fluency, common EF) and extracted connection density from matching contemporary EF brain models with a sample of 112 adolescents (ages 13-17, 42 % female). Path analysis indicated CU traits associated with lower inhibition. Inhibition network density positively associated with inhibition, but this association was strengthened by CU and attenuated by CP. Common EF associated with three-way interactions between density*CP by CU for the inhibition and shifting networks. This suggests those higher in CU require their brain to work harder for lower inhibition, whereas those higher in CP have difficulty engaging inhibitory brain responses. Additionally, those with CP interacting with CU show distinct brain patterns for a more general EF capacity. Importantly, modeling cross-network connection density in contemporary EF models to test EF involvement in core impairments in CU and CP may accelerate our understanding of EF in these phenotypes.

Developmental lead exposure and aggression in male rats: Influences of maternal care and environmental enrichment

Developmental lead (Pb) exposure results in a variety of cognitive deficits and behavioral issues including increased antisocial behavior and aggression. This study investigated the effect of developmental Pb exposure on aggression and violent behavior in male rats and the potential modulatory influences of quality of maternal care and enriched/non-enriched housing conditions. Long-Evans male rats with or without Pb exposure (perinatal or early postnatal) from low or high maternal care mothers (based on amounts of licking/grooming and arched-back nursing) were randomly assigned to live in enriched or non-enriched environments at weaning. At postnatal day 120-190, offensive aggression was assessed using a resident intruder test. Clinch attack (CAK) frequency and latency, and occurrence of biting events were observed to determine violent behavior. Both perinatal and postnatal Pb-exposed rats were significantly more aggressive and showed more violent behavior, compared to non-Pb-exposed animals, regardless of level of maternal care and environmental enrichment. High maternal care significantly lowered the proportion of animals with short CAK latencies and enriched housing significantly lowered the occurrence of biting events. These results suggest that high maternal care and enriched housing may potentially modify expression of violent aggressive behavior in rats with early life Pb exposure.

The evolving neurobiology of early-life stress

Because early-life stress is common and constitutes a strong risk factor for cognitive and mental health disorders, it has been the focus of a multitude of studies in humans and experimental models. Yet, we have an incomplete understanding of what is perceived as stressful by the developing brain, what aspects of stress influence brain maturation, what developmental ages are particularly vulnerable to stress, which molecules mediate the effects of stress on brain operations, and how transient stressful experiences can lead to enduring emotional and cognitive dysfunctions. Here, we discuss these themes, highlight the challenges and progress in resolving them, and propose new concepts and avenues for future research.

Abnormal alterations in neurodevelopment in preterm children with very low birth weight during the adolescence

BACKGROUND

Preterm infants with very low birth weight are at high risk for long-term neurocognitive deficits. However, whether these neurocognitive deficits are improved or worsened in adolescence remains unclear.

METHODS

We took advantage of the large sample from the Adolescent Brain Cognitive Development dataset to investigate alterations in brain structure, behavior, including cognitive function and mental health symptoms, and in puberty among preterm children with very low/normal birth weight (Pre_VLBW/Pre_NBW) and full-term children with normal birth weight (Con_NBW) from baseline to 2-year follow-up.

RESULTS

Pre_VLBW children relative to the other two groups had higher cortical thickness, lower cortical area and cortical/subcortical volumes in large portions of frontal cortex, temporal and occipital gyrus, insula, thalamus, and cerebellum; and attenuated fiber tract volumes in the fornix and foreceps major at baseline. Pre_VLBW children for their baseline measures also had lower cognitive function, higher pubertal levels and psychopathological risk. Furthermore, there were significant interaction effects on increased adrenarche score and cortical and subcortical volumes in medial orbitofrontal cortex (mOFC) and thalamus from baseline to 2-year follow-up. Pre_VLBW individuals showed higher adrenarche scores and lower volumes in the mOFC and thalamus than the other two groups at 2-year follow-up, but not at baseline. These brain structural changes showed associations with pubertal development levels, psychopathological risk and cognitive deficits.

CONCLUSION

These findings support a view that preterm children with VLBW showed distinctive developmental alterations during adolescence, which potentially lead to long-lasting deviations in various brain regions and might be associated with behavioral problems and neurocognitive deficits.

Childhood Trauma and APOEε4 are Associated with Adolescent Brain Function, Posttraumatic Stress, and Alcohol-related Outcomes

Childhood trauma affects neurodevelopment and lifelong risk for posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) and alcohol use disorder (AUD). Changes in brain structures and function are observed in young carriers of APOEε4, the genetic factor most associated with Alzheimer's disease. Longitudinal studies of APOEε4, childhood trauma, and neural connectivity in adolescence have not been explored. We studied 837 trauma-exposed participants (53% female) from the Collaborative Study on the Genetics of Alcoholism prospective sample, using latent growth curve models to assess associations of childhood trauma and APOEε4 on repeated measures of frontal alpha EEG coherence (EEGc) throughout adolescence and young adulthood. Young adult AUD and PTSD symptoms were also examined. Results indicate childhood trauma and APOEε4 are linked to neural connectivity, with effects differing by sex and trauma type. In females, sexual trauma was associated with a higher EEGc baseline but less growth, while APOEε4 associated with lower right frontocentral (RFC) EEGc baseline and higher slope. In males, physical assault was associated with lower left frontocentral (LFC) EEGc baseline but increased growth, and non-assaultive trauma was linked to a lower RFC baseline and no association with growth. APOEε4 was associated with lower LFC baseline and higher slope in males. Links between EEGc and AUD and PTSD were observed in both sexes, though effects differed in direction and strength. No significant trauma-by-APOEε4 interactions emerged, nor direct links between APOEε4 and PTSD or AUD. Findings highlight how EEGc may help explain connections between genetics, trauma, and psychopathology, guiding at-risk group identification and informing prevention strategies.

The First Digital Strategy-Based Method for Training of Executive Functions: Impact on Cognition and Behavioral and Emotional Regulation, and Academic Success in Children With and Without Psychosocial Risk

STap2Go is the first purely digital strategy-based method for the training of executive functions, making its evaluation relevant. This study assesses the effectiveness of this intervention in children with (at risk) and without (no-risk) psychosocial risk, which refers to socio-educational vulnerability, and examines whether its impact differs between groups. A total of 124 children (9-12 years old) were randomly assigned to either an experimental or an active control group. Individual assessments and family questionnaires were administered (FDT, WISC-V, RIST, BRIEF-2). Both groups received a 12-week intervention. The experimental group showed significant improvements in executive functions, processing speed, IQ, academic performance, and emotional and behavioral regulation compared to the controls. Notably, IQ, metacognition, and working memory continued improving at follow-up, suggesting lasting effects. While both groups benefited, the effects were more pronounced in at-risk children, particularly in BRIEF-2 (Inhibition, Metacognition, Behavioral Regulation) and academic performance in mathematics and language. Moreover, the psychosocial risk control group showed a trend toward deterioration over time. The far transfer achieved thanks to digital strategy-based training seems to have a greater effect on at-risk children, and can be used to compensate for their difficulties.

A sensitive period for the development of episodic-like memory in mice

Episodic-like memory is a later-developing cognitive function supported by the hippocampus. In mice, the formation of extracellular perineuronal nets in subfield cornu ammonis (CA) 1 of the dorsal hippocampus controls the emergence of episodic-like memory during the fourth post-natal week. Whether the timing of episodic-like memory onset is hard-wired, or flexibly set by early-life experiences during a critical or sensitive period for hippocampal maturation, is unknown. Here, we show that the trajectories for episodic-like memory development vary for mice given different sets of experiences spanning the second and third post-natal weeks. Specifically, episodic-like memory precision developed later in mice that experienced early-life adversity, while it developed earlier in mice that experienced early-life enrichment. Moreover, we demonstrate that early-life experiences set the timing of episodic-like memory development by modulating the pace of perineuronal net formation in dorsal CA1, which is dependent on the brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF)-tropomysin receptor kinase B (TrkB) signaling pathway. These results indicate that the hippocampus undergoes a sensitive period during which early-life experiences determine the timing for episodic-like memory development.

Socioeconomic determinants of cognition among older adults in the Brazilian longitudinal study of aging (ELSI-Brazil): a life-course approach

BACKGROUND

The prevalence of cognitive impairment no dementia (CIND) and dementia appears to be higher in low- and middle-income countries (LMICs) compared to high-income economies. Yet few nationally representative studies from Latin American LMICs have investigated life-course socioeconomic factors associated with the susceptibility to these two cognitive conditions. Hence, the present study aimed to examine the associations of early- (education and food insecurity), mid- (employment stability), and late-life (personal income and household per capita income) socioeconomic determinants of CIND and dementia among older adults from Brazil, while simultaneously exploring whether sex plays an effect-modifier role on these associations.

