Thousands of reptile species threatened by under-regulated global trade

Chains of Commerce: A Comprehensive Review of Animal Welfare Impacts in the International Wildlife Trade

The commercial wildlife trade involves billions of animals each year, consumed for various purposes, including food, fashion, entertainment, traditional medicine, and pets. The experiences of the animals involved vary widely, with negative welfare states being commonplace. To highlight the broad scope of animal welfare impacts across the commercial wildlife trade, we present ten case studies featuring a range of species traded globally for different purposes: (1) Ball pythons captured and farmed to serve as pets; (2) Zebrafish captive bred to serve as pets; (3) African Grey Parrots taken from the wild for the pet industry; (4) Sharks de-finned for traditional medicine; (5) Pangolins hunted for traditional medicine; (6) Crickets farmed for food and feed; (7) Frogs wild-caught for the frog-leg trade; (8) Crocodilians killed for their skins; (9) Lions farmed and killed for tourism; and (10) Elephants held captive for tourism. The case studies demonstrate that wild animals commercially traded can suffer from negative welfare states ranging from chronic stress and depression to frustration and extreme hunger. The individuals involved range from hundreds to billions, and their suffering can last a lifetime. Given the welfare issues identified and the growing recognition and scientific evidence for animal sentience, we propose reducing and redirecting consumer demand for these consumptive wildlife practices that negatively impact animals.

First European record of Rickettsia bellii in Amblyomma rotundatum from Rhinella marina imported to Poland

This study reports on the first documented case of Amblyomma rotundatum ticks, a species typically found in the Americas, parasitising an imported toad in Poland. A total of 12 ticks were collected from a single Rhinella marina toad. These ticks were identified as female specimens of A. rotundatum using an examination of morphological characteristics and a molecular analysis. Polymerase chain reaction testing revealed that 75.0% (9/12) of these females were positive for Rickettsia spp. Sequencing of positive samples confirmed the presence of R. bellii. However, no DNA evidence of Borrelia spp. and Anaplasma spp. was detected in the tested ticks. Nevertheless, given the limited number of tick specimens collected from a single host, further research is required to elucidate the pathogen profile of a tick species. This finding represents the second European report of A. rotundatum associated with exported animals, underscoring the importance of vigilance in monitoring the potential spread of ticks and tick-borne pathogens through the global wildlife trade.

Reptile trade and chelonians-associated Salmonellosis in humans: A public health concern

Animal trade has become a serious criminal practice in the world. Every day thousands of exotic wild animals, including reptiles, are farmed and sold worldwide. The illegal collection of turtles and tortoises remains completely unsupervised and represents a big challenge for responsible authorities. This has consequences for animals and public health because it can contribute to the spread of multiple zoonotic pathogens by introducing exotic species into new geographical areas like wet markets, pet shops, and houses. Non-typhoidal Salmonella are bacteria that can commonly cause self-limiting gastroenteritis but can also cause more serious symptoms, especially in more vulnerable people with impaired immune systems. There is growing evidence linking Salmonella to reptiles, especially chelonians, and its prevalence has increased recently as turtles and tortoises have become popular as new pets. These animals can potentially transmit antimicrobial resistant strains of Salmonella to humans, which puts people in danger, especially young children. Pet owners should be aware and take all the control measures to prevent the infection. This updated review investigates the reptile trade situations worldwide, including chelonians, explaining their relationship with the spread of Salmonella and the risk of infections for humans.

The magnitude of legal wildlife trade and implications for species survival

The unsustainable use of wildlife is a primary driver of global biodiversity loss. No comprehensive global dataset exists on what species are in trade, their geographic origins, and trade's ultimate impacts, which limits our ability to sustainably manage trade. The United States is one of the world's largest importers of wildlife, with trade data compiled in the US Law Enforcement Management Information System (LEMIS). The LEMIS provides the most comprehensive publicly accessible wildlife trade database of non-the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES) listed species. In total, 21,097 species and over 2.85 billion individuals were traded over the past 22 y (2000-2022). When LEMIS data are combined with CITES records, the United States imported over 29,445 wild species, including over 50% of all globally described species in some taxonomic groups. For most taxa, around half of the individuals are declared as sourced from the wild. Although the LEMIS provides the only means to assess trade volumes for many taxa, without any associated data on most wild populations, it is impossible to assess the impact on biodiversity, sustainability of trade, or any potential risk of pest or pathogen spread. These insights underscore the considerable underestimation of trade and the urgent need for other countries to adopt similar mechanisms to accurately record trade.

Global dynamics of functional composition in CITES-traded reptiles

Global wildlife trade is a billion-dollar industry, with millions of individuals traded annually from a diversity of taxa, many of which are directly threatened by trade. Reptiles exhibiting desirable life-history or aesthetic traits, such as large body sizes or colorful morphologies, are traded preferentially. A key issue is understanding geographic and temporal variation between desirable species traits and their trade. Poor understanding of this can generalize patterns of consumer trait preferences and conceal functional consequences of wild harvest in ecosystems. Using records of legal, international trade in Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species (CITES)-listed reptiles between 2000 and 2020, we examine geographic and temporal variation in the functional composition of traded assemblages, both captive- and wild-sourced, identifying key hotspots and routes of functional diversity in trade. We also identify associations between functional traits and species presence in trade. We find that functionally diverse trade assemblages are exported primarily from the tropics, with hotspots in sub-Saharan Africa, and imported across Asia, Europe, and North America. Patterns of functional composition in trade remained broadly stable from 2000 to 2020. Globally, the species most likely to be traded were large, fecund, generalists. Sustained wild harvest of functionally diverse reptilian assemblages in trade hotspots, such as Madagascar and Indonesia, places substantial pressure on large-bodied reptiles that fulfill important ecological functions, including population control and nutrient cycling, while also endangering harvest-vulnerable species with slow life histories. Despite limited species-specific descriptions of reptilian ecological functions, management in harvest hotspots can safeguard ecosystem functioning by prioritizing protection for threatened species that contribute disproportionately to local and regional functional diversity.