METHODS

This population-based study comprised a nationally representative sample of older adults (N = 5,249) aged 60 years and over from the Brazilian Longitudinal Study of Aging (ELSI-Brazil). We fitted multinomial regressions and estimated odds ratios with the respective 95% confidence intervals (CIs).

RESULTS

In multivariate analyses, participants with more years of early-life education (0.89, 95% CI [0.81, 0.97]) and mid-life employment stability (0.97, 95% CI [0.96, 0.99]) and higher late-life household per capita income (0.70, 95% CI [0.51, 0.95) were less likely to have dementia. Regarding CIND, more years of mid-life employment stability (0.97, 95% CI [0.96, 0.98]) was the only determinant to confer protection. Notably, secondary sex-based analyses showed the higher the early-life educational attainment, the lower the odds of dementia in women (0.81, 95% CI [0.75, 0.87]) but not in men (1.00, 95% CI [0.86, 1.16]).

CONCLUSIONS

These findings may have implications for population health and health policy by advancing our understanding of socioeconomic determinants of CIND and dementia, especially in Latin America.

Family socioeconomic status and home nurture environment in early childhood development: A mediation analysis in children under three in rural China

OBJECTIVES

Previous research has highlighted the impact of household socio-economic status (SES) and caregiving quality on child development. However, studies examining the dual effects of SES and parenting quality on early childhood development (ECD) outcomes in rural Chinese populations are limited. This study explores the mediating role of the home nurture environment in the relationship between SES and ECD outcomes in rural areas.

STUDY DESIGN

ECD data were collected from 529 children aged 12-36 months in rural villages of Hubei province, China. The study investigates how the home nurture environment (HNE) mediates the relationship between SES and ECD.

METHODS

The Child Home Nurture Environment Scales (CHNES), the Chinese version of Ages & Stages Questionnaires, Third Edition (ASQ-C), and some socioeconomic indicators were used to assess HNE, ECD outcomes, and SES, respectively. Mediation models were applied to analyze the mediating effect.

RESULTS

The HNE accounted for 19.4 % of the total effect of SES on overall developmental delay. Specific subscales of the CHNES revealed that HNE explained 24.3 % of the effect on Social Adaptation/Self-Care, 13.9 % on Language/Cognition, and 11.1 % on Parental Warmth. Furthermore, HNE mediated the relationship between SES and the number of delayed developmental domains. In subgroup analyses, the mediating effect of HNE was stronger in girls, particularly within the Social Adaptation/Self-Care subscale, where it mediated 36.3 % of the total effect.

CONCLUSIONS

The development of children aged under three from low-SES households may be improved through fostering independent skills and encouraging daily exploration of their surroundings, particularly for girls.

School-based yoga and mindfulness interventions for young adolescents: A qualitative study in a disadvantaged area

OBJECTIVES

With raising rates of mental health problems, mind-body interventions are increasingly being integrated in schools to support children and adolescents' mental health and well-being. The aim of this study was to explore young adolescents' experiences of yoga and mindfulness and the acceptability of delivery within the school curriculum in an area of high deprivation.

DESIGN

Qualitative group interviews with young adolescents embedded within a larger feasibility study exploring the universal (class-wide) delivery of yoga and mindfulness interventions.

METHODS

After participation in separate 10-week yoga or mindfulness interventions, 45 adolescents (12-13 years old; 66.7% male) took part in semi-structured group interviews exploring perceptions, acceptability, and experiences of each intervention. Data was analysed using inductive thematic analysis.

RESULTS

Two overarching themes were identified, evident across both mindfulness and yoga groups. "Facilitators and barriers to engagement" outlined key factors impacting acceptability, including prior perceptions. Teacher qualities of non-reactivity and respect, an invitational approach to teaching, and interactive sessions were highly valued. Secondly, participants described a range of "psychosocial impacts", including increased emotional regulation, positive mindset and self-confidence, and greater focus and concentration. Physical benefits were also reported in the yoga group.

CONCLUSION

This is the first study to explore the acceptability and impact of universal yoga and mindfulness interventions with an ethnically diverse sample of disadvantaged young adolescents in the United Kingdom. The findings suggest mind-body interventions can help children and adolescents develop skills to better manage challenges in their everyday lives, but they require further integration into the curriculum for optimal benefit.

Psychological characteristics of the rural poor from self-assessment and external assessment perspectives and their association with socio-demographic factors

Objective

This study aims to explore the differences in psychological traits between rural poor individuals from self-assessment and external assessment perspectives, and to examine the correlation between the main socio-demographic factors of the poor population and their psychological traits. The ultimate goal is to provide a scientific basis for the formulation of effective poverty alleviation policies and to promote the development of poverty psychology and anti-poverty psychology.

Methods

The study involved 1,943 poor individuals and 1,889 non-poor individuals from over 80 natural villages across eight provinces(regions) in central China (Shanxi, Henan, Hubei), northwestern China (Shaanxi, Xinjiang, Qinghai), and southwestern China (Guizhou and Yunnan). The psychological trait levels of the poor rural population were assessed using the "Rural poor Population Psychological Trait Assessment Questionnaire."

Results

Independent samples t-test showed that, from both self-assessment and external assessment perspectives, the poor population scored significantly higher on traits of retractability and stubbornness, while scoring significantly lower on the trait of grit compared to the non-poor population. The results of hierarchical linear regression indicated that socio-demographic factors such as age, health status, family size, and the poverty degree of the poor individuals contributed to 5.2% of the variance in the formation of psychological traits among the rural poor population.

Conclusion

From both self-assessment and external assessment perspectives, significant differences were observed between the poor and non-poor populations in terms of their evaluations on traits of retractability, grit, and stubbornness. This indicates that there is a notable disparity between the poor individuals' own perceptions and cognitions and the external evaluations they receive. The socio-demographic factors of rural poor individuals contribute only 5.2% to the variance in the formation of their psychological traits. This suggests that the deeper socio-cultural roots underlying the formation of psychological traits in the poor population await further exploration.

Associations of Prenatal Socioeconomic Status and Childhood Working Memory: A Structural Equation Modeling Approach

OBJECTIVE

To determine if prenatal socioeconomic status (SES) is associated with childhood working memory (WM), we constructed a more precise, integrative measure of WM using variables from multiple tasks that may provide a more representative measure of WM.

STUDY DESIGN

We used data from a prospective birth cohort study in Mexico City, Mexico, with N = 515 children aged 6-9 years. Prenatal SES was measured using the Mexican Association of Marketing Research and Public Opinion Agencies (AMAI) index. We created a latent variable for nonverbal working memory using multiple tasks (Cambridge Neuropsychological Test Automated Battery spatial working memory, operant chamber Delayed Match to Sample and Incremental Repeated Acquisition). Structural equation models were used to assess associations between prenatal SES and nonverbal working memory, adjusting for child demographics (e.g., age and sex), prenatal exposures (e.g., exposures to lead, arsenic, and secondhand smoke), and family (current SES, maternal IQ) variables.

RESULTS

Children had a mean age of 6.6 years [SD 0.6], and 50.5% were boys. Using confirmatory factor analysis, we constructed a latent variable of nonverbal working memory, which was measurement invariant across child sex. Prenatal SES was associated with childhood nonverbal working memory (standardized factor loading = 0.17; p = 0.004). These associations were modified by child sex. Higher prenatal SES was significantly associated with higher childhood WM in females (standardized factor loading = 0.26; p = 0.002), but not in males.

CONCLUSIONS

Prenatal socioeconomic status is a predictor of childhood working memory, but it may be a stronger predictor for girls compared with for boys.

Uncovering mediational pathways behind racial and socioeconomic disparities in brain volumes: insights from the UK Biobank study

Mediation pathways explaining racial/ethnic and socioeconomic (SES) disparities in structural MRI markers of brain health remain underexplored. We examined racial/ethnic and SES disparities in sMRI markers and tested total, direct, and indirect effects through lifestyle, health-related, and cognition factors using a structural equations modeling approach among 36,184 UK Biobank participants aged 40-70 years at baseline assessment (47% men). Race (non-White vs. White) and lower SES-predicted poorer brain sMRI volumetric outcomes at follow-up, with racial/ethnic disparities in sMRI outcomes involving multiple pathways and SES playing a central role in those pathways. Mediational patterns differed across outcomes, with the SES-sMRI total effect being partially mediated for all outcomes. Over 20% of the total effect (TE) of race/ethnicity on WMH was explained by the indirect effect (IE), by a combination of different pathways going through SES, lifestyle, health-related, and cognition factors. This is in contrast to < 10% for total brain, gray matter (GM), white matter (WM), and frontal GM left/right. Another significant finding is that around 57% of the total effect for SES and the normalized white matter hyperintensity (WMH) was attributed to an indirect effect. This effect encompasses many pathways that involve lifestyle, health-related, and cognitive aspects. Aside from WMH, the percent of TE of SES mediated through various pathways ranged from ~ 5% for WM to > 15% up to 36% for most of the remaining sMRI outcomes, which are composed mainly of GM phenotypes. Race and SES were important determinants of brain volumetric outcomes, with partial mediation of racial/ethnic disparities through SES, lifestyle, health-related, and cognition factors.

The influence of chronotype, socioeconomic status, latitude, longitude, and seasonality on cognitive performance and academic outcomes in adolescents

BACKGROUND

Adolescents' cognitive development and academic performance are influenced by sleep patterns, socioeconomic status (SES), and geographic factors. This study investigated how chronotype, social jetlag, weekday sleep duration, longitude, latitude, and SES impact cognitive outcomes and academic performance in a diverse adolescent sample.

METHODS

Data from 3741 adolescents in a longitudinal study were analyzed. Cognitive outcomes were assessed using NIH Toolbox measures (vocabulary, attention, working memory, pattern recognition, and reading). Self-reported academic grades were included as an additional outcome. Sleep variables were derived from the Munich Chronotype Questionnaire. Linear mixed-effects models examined the relationships between predictors and outcomes, controlling for age, sex, SES, latitude, longitude, seasonality, and time of testing.

RESULTS

Later chronotype and greater social jetlag were associated with poorer cognitive performance in vocabulary (β=-0.08, -0.18), working memory (β=-0.01, -0.09), and reading (β=-0.01, -0.17). Latitude showed small positive associations with vocabulary (β=0.09), attention (β=0.07), and working memory (β=0.07). In contrast, longitude showed negligible associations with cognitive and academic outcomes (∣β∣<0.05), suggesting limited geographic variability along this axis. Higher household income was associated with better performance in vocabulary (β=0.07) and reading (β=0.06), and better grades (β=-0.04). Males demonstrated better attention scores (β=0.11) but poorer pattern recognition (β=-0.20), along with lower academic performance compared to females (β=0.19). Academic grades were positively associated with chronotype (β=0.14) and social jetlag (β=0.07) but negatively with weekday sleep duration (β=-0.06). Seasonality showed no significant effects.

CONCLUSIONS

Chronotype, social jetlag, latitude, and SES are significant predictors of cognitive and academic outcomes in adolescents, while longitude showed minimal effects. These findings underscore the importance of circadian alignment and socioeconomic and geographic contexts in shaping adolescent development.

Interrupted Learning across the Lifespan

Continued learning opportunities are important for adaptation across the lifespan. Interrupted learning (e.g., "summer slide") is a known, critical issue for childhood education. This perspective piece proposes that adulthood could be a period of prolonged interrupted learning with reduced learning opportunities, despite the known importance of lifelong learning. This idea goes beyond calls for healthy older adults to lead an active life to maintain cognitive abilities and to maintain basic functional skills by highlighting important lifespan circumstances that may hinder or facilitate adaptation in new and changing environments. We explore how research on interrupted learning in childhood could be applied to later adulthood and how changes in learning are viewed differently for children and adults. In addition, research on increasing abilities during childhood generally focuses on specific skills (e.g., reading, math), whereas cognitive aging research focuses on more general cognitive abilities related to attention and memory. Finally, given that interrupted learning occurs unevenly across different ages, abilities, and resources, more can be investigated in terms of who interrupted learning affects across the lifespan, and the neural underpinnings of interrupted learning. Acknowledging and addressing interrupted learning across the lifespan may promote long-term thriving and avoid preventable deficits and decline.

Early-Life Adversity Predicts Markers of Aging-Related Neuroinflammation, Neurodegeneration, and Cognitive Impairment in Women

OBJECTIVE

Despite the overwhelming evidence for profound and longstanding effects of early-life stress (ELS) on inflammation, brain structure, and molecular aging, its impact on human brain aging and risk for neurodegenerative disease is poorly understood. We examined the impact of ELS severity in interaction with age on blood-based markers of neuroinflammation and neurodegeneration, brain volumes, and cognitive function in middle-aged women.

METHODS

We recruited 179 women (aged 30-60 years) with and without ELS exposure before the onset of puberty. Using Simoa technology, we assessed blood-based markers of neuroinflammation and neurodegeneration, including serum concentrations of glial fibrillary acidic protein (GFAP) and neurofilament light chain (NfL). We further obtained T1-weighted and T2-weighted magnetic resonance images to assess brain volumes and we assessed cognitive performance sensitive to early impairments associated with the development of dementia, using the Cambridge Neuropsychological Automated Test Battery. We used generalized additive models to examine nonlinear interaction effects of ELS severity and age on these outcomes.

RESULTS

Analyses revealed significant nonlinear interaction effects of ELS severity and age on NfL and GFAP serum concentrations, total and subcortical gray matter volume loss, increased third ventricular volume, and cognitive impairment.

INTERPRETATION

These findings suggest that ELS profoundly exacerbates peripheral, neurostructural, and cognitive markers of brain aging. Our results are critical for the development of novel early prevention strategies that target the impact of developmental stress on the brain to mitigate aging-related neurological diseases. ANN NEUROL 2025;97:642-656.

Particulate matter, socioeconomic status, and cognitive function among older adults in China

BACKGROUND

Both air pollution and low socioeconomic status (SES) are associated with worse cognitive function. The extent to which low SES may compound the adverse effect of air pollution on cognitive function remains unclear.

METHODS

7,087 older adults aged 65 and above were included from the Chinese Longitudinal Healthy Longevity Survey (CLHLS) and followed up in 4 waves during 2008-2018. Cognitive function was measured repeatedly at each wave using the modified Chinese Mini-Mental State Examination (MMSE). Concentrations of particulate matter (PM1, PM2.5, and PM10) were evaluated using satellite-based spatiotemporal models. SES was measured based on five components and categorized into three levels (low, middle, and high). Generalized estimating equation models were used to estimate the association of PM and SES with cognitive function. Stratified analyses and effect modification by SES levels were further conducted.

RESULTS

Each 10 µg/m3 increase in PM1, PM2.5, and PM10 was associated with a 0.43 (95 % CI: -0.58, -0.27), 0.29 (95% CI: -0.37, -0.20), and 0.17 (95 % CI: -0.22, -0.13) unit decrease in MMSE scores, respectively. Lower SES was associated with worse cognitive function. Significant effect modifications were observed by SES, with the corresponding association of PM exposure being more pronounced among participants with a lower SES (p-interaction = 0.006, 0.001, and 0.006 for PM1, PM2.5, and PM10, respectively).

CONCLUSIONS

SES is an important effect modifier, and lower SES may compound the detrimental effect of PM on cognitive health. This finding may have implications for identifying vulnerable populations and targeted interventions against air pollution.

Cognitive impairment and dementia-Are they linked to childhood health and socioeconomic status? A systematic review

BACKGROUND

Dementia is a major public health concern, with its incidence rising as the population ages. Recent studies suggest links between childhood health, socioeconomic status, and later-life cognitive impairment and dementia, though findings remain inconclusive. This systematic review evaluates the influence of childhood health and socioeconomic status on cognitive impairment and dementia.

METHOD AND FINDINGS

A systematic search conducted in MEDLINE, CiNAHL, and PsycINFO in December 2024 identified 44 studies matching our inclusion criteria. Findings are presented under five key themes: (1) childhood health, (2) childhood educational attainment, (3) family socioeconomic and educational factors, (4) childhood experiences, and (5) childhood reading habits and social interactions.

CONCLUSION

Our results highlight the need for further longitudinal studies to establish causal relationships between early-life risk factors and later cognitive decline. Policymakers should prioritize early childhood development programs that integrate health, nutrition, education, and social support to help mitigate cognitive impairment and dementia in later life.

Quantifying associations between socio-spatial factors and cognitive development in the ABCD cohort

Despite the mounting demand for generative population models, their limited generalizability to underrepresented demographic groups hinders widespread adoption in real-world applications. Here we propose a diversity-aware population modeling framework that can guide targeted strategies in public health and education, by estimating subgroup-level effects and stratifying predictions to capture sociodemographic variability. We leverage Bayesian multilevel regression and post-stratification to systematically quantify inter-individual differences in the relationship between socioeconomic status and cognitive development. Post-stratification enhanced the interpretability of model predictions across underrepresented groups by incorporating US Census data to gain additional insights into smaller subgroups in the Adolescent Brain Cognitive Development Study. This ensured that predictions were not skewed by overly heterogeneous or homogeneous representations. Our analyses underscore the importance of combining Bayesian multilevel modeling with post-stratification to validate reliability and provide a more holistic explanation of sociodemographic disparities in our diversity-aware population modeling framework.

Diverse weaning foods and diet patterns at multiple time points during infancy period and their association with neurodevelopmental outcomes in 6-year-old children

BACKGROUND/OBJECTIVES

Understanding the impact of early-life nutritional choices on neurodevelopment in children is a growing area of research. To investigate the association between dietary patterns at multiple timelines and neurodevelopmental outcomes in 6-year-old children.

SUBJECTS/METHODS

This administrative observational study utilized a merged data from the national health insurance database and the health screening program for children. Information on the diet patterns from infancy to 3 years of age was obtained from parent-administered questionnaires. Dietary pattern clusters of the participants were identified using Polytomous Latent Class Analysis. The outcome was neurodevelopment using the Korean Developmental Screening Test (K-DST) at the age of 6 years.

RESULTS

The study identified four distinct clusters among with the 133,243 eligible children (49.6% male, birth weight 3.22 kg, head circumference 42.7 cm at 4 months). The control cluster (53.4%) exhibited a diet including breast milk feeding and a variety of dietary patterns at the age of 1 year. In contrast, cluster 1 (36.0%) showed a skewed dietary pattern at the same age. Cluster 2 (6.6%) displayed diverse dietary patterns at one year but primarily consumed formula at four months, while cluster 3 (4.0%) had reduced dietary diversity and formula feeding. Compared with the control cluster, the adjusted odds ratio for unfavorable development was 1.209 (95% CI, 1.156-1.266) in cluster 1, 1.418 (95% CI, 1.312-1.532) in cluster 2, and 1.741 (95% CI, 1.593-1.903) in cluster 3. These findings remained consistent across individual domains of the K-DST.

CONCLUSIONS

Dietary patterns during infancy and early childhood may be associated with neurodevelopment at the age of 6 years.

Enhancing children's numeracy and executive functions via their explicit integration

Executive functions (EF) are crucial to regulating learning and are predictors of emerging mathematics. However, interventions that leverage EF to improve mathematics remain poorly understood. 193 four-year-olds (mean age = 3 years; 11 months pre-intervention; 111 female, 69% White) were assessed 5 months apart, with 103 children randomised to an integrated EF and mathematics intervention. Our pre-registered hypotheses proposed that the intervention would improve mathematics more than practice as usual. Multi-level modelling and network analyses were applied to the data. The intervention group improved more than the control group in overall numeracy, even when controlling for differences across settings in EF and mathematics-enhancing practices. EF and mathematics measures showed greater interconnectedness post-intervention. In addition, disadvantaged children in the intervention group made greater gains than in the control group. Our findings emphasise the need to consider EFs in their integration with co-developing functions, and in their educational and socio-economic context.

The association between maternal tobacco smoking during pregnancy and the risk of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) in offspring: A systematic review and meta-analysis

INTRODUCTION

Maternal tobacco smoking during pregnancy is a significant public health concern with potential long-lasting effects on child development. ADHD, a neurodevelopmental disorder characterized by inattention, hyperactivity, and impulsivity, may be influenced by prenatal nicotine exposure. This systematic review and meta-analysis examine the association between maternal tobacco smoking during pregnancy and the risk of ADHD in offspring.

METHODS

Following PRISMA guidelines, we searched databases including PubMed, Web of Science, Cochrane Central, Embase, Scopus, CINAHL, LILACS, SciELO, Allied and Complementary Medicine Database (AMED), ERIC, CNKI, HTA Database, Dialnet, EBSCO, LENS, and Google Scholar for studies up to November 1, 2024. We included peer-reviewed studies reporting quantitative effect size estimates for the association between maternal tobacco smoking and ADHD. Study quality was assessed using the Newcastle-Ottawa Scale (NOS).

RESULTS

We identified 2,981 articles and included 55 studies (4,016,522 participants) in the analysis. The meta-analysis showed a significant association between maternal tobacco smoking during pregnancy and increased risk of ADHD in offspring (pooled Odds Ratio (OR) = 1.71, 95% CI: 1.55-1.88; P < 0.001). Egger's test indicated no publication bias (p = 0.204), but Begg's test did (p = 0.042). By employing the trim and fill method, the revised OR was estimated to be 1.54 (95% CI: 1.40-1.70; P < 0.001). The OR were 2.37 (95% CI: 1.72-3.28; P < 0.001) in cross-sectional studies, 1.72 (95% CI: 1.49-2.00; P < 0.001) in case-control studies, and 1.53 (95% CI: 1.34-1.74; P < 0.001) in cohort studies. Meta-regression showed study design and study region significantly influenced heterogeneity (P < 0.10). Sensitivity and subgroup analyses confirmed the robustness of these findings.

CONCLUSION

This systematic review and meta-analysis demonstrate a significant association between maternal tobacco smoking during pregnancy and increased odds of ADHD in offspring. These findings highlight the need for prenatal care guidelines and tobacco smoking cessation programs for pregnant women to reduce ADHD risk and promote optimal neurodevelopmental outcomes. Future research should explore underlying mechanisms and potential confounders further.

The ecology of poverty and children's brain development: A systematic review and quantitative meta-analysis of brain imaging studies

A growing number of studies have demonstrated associations between poverty and brain structure and function. However, the strength of this association and the effects of poverty level (e.g., family or neighborhood poverty), age and sex on the association are strikingly inconsistent across studies. We aimed to synthesize findings on gray matter volume and task-based brain activation associated with poverty in youth samples and disentangle the effects of poverty level, age, and sex. In general, poverty was associated with alterations in volume and activation in the frontal, temporal, and subcortical regions. Among 14,188 participants and 14,057 participants, poverty was associated with smaller gray matter volumes in the amygdala and hippocampus, respectively. Moderator testing revealed that family poverty had a stronger association than neighborhood poverty and that poverty was related to slower development of amygdala volume. Among 2696 participants, convergent functional alterations associated with poverty were observed in the left middle temporal gyrus (MTG) and left middle frontal gyrus across all task domains, with the percentage of girls positively associated with increased activation in the precuneus. Subgroup analyses revealed that greater poverty was associated with deactivation in the left MTG for top-down control and hyperactivity in the right superior temporal gyrus, left superior frontal gyrus, left insula, cerebellum/left fusiform gyrus, and left amygdala/hippocampus for bottom-up processing. These findings provide insights into the neuroscience of poverty, suggesting implications for targeted interventions to support the cognitive and mental health of children living in poverty.

Research Progress on Neural Processing of Hand and Forearm Tactile Sensation: A Review Based on fMRI Research

Tactile perception is one of the important ways through which humans interact with the external environment. Similar to the neural processing in visual and auditory systems, the neural processing of tactile information is a complex procedure that transforms this information into sensory signals. Neuroimaging techniques, such as functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging (fMRI), provide compelling evidence indicating that different types of tactile signals undergo independent or collective processing within multiple brain regions. This review focuses on fMRI studies employing both task-based (block design or event-related design) and resting-state paradigms. These studies use general linear models (GLM) to identify brain regions activated during touch processing, or employ functional connectivity(FC) analysis to examine interactions between brain regions, thereby exploring the neural mechanisms underlying the central nervous system's processing of various aspects of tactile sensation, including discriminative touch and affective touch. The discussion extends to exploring changes in tactile processing patterns observed in certain disease states. Recognizing the analogy between pain and touch processing patterns, we conclude by summarizing the interaction between touch and pain. Currently, fMRI-based studies have made significant progress in the field of tactile neural processing. These studies not only deepen our understanding of tactile perception but also provide new perspectives for future neuroscience studies.

Effects of music training on executive functions in preschool children aged 3-6 years: systematic review and meta-analysis

Background

Executive functions is a crucial ability in the early development of preschool children. While numerous studies have found that music training has a favorable effect on children's executive functions, there is a lack of a consistent perspective on this topic, particularly with regard to the dose-response relationship.

Methods

Systematic searches were conducted of Web of Science, PubMed, Scopus, and China National Knowledge Infrastructure. A random-effects meta-analysis was used to compute standardized mean differences (SMD) and 95% confidence intervals (CI).

Results

In all, 10 studies were included in the meta-analysis, in which children's music training groups showed significantly improved inhibitory control (SMD = 0.38, 95% CI: 0.16-0.6), working memory (SMD = 0.35, 95% CI: 0.16-0.54), and cognitive flexibility (SMD = 0.23, 95% CI: 0.04-0.42) in comparison with control groups. Subgroup analyses indicated significant improvements relative to the control groups for inhibitory control following music training having a duration of ≥12 weeks (SMD = 0.51, 95% CI: 0.22-0.8), occurring ≥3 times per week (SMD = 0.48, 95% CI: 0.2-0.75), and lasting 20-30 min per session (SMD = 0.42, 95% CI: 0.2-0.63). Significant improvements were seen for working memory following music training having a duration of ≥12 weeks (SMD = 0.42, 95% CI: 0.18-0.65), occurring <3 times per week (SMD = 0.49, 95% CI: 0.06-0.93), occurring ≥3 times per week (SMD = 0.28, 95% CI:0.1-0.47), and lasting 20-30 min per session (SMD = 0.39, 95% CI: 0.16-0.54). Music training significantly improved cognitive flexibility following training having a duration of ≥12 weeks (SMD = 0.22, 95% CI: 0.04-0.41), occurring ≥3 times per week (SMD = 0.19, 95% CI: 0.0-0.39), and lasting >40 min per session (SMD = 0.74, 95% CI: 0.22-1.26).

Conclusion

Music training has a positive effect on inhibitory control, working memory, and cognitive flexibility in preschool children aged 3-6 years. This effect is influenced by certain training factors, including the duration of the intervention period, frequency per week, and length of each session.

Systematic review registration

https://www.crd.york.ac.uk/prospero/#aboutregpage, CRD42024513482.

Investigating changes in IQ scores over a decade in Brazil: factors at play

PURPOSE

This study aimed to determine whether the factors underlying potential differences between two birth cohorts, born in 1982 and 1993, influence the changes in IQ over time.

METHODS

Data from two Brazilian birth cohorts were used (1993 and 1982 Pelotas Birth Cohorts). The IQ scores were assessed using the WAIS-III test.

RESULTS

Results showed that women born in 1993 had a higher average IQ score than those born in 1982, but no difference was found among men. The increase in IQ scores was only limited to participants from families with an income ranging from 1.1 to 3 times the minimum wage at the time of birth. The mean IQ score of participants born to mothers below the age of 20 remained stable over time, but increase for participants whose mothers were 20 years of age or older at the time of birth.

CONCLUSIONS

This study emphasizes the importance of considering socio-economic and demographic factors when examining differences in IQ scores over time. Further research is needed to understand the underlying mechanisms of these findings.

Inconclusive evidence for associations between adverse experiences in adulthood and working memory performance

Decades of research have shown that adversity tends to be associated with lower working memory (WM) performance. This literature has mainly focused on impairments in the capacity to hold information available in WM for further processing. However, some recent adaptation-based studies suggest that certain types of adversity can leave intact, or even enhance, the ability to rapidly update information in WM. One key challenge is that WM capacity and updating tasks tend to covary, as both types of tasks require the creation and maintenance of bindings in WM; links between mental representations of information in WM. To estimate the associations between adversity and different processes in WM, we need to isolate variance in performance related to WM capacity from variance in performance related to updating ability. In this Registered Report, participants from the Dutch Longitudinal Internet studies for the Social Sciences (LISS) panel completed three WM tasks: two complex span tasks and a task measuring both binding and updating of information. In addition, we estimated participants' exposure to neighbourhood threat, material deprivation and unpredictability. We estimated associations between the three types of adversity and latent estimates of WM capacity and updating using structural equation modelling. We did not find consistent associations between adversity and WM capacity or updating, nor did we find evidence that the associations were practically equivalent to zero. Our results show that adversity researchers should account for overlap in WM tasks when estimating specific WM abilities.

Neurocognitive disruption in pediatric kidney transplant candidates: Medical and sociodemographic factors

We evaluated the effects of kidney failure etiology, dialysis, and area deprivation index on the subdomains of neurocognitive functioning in pediatric kidney transplant candidates. The study included 78 pediatric kidney transplant candidates (47.4% male, 70.5% White, M.age = 11.77 years, and 51.3% patients have public insurance) who completed a pre-transplant neuropsychological evaluation between 1/1/2010 and 10/31/2022. Linear regression models were employed to complete data analyses. The mean scores of various neurocognitive functioning domains in pediatric kidney transplant candidates were significantly lower than in the general population (ps < .001). After adjusting for covariates, patients with congenital anomalies of the kidney and urinary tract (M = 87; 95% CI: 80-94) and other etiologies (M = 82; 95% CI: 76-89) had significantly lower processing speed compared to patients with nephrotic syndrome (M = 98; 95% CI: 89-107) (p = .02). Patients living in high-level deprivation neighborhoods showed significantly lower verbal skills (p = .01), working memory performance (p = .02), and full-scale IQ (p = .03) than patients living in median-level and low-level deprivation neighborhoods. Additionally, dialysis did not show significant association with neurocognitive domains ((ps ranged from .07 to .52).

Childhood trauma is associated with developmental trajectories of EEG coherence, alcohol-related outcomes, and PTSD symptoms

BACKGROUND

Associations between childhood trauma, neurodevelopment, alcohol use disorder (AUD), and posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) are understudied during adolescence.

METHODS

Using 1652 participants (51.75% female, baseline Mage = 14.3) from the Collaborative Study of the Genetics of Alcoholism, we employed latent growth curve models to (1) examine associations of childhood physical, sexual, and non-assaultive trauma (CPAT, CSAT, and CNAT) with repeated measures of alpha band EEG coherence (EEGc), and (2) assess whether EEGc trajectories were associated with AUD and PTSD symptoms. Sex-specific models accommodated sex differences in trauma exposure, AUD prevalence, and neural development.

RESULTS

In females, CSAT was associated with higher mean levels of EEGc in left frontocentral (LFC, ß = 0.13, p = 0.01) and interhemispheric prefrontal (PFI, ß = 0.16, p < 0.01) regions, but diminished growth in LFC (ß = -0.07, p = 0.02) and PFI (ß = -0.07, p = 0.02). In males, CPAT was associated with lower mean levels (ß = -0.17, p = 0.01) and increased growth (ß = 0.11, p = 0.01) of LFC EEGc. Slope of LFC EEGc was inversely associated with AUD symptoms in females (ß = -1.81, p = 0.01). Intercept of right frontocentral and PFI EEGc were associated with AUD symptoms in males, but in opposite directions. Significant associations between EEGc and PTSD symptoms were also observed in trauma-exposed individuals.

CONCLUSIONS

Childhood assaultive trauma is associated with changes in frontal alpha EEGc and subsequent AUD and PTSD symptoms, though patterns differ by sex and trauma type. EEGc findings may inform emerging treatments for PTSD and AUD.

Variation in Adult Cognition Across Domains and Life Course Place Effects in the UK

This study explores the role that place of birth and place of residence have in variation in cognition in adulthood in the UK. We take advantage of both the large sample size and number of cognitive domains in the UK Biobank to estimate the effect of place of birth and place of residence on adulthood cognition using multilevel modeling. We find, consistent with studies in the US, that place effects at both time points contribute modest variation (<3% of the variation) across all measured cognitive domains, suggesting a relative lack of contribution of shared environments in explaining future Alzheimer's Disease and Related Dementias. Moreover, the geographical contribution to cognitive function in adulthood was slightly larger for females than for males. This study is among the first to explore the impact of both the independent and joint associations of place of birth and place of residence with different cognitive domains.

Exploration of auditory statistical learning, socioeconomic status, and language outcomes in Bangladeshi children: A functional near-infrared spectroscopy study

Auditory statistical learning, or the ability to detect statistical regularities in continuously presented stimuli, is thought to be one element that underlies language acquisition. Prior studies have uncovered behavioral and neural correlates of statistical learning, yet additional work is needed from low- and middle-income countries to explore whether statistical learning varies across cultures or underlies associations often found between socioeconomic status (SES) and language outcomes. In the present study, we explored the feasibility of using functional near-infrared spectroscopy (fNIRS) to explore auditory statistical learning in Bangladesh, a lower-middle-income country. Participants were 102 2-year-old (M = 25.72 months, SD = 2.07 months) and 125 5-year-old children (M = 62.35 months, SD = 2.46 months) living in a low-income urban neighborhood of Dhaka (average family income of 28,145.13 Bangladeshi Takas or 260.06 U.S. dollars per month). We also collected measures of SES and language outcomes. Brain responses during the statistical learning paradigm could be detected with fNIRS in both two- and 5-year-olds, with 2-year-olds exhibiting a higher response to predictable sequences and 5-year-olds exhibiting higher responses to unpredictable sequences. fNIRS correlates of statistical learning were not related to language outcomes but were associated with SES in the 5-year-old cohort. This study demonstrates the utility of employing fNIRS to study the neural correlates of statistical learning in low- and middle-income countries and the feasibility of expanding the representativeness of the existing literature. These findings also highlight potential areas for inquiry into how SES may relate to individual differences in statistical learning responses. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2024 APA, all rights reserved).

Links between socioeconomic position and cognitive and behavioral regulation in adolescence: The role of pubertal development

Adolescent cognitive and behavioral regulation is influenced by multidimensional and multidirectional processes within and across biological and contextual systems that shift throughout development. Key among these influences are distal processes such as early life socioeconomic position (SEP), and proximal processes such as pubertal development, but questions remain concerning how links between SEP, pubertal development, and cognitive and behavioral regulation accumulate and unfold over adolescence. In the current study, and in line with Dr. John Schulenberg's foundational work, direct associations between SEP, puberty, and adolescent cognitive and behavioral regulation were examined; then pubertal timing and tempo were considered as moderators and mediators of links between SEP and adolescent cognitive and behavioral regulation. Data were drawn from the NICHD Study of Early Child Care and Youth Development, a longitudinal study of 970 youth (52% male; 80% White, 13% Black, and 7% another race/ethnicity). Cognitive and behavioral regulation was measured using direct assessments of working memory, planning, risky decision-making, and impulse control at age 15. SEP included maternal education and family income-to-needs and was averaged from birth to 54 months old; estimates of pubertal timing and tempo were derived using logistic growth curve models from age 9 to age 15. SEP was directly associated with cognitive and behavioral regulation. Pubertal development tended to moderate those links, but rarely mediated them. Specifically, socioeconomic disadvantage along with earlier timing or faster tempo tended to be associated with worse cognitive and behavioral regulation. Overall, findings suggest that pubertal timing and tempo may exacerbate existing environmental constraints.

Cognitive performance, psychiatric comorbidities, and quality of life in pediatric patients with juvenile idiopathic arthritis: a comparative analysis with healthy controls

This study aimed to assess the extent of cognitive impairment in children and adolescents with Juvenile Idiopathic Arthritis (JIA). While cognitive deficits are recognized in other systemic rheumatic diseases, exploration within the pediatric JIA population remains limited. The investigation utilized a comprehensive approach to examine neuropsychological test performance. A cohort of 160 participants (79 JIA, 81 healthy controls aged 8-17) underwent evaluations using the Pediatric Quality of Life Inventory (PedsQL), Schedule for Affective Disorders and Schizophrenia for School Age Children-Present and Lifetime Version (K-SADS-PL), and the computerized neurocognitive test battery Central Nervous System Vital Signs (CNSVS). Children with JIA exhibited statistically significant cognitive deficits across various parameters (p < .05). This was associated with an increased prevalence of lifelong psychiatric illnesses and diminished overall quality of life compared to healthy counterparts (p < .05). Analysis highlighted that specific JIA subtypes, excluding Oligoarthritis, significantly elevated the risk of neurocognitive impairments, emphasizing the impact on various cognitive outcomes (OR range: 3.1-5.1, 95% CI: 1.163-19.980). Additionally, the active disease stage was identified as a specific risk factor, amplifying the likelihood of low executive functions by 4.3 times (OR: 4.363, 95% CI: 1.095-17.378). This study underscores the critical importance of recognizing and addressing neurocognitive impairments in children with JIA. Specific attention to disease subtypes and activity levels is crucial, with the potential for targeted interventions to enhance overall cognitive well-being and quality of life in this vulnerable population.

Higher socioeconomic deprivation in areas predicts cognitive decline in New Zealanders without cognitive impairment

Previous studies identified individual-level socioeconomic factors as key determinants of cognitive health. This study investigated the effect of area-based socioeconomic deprivation on cognitive outcomes in midlife to early late-life New Zealanders without cognitive impairment at baseline. Data stemmed from a subsample of the New Zealand Health, Work and Retirement Study, a cohort study on ageing, who completed face-to-face interviews and were reassessed two years later. Cognitive functioning was measured using Addenbrooke's Cognitive Examination-Revised, adapted for culturally acceptable use in Aotearoa New Zealand. Area-based socioeconomic deprivation was assessed using the New Zealand Deprivation Index (NZDep2006). Linear mixed-effects models analysed the association between area-based socioeconomic deprivation and cognitive outcomes. The analysis included 783 participants without cognitive impairment at baseline (54.7% female, mean age 62.7 years, 25.0% Māori, the Indigenous people of Aotearoa New Zealand). There was an association between higher area-based socioeconomic deprivation and lower cognitive functioning (B = -0.08, 95%CI: -0.15;-0.01; p = .050) and cognitive decline (B = -0.12, 95%CI: -0.20;-0.04, p = .013) over two years, while controlling for covariates. The findings emphasise the importance of considering neighbourhood characteristics and broader socioeconomic factors in strategies aimed at mitigating cognitive health disparities and reducing the impact of dementia in disadvantaged communities.

A sensitive period for the development of episodic-like memory in mice

Episodic-like memory is a later-developing cognitive function supported by the hippocampus. In mice, the formation of extracellular perineuronal nets in subfield CA1 of the dorsal hippocampus controls the emergence of episodic-like memory during the fourth postnatal week (Ramsaran et al., 2023). Whether the timing of episodic-like memory onset is hard-wired, or flexibly set by early-life experiences during a critical or sensitive period for hippocampal maturation, is unknown. Here, we show that the trajectories for episodic-like memory development vary for mice given different sets of experiences spanning the second and third postnatal weeks. Specifically, episodic-like memory precision developed later in mice that experienced early-life adversity, while it developed earlier in mice that experienced early-life enrichment. Moreover, we demonstrate that early-life experiences set the timing of episodic-like memory development by modulating the pace of perineuronal net formation in dorsal CA1. These results indicate that the hippocampus undergoes a sensitive period during which early-life experiences determine the timing for episodic-like memory development.

Family Socioeconomic Status and Neurodevelopment Among Patients With Dextro-Transposition of the Great Arteries

Importance

Data are limited on the longitudinal implications of socioeconomic status (SES) for neurodevelopmental outcomes among persons with complex congenital heart disease (CHD).

Objectives

To examine the association of family SES, maternal educational level, and maternal IQ with the neurodevelopment of individuals with dextro-transposition of the great arteries (d-TGA) from age 1 to 16 years and to identify how SES-related disparities change with age.

Design, Setting, and Participants

This cohort study analyzed data of participants enrolled in the Boston Circulatory Arrest Study, a randomized clinical trial conducted in Boston, Massachusetts, from 1988 to 1992. Participants were infants with d-TGA who underwent arterial switch operation and, after operation, underwent in-person neurodevelopmental status evaluations at ages 1, 4, 8, and 16 years. Analyses were conducted from April 2021 to August 2024.

Exposures

Mean Hollingshead scores at birth, age 1 year, and age 4 years were used to assign participants to SES tertiles (lowest, middle, or highest).

Main Outcomes and Measures

Age-appropriate neurodevelopmental outcomes assessed at 4 study time points (ages 1, 4, 8, and 16 years) via in-person administration of a range of well-validated measures. Standardized neurodevelopmental composite scores from each evaluation were derived from principal component analysis and compared across SES tertiles, adjusting for birth and medical characteristics. These scores were used to categorize the sample into latent classes; patient and medical factors for a 3-class model were used to estimate latent class using multinomial regression.

Results

The sample included 164 patients with d-TGA (123 males [75%]; mean [SD] gestational age at birth, 39.8 [1.2] weeks; 3 with Asian [2%], 6 with Black [4%], 5 with Hispanic [3%], and 146 with White [89%] race and ethnicity) and their mothers (mean [SD] age at birth, 28.5 [5.2] years). Lower SES tertile was associated with worse scores on most individual neurodevelopmental tests and worse neurodevelopmental composite scores at ages 4, 8, and 16 years. For example, mean (SD) neurodevelopmental composite scores at age 4 years were -0.49 [0.83] for lowest, 0.00 [0.81] for middle, and 0.47 [1.10] for highest SES tertile (F2 = 15.5; P < .001). When measured at consecutive time points, differences between SES tertiles were of similar magnitude. A latent class analysis produced 2- and 3-class models representing patients with stable (103 [64%] and 85 [53%]), improving (20 [13%]), and declining (57 [36%] and 55 [34%]) neurodevelopmental status. Those experiencing declines in neurodevelopmental status were more likely to have younger maternal age at childbirth (26.6 [5.1] vs 29.6 [4.9] and 29.1 [5.1] years; P = .002), lower maternal IQ (91.0 [14.1] vs 100.1 [11.1] and 96.2 [11.0]; P < .001), and lower SES (35.2 [10.8] vs 40.9 [9.9] and 35.8 [10.1]; P = .003) compared with those with stable or improving status.

Conclusions and Relevance

This cohort study of individuals with d-TGA found an association between lower family SES and worse neurodevelopmental outcomes in childhood and continuing throughout adolescence as well as greater decline in neurodevelopmental status over time. Effective strategies are needed to improve access to neurodevelopmental monitoring and intervention services for children with CHD from lower socioeconomic backgrounds.

DNA methylation signatures of prenatal socioeconomic position associated with 36-month language outcomes

BACKGROUND

Socioeconomic position (SEP), which reflects one's position in society and access to resources, is strongly tied to neurodevelopment and is associated with epigenetic changes.

AIM

This study examined whether DNA methylation signatures of prenatal SEP, measured in birth samples, are associated with child neurodevelopmental outcomes at 36 months of age.

METHODS

Prenatal SEP DNA methylation scores were derived using 97 placenta and 127 cord blood biospecimens in the Early Autism Risk Longitudinal Investigation cohort. Participants completed the Mullen Scales of Early Learning (MSEL) and Vineland Adaptive Behavior Scales (VABS) at 36 months of age. Generalized regression analyses, adjusting for maternal age and race, were performed to test the association between SEP methylation score, for each birth biospecimen type, and MSEL and VABS scores.

RESULTS

Significant associations were observed between placenta SEP methylation score and MSEL Expressive Language outcomes (beta = -2.7, p = 0.046, 95 % CI [- 5.43, -0.05]) and Receptive Language outcomes (beta = -2.5, p = 0.037, 95 % CI [-4.82, -0.16]). In cord blood, methylation-SEP scores were significantly associated with Receptive Language outcomes (beta = -2.0, p = 0.037, 95 % CI [-3.85, -0.12]). No significant associations were observed with VABS scores.

CONCLUSION

Our results confirm associations between prenatal SEP and early childhood language development using a novel empiric DNA methylation measure of exposure.

Mapping computational cognitive profiles of aging to dissociable brain and sociodemographic factors

Aging is associated with declines in cognition and brain structural integrity. However, there is equivocality over (1) the specificity of affected domains in different people, (2) the location of associated patterns of brain structural deterioration, and (3) the sociodemographic factors contributing to 'unhealthy' cognition. We aimed to identify cognitive profiles displayed by older adults and determine brain and sociodemographic features potentially shaping these profiles. A sample of Southeast-Asian older adults (N = 386) participated in a multi-session study comprising cognitive testing, neuroimaging, and a structured interview. We used computational models to extract latent mechanisms underlying cognitive flexibility and response inhibition. Data-driven methods were used to construct cognitive profiles based on standard performance measures and model parameters. We also investigated grey matter volume and machine-learning derived 'brain-ages'. A profile associated with poor set-shifting and rigid focusing was associated with widespread grey matter reduction in cognitive control regions. A slow responding profile was associated with advanced brain-age. Both profiles were correlated with poor socioeconomic standing and cognitive reserve. We found that the impact of sociodemographic factors on cognitive profiles was partially mediated by total grey and white matter, and dorsolateral prefrontal and cerebellar volumes. This study furthers understanding of how distinct aging profiles of cognitive impairment uniquely correspond to specific vs. global brain deterioration and the significance of socioeconomic factors in informing cognitive performance in older age.

Which Variables Better Predict Phonemic Awareness of First Grade Primary School Students?

The purpose of the research was to discover which variables better predict phonemic awareness. Socioeconomic status (SES), quality of parent-child interaction (PCI), screen time (DST), visual-spatial ability (VSA), and mathematical reasoning (MR) were included as independent variables in the model, while phonemic awareness (PA) was the dependent (outcome) variable. The research was designed as correlational research. A total of 556 first grade primary school students were recruited into the research sample upon approval by their parents. In the analytic procedures, supervised machine learning was adopted and data were analyzed through classification and regression trees (CART) by using rprart, rpart.plot, tidyverse, dplyr, ggplot2, and corrplot packages in R. Results of data analysis indicate that MR, PCI, and VSA can predict PA, while SES and DST are not predictors. Findings of the research were discussed along with intelligence theories and practical implications were noted for teachers and researchers.

Early-life socioeconomic position and later-life cognitive functioning: A meta-analysis

OBJECTIVES

This meta-analysis aimed to quantify the association between childhood SEP and later-life cognitive functioning and identify possible moderators.

METHOD

We conducted random-effects meta-analyses of 39 reports, contributing 49 independent subsamples from 229,824 respondents. Moderators were analyzed using meta-regression and subgroup analyses.

RESULTS

There was a small, positive correlation between childhood socioeconomic position (SEP) and cognitive functioning in older adulthood across the overall summary effect (r = 0.161), global cognitive functioning (r = 0.183), verbal episodic memory (r = 0.148), verbal fluency (r = 0.196), and processing speed (r = 0.130), but not inhibition (r = 0.058). An older mean sample age was linked with a weaker correlation for the overall summary effect and verbal episodic memory. Higher sample education was a significant moderator for verbal episodic memory only, such that the association between childhood SEP and verbal episodic memory was weaker at higher levels of education. Across all domains, mother's education was more strongly linked with cognitive functioning than other SEP constructs were. There was no significant moderation by gender, national income inequality, study design (whether prospective or retrospective), or the age of the childhood SEP measure (ages 0-4 or 9-15). Minimal publication bias was present.

DISCUSSION

The socioeconomic conditions of one's childhood are related to cognitive performance in older adulthood. Policymakers should consider legislation and programs to improve circumstances for low-income children and families, particularly those that increase women's educational access, as targets for improving cognitive outcomes in later life.

Does Screen Time Do More Damage in Boys Than Girls?

Background Technological progress, particularly accelerated by the recent pandemic, has led to the digitalization of many aspects of daily life. Consequently, children are increasingly exposed to screen time, raising concerns about its potential impact on early development. Methods Four separate questionnaires were developed for different age groups (12-18 months, 19-30 months, 31-48 months, and 49-72 months). Data were collected over a two-month period from three major pediatric facilities, and social media platforms were also utilized to reach participants. The total sample size consisted of 5,137 children. Results Exposure to active screen time was found to increase the risk of expressive language delay, with a significant correlation identified between early screen time exposure and expressive language delay. In the 12-18 months age group, the OR was 1.52 (p = 0.008, χ²(1) = 7.08, p = 0.008), while in the 19-30 months age group, the OR was 1.79 (p = 0.0002; χ²(1) = 14.30, p < 0.001). Conclusions This study provides significant insights into the complex relationship between screen time exposure and expressive language development in young children. Our findings reveal that early screen time exposure is associated with a higher risk of expressive language delay. The data suggest that children aged 12-30 months are especially vulnerable. However, we cannot definitively state that the amount of average daily screen time is significantly changing the outcome. Conversely, we also found that a lack of screen time exposure may be associated with an increased risk of language delay in children aged 31-48 months, highlighting the nuanced role of screen time in child development. Parental supervision is a critical factor; however, our study indicates that higher levels of supervision do not consistently mitigate the risks associated with screen time across all age groups. Further research is warranted to explore the underlying factors contributing to the observed differences in susceptibility to expressive language delay among genders and to examine the long-term impacts of early screen exposure. By understanding these dynamics, we can better support children's developmental needs in an increasingly screen-saturated environment.

Neuronal Mechanisms of Reading Informational Texts in People with Different Levels of Mental Resilience

The aim of this study was to verify whether the level of mental resilience would differentiate reading comprehension performance when using different information carriers. More than 150 people filled out a test regarding the level of resilience. They then participated in a survey using fNIRS. Their task was to read a one-page informational text and answer several questions. The results showed no differences in correct answers between groups of people with different levels of resilience. In the groups of people with high and low levels of resilience, the number of correct answers was not differentiated by the type of carrier. Among those with moderate levels of resilience, better results were obtained by those who read text printed on paper. Analyses of neuronal mechanisms showed that the type of carrier differentiated brain activity in each group. Obtaining the same number of correct answers in the test was the result of different neuronal mechanisms activated in those who used a computer and those who read a printed text.

Evaluating the association between placenta DNA methylation and cognitive functions in the offspring

The placenta plays a crucial role in protecting the fetus from environmental harm and supports the development of its brain. In fact, compromised placental function could predispose an individual to neurodevelopmental disorders. Placental epigenetic modifications, including DNA methylation, could be considered a proxy of placental function and thus plausible mediators of the association between intrauterine environmental exposures and genetics, and childhood and adult mental health. Although neurodevelopmental disorders such as autism spectrum disorder have been investigated in relation to placenta DNA methylation, no studies have addressed the association between placenta DNA methylation and child's cognitive functions. Thus, our goal here was to investigate whether the placental DNA methylation profile measured using the Illumina EPIC array is associated with three different cognitive domains (namely verbal score, perceptive performance score, and general cognitive score) assessed by the McCarthy Scales of Children's functions in childhood at age 4. To this end, we conducted epigenome-wide association analyses, including data from 255 mother-child pairs within the INMA project, and performed a follow-up functional analysis to help the interpretation of the findings. After multiple-testing correction, we found that methylation at 4 CpGs (cg1548200, cg02986379, cg00866476, and cg14113931) was significantly associated with the general cognitive score, and 2 distinct differentially methylated regions (DMRs) (including 27 CpGs) were significantly associated with each cognitive dimension. Interestingly, the genes annotated to these CpGs, such as DAB2, CEP76, PSMG2, or MECOM, are involved in placenta, fetal, and brain development. Moreover, functional enrichment analyses of suggestive CpGs (p < 1 × 10-4) revealed gene sets involved in placenta development, fetus formation, and brain growth. These findings suggest that placental DNA methylation could be a mechanism contributing to the alteration of important pathways in the placenta that have a consequence on the offspring's brain development and cognitive function.

The Causal Relationships Between Gut Microbiota, Brain Volume, and Intelligence: A Two-Step Mendelian Randomization Analysis

BACKGROUND

Growing evidence indicates that dynamic changes in gut microbiome can affect intelligence; however, whether these relationships are causal remains elusive. We aimed to disentangle the poorly understood causal relationship between gut microbiota and intelligence.

METHODS

We performed a 2-sample Mendelian randomization (MR) analysis using genetic variants from the largest available genome-wide association studies of gut microbiota (N = 18,340) and intelligence (N = 269,867). The inverse-variance weighted method was used to conduct the MR analyses complemented by a range of sensitivity analyses to validate the robustness of the results. Considering the close relationship between brain volume and intelligence, we applied 2-step MR to evaluate whether the identified effect was mediated by regulating brain volume (N = 47,316).

RESULTS

We found a risk effect of the genus Oxalobacter on intelligence (odds ratio = 0.968 change in intelligence per standard deviation increase in taxa; 95% CI, 0.952-0.985; p = 1.88 × 10-4) and a protective effect of the genus Fusicatenibacter on intelligence (odds ratio = 1.053; 95% CI, 1.024-1.082; p = 3.03 × 10-4). The 2-step MR analysis further showed that the effect of genus Fusicatenibacter on intelligence was partially mediated by regulating brain volume, with a mediated proportion of 33.6% (95% CI, 6.8%-60.4%; p = .014).

CONCLUSIONS

Our results provide causal evidence indicating the role of the microbiome in intelligence. Our findings may help reshape our understanding of the microbiota-gut-brain axis and development of novel intervention approaches for preventing cognitive impairment.

Staying self-regulated in the classroom: The role of children's executive functions and situational factors

BACKGROUND

Self-regulation is crucial for children's learning and development. Several studies have explored children's inter-individual differences in self-regulation, but little is known about sources of intra-individual variation.

AIMS

This study addressed the variability of children's self-regulation across typical classroom situations and how this might be associated with children's executive functions (EFs).

SAMPLE

The study included 148 children (54.7% girls; Mage = 56.73 months).

METHODS

Self-regulation was assessed with an observational measure in teacher-led and child-led activities within naturalistic classroom settings. Children's EFs were assessed with direct assessments at the start and end of the school year.

RESULTS

Linear mixed-effect models showed that children demonstrated higher levels of self-regulation in child-led in comparison with teacher-led activities. Children with higher levels of EFs at the start of the school year showed less variation across teacher-led and child-led activities in comparison with children with lower levels of EFs. Regarding other aspects of the classroom context, neither the group size in which the activity took place nor which school subject it was focused on were associated with children's self-regulation. However, in teacher-led activities the type of interaction involved in the activity and the type of task influenced children's self-regulation.

CONCLUSION

These results suggest that children who start school with higher levels of EFs are more able to adapt to different situations, highlighting the importance of fostering these skills in early childhood. In turn, children with lower levels of EFs may need additional support from teachers to remain self-regulated across different contexts.

Associations Between Dysregulation and Metabolic Syndrome in Youth and Adults

Objective

Metabolic syndrome is a serious and costly health condition that is increasingly prevalent in the United States. Current treatment standards, which include lifestyle modification and medication, do not consistently yield sustainable improvements. High rates of co-occurrence with psychiatric disorders suggest that understanding psychological factors associated with metabolic syndrome may be important for enhancing interventions. The current study examines the relations between the psychological construct of "dysregulation" and metabolic risk in children, adolescents, and adults.

Method

Participants were 95 family triads comprising 158 youth aged 7 to 17 years and 127 biological parents. Dysregulation was measured using a bifactor model comprising symptoms from the Anxious/Depressed, Attention Problems, and Aggressive Behavior subscales of the Child Behavior Checklist and Adult Self Report for children and adults, respectively. Metabolic risk was measured using confirmatory factor analysis, which included waist circumference, mean arterial pressure, insulin resistance, and triglyceride-to-HDL ratio.

Results

Higher levels of dysregulation were associated with increased metabolic risk in adults. In children, this association was moderated by age, such that dysregulation and metabolic risk were positively associated only for older youth.

Conclusion

The findings of this study suggest that the association between dysregulation and metabolic risk may become stronger with age and development. This highlights that early detection and intervention of dysregulation may help prevent metabolic comorbidities later in life.

Environmental contributions to cognitive development: The role of cognitive stimulation

Early environmental experiences influence children's cognitive and neural development. In particular, cognitive stimulation, defined as environmental inputs that engage the senses and provide learning opportunities for children, fosters acquisition of knowledge across various cognitive domains. Low levels of cognitive stimulation in early life may restrict learning opportunities, contributing to lasting consequences for neural development and later academic and occupational achievement. This review delves into the role of cognitive stimulation in neural development and related cognitive performance, available tools for measuring cognitive stimulation in various settings, and offers insights into future research directions. In addition, variability in cognitive stimulation, often linked to differences in socioeconomic status, may create disparities in children's access to enriching experiences that provide the foundation for learning. We therefore briefly review the role of socioeconomic status in cognitive stimulation and cognitive development. We also leverage evidence from intervention studies to illustrate the importance of cognitive stimulation for children's outcomes. Investigating the influence of cognitive stimulation on children's brain and behavior development is crucial for developing effective intervention strategies to foster the healthy development of all children and unlocking their full potential.

Relations among Socioeconomic Status, Perceived Stress, and the Home Language Environment

While socioeconomic disparities in the home language environment have been well established, the mechanisms explaining these disparities are poorly understood. One plausible mechanism is heightened stress. The current study investigated whether maternal perceived stress was 1) associated with measures of the home language environment, and 2) mediated the relation between socioeconomic disparities and the home language environment. Data from three independent studies were analyzed, which together comprised 322 mother-child dyads. Two studies included mothers and their six- to twelve-month-old infants (N = 227). The third included mothers and their five- to nine-year-old children (N = 95). Mothers reported their educational attainment, income, and stress. Language Environment Analysis (LENA) measured the home language environment. As has been previously reported, socioeconomic disparities were observed in adult words and conversational turns. Stress did not mediate these associations, nor was it associated with adult words or conversational turns. Alternate mechanisms for future exploration are discussed.

The impact of poverty and socioeconomic status on brain, behaviour, and development: a unified framework

In this article, we, for the first time, provide a comprehensive overview and unified framework of the impact of poverty and low socioeconomic status (SES) on the brain and behaviour. While there are many studies on the impact of low SES on the brain (including cortex, hippocampus, amygdala, and even neurotransmitters) and behaviours (including educational attainment, language development, development of psychopathological disorders), prior studies did not integrate behavioural, educational, and neural findings in one framework. Here, we argue that the impact of poverty and low SES on the brain and behaviour are interrelated. Specifically, based on prior studies, due to a lack of resources, poverty and low SES are associated with poor nutrition, high levels of stress in caregivers and their children, and exposure to socio-environmental hazards. These psychological and physical injuries impact the normal development of several brain areas and neurotransmitters. Impaired functioning of the amygdala can lead to the development of psychopathological disorders, while impaired hippocampus and cortex functions are associated with a delay in learning and language development as well as poor academic performance. This in turn perpetuates poverty in children, leading to a vicious cycle of poverty and psychological/physical impairments. In addition to providing economic aid to economically disadvantaged families, interventions should aim to tackle neural abnormalities caused by poverty and low SES in early childhood. Importantly, acknowledging brain abnormalities due to poverty in early childhood can help increase economic equity. In the current study, we provide a comprehensive list of future studies to help understand the impact of poverty on the brain.

Intergenerational transmission of health inequalities: towards a life course approach to socioeconomic inequalities in health - a review

Adult health inequalities are a persistent public health problem. Explanations are usually sought in behaviours and environments in adulthood, despite evidence on the importance of early life conditions for life course outcomes. We review evidence from a broad range of fields to unravel to what extent, and how, socioeconomic health inequalities are intergenerationally transmitted.We find that transmission of socioeconomic and associated health (dis)advantages from parents to offspring, and its underlying structural determinants, contributes substantially to socioeconomic inequalities in adult health. In the first two decades of life-from conception to early adulthood-parental socioeconomic position (SEP) and parental health strongly influence offspring adult SEP and health. Socioeconomic and health (dis)advantages are largely transmitted through the same broad mechanisms. Socioeconomic inequalities in the fetal environment contribute to inequalities in fetal development and birth outcomes, with lifelong socioeconomic and health consequences. Inequalities in the postnatal environment-especially the psychosocial and learning environment, physical exposures and socialisation-result in inequalities in child and adolescent health, development and behavioural habits, with health and socioeconomic consequences tracking into adulthood. Structural factors shape these mechanisms in a socioeconomically patterned and time-specific and place-specific way, leading to distinct birth-cohort patterns in health inequality.Adult health inequalities are for an important part intergenerationally transmitted. Effective health inequality reduction requires addressing intergenerational transmission of (dis)advantage by creating societal circumstances that allow all children to develop to their full potential.