Trends in Reptile Holdings Across UK Zoos: Identification of the Factors Responsible for Declining Numbers of Venomous Snake

Zoos are under increasing pressure to strategically manage their collections to maximize visitor attendance, financial income, and their contribution to conservation. As a result, the compositions of zoo collections are undergoing significant changes. Many zoos are keeping fewer species and prioritizing keeping large flagship animals that are more attractive to the public. To understand the effects these changes are having on captive reptile numbers, we have analyzed the trends in reptile holdings between 2003 and 2023 at UK zoos. Our findings show that despite an overall increase in reptile numbers in the period analyzed, there has been a dramatic decline in the number of venomous snakes held at UK zoos, and as a result, venomous snakes are being excluded from many of the conservation benefits that zoos provide. To understand the key factors contributing to the decline in venomous snake numbers, 57 staff members across 35 different BIAZA-accredited zoos were surveyed. Results from the survey identified that a perceived increased risk of harm, increasingly stringent health and safety regulations, and increased husbandry requirements were all key contributing factors to why venomous snake numbers at zoos are in decline.

Creating a more inclusive approach to wildlife trade management

Global wildlife trade involves a diverse array of species. Although sustainable trade underpins livelihoods for communities worldwide, unsustainable trade, whether legal or illegal, threatens thousands of species and can lead to extinctions. From plants and fungi to fish, amphibians, mammals, invertebrates, and reptiles, a diverse array of species across taxa are affected by trade. Attention to wildlife trade has increased in recent years, but its focus has largely remained on a narrow range of high-profile species, with taxa deemed less charismatic frequently overlooked, despite some having significant trade volumes and levels of threat to wild populations. These biases can hamper effective policy interventions, reduce awareness of wider threats from trade, and prevent conservation efforts from focusing on the most pressing issues. It is important to broaden the scope of research and policy discussions and create a more inclusive approach to trade management. The diversity of approaches to wildlife trade can be improved by expanding monitoring of trade to a wider variety of taxa; collecting fundamental ecological data to underpin assessments of trade sustainability; improving and codesigning conservation interventions with key stakeholders and trade actors; and developing appropriate strategies for managing the supply, trade, and demand in diverse wildlife products to ensure species and livelihoods are protected.

Quantifying species biases among multidata sources on illegal wildlife trade and its implications for conservation

Unsustainable wildlife consumption and illegal wildlife trade (IWT) threaten biodiversity worldwide. Although publicly accessible data sets are increasingly used to generate insights into IWT, little is known about their potential bias. We compared three typical and temporally corresponding data sets (4204 court verdicts, 926 seizure news reports, and 219 bird market surveys) on traded birds native to China and evaluated their possible species biases. Specifically, we evaluated bias and completeness of sampling for species richness, phylogeny, conservation status, spatial distribution, and life-history characteristics among the three data sets when determining patterns of illegal trade. Court verdicts contained the largest species richness. In bird market surveys and seizure news reports, phylogenetic clustering was greater than that in court verdicts, where songbird species (i.e., Passeriformes) were detected in higher proportions in market surveys. The seizure news data set contained the highest proportion of species of high conservation priority but the lowest species coverage. Across the country, all data sets consistently reported relatively high species richness in south and southwest regions, but markets revealed a northern geographic bias. The species composition in court verdicts and markets also exhibited distinct geographical patterns. There was significant ecological trait bias when we modeled whether a bird species is traded in the market. Our regression model suggested that species with small body masses, large geographical ranges, and a preference for anthropogenic habitats and those that are not nationally protected were more likely to be traded illegally. The species biases we found emphasize the need to know the constraints of each data set so that they can optimally inform strategies to combat IWT.

Scale of unregulated international trade in Australian reptiles and amphibians

Reptiles and amphibians are popular in the exotic pet trade, where Australian species are valued for their rarity and uniqueness. Despite a near-complete ban on the export of Australian wildlife, smuggling and subsequent international trade frequently occur in an unregulated and unmonitored manner. In 2022, Australia listed over 100 squamates in Appendix III of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES) to better monitor this trade. We investigated current trade and assessed the value of this Australian CITES listing using web-scraping methods to monitor the online pet trade in Australian reptiles and amphibians, with additional data from published papers, trade databases, and seizure records. Despite the export ban, we identified 170 endemic herpetofauna (reptile and amphibian) species in international trade, 33 of which were not recorded previously in the international market, including 6 newly recorded genera. Ninety-two traded species were included in CITES appendices (59 added in 2022), but at least 78 other traded species remained unregulated. Among these, 5 of the 10 traded threatened species were unlisted, and we recommend they be considered for inclusion in CITES Appendix III. We also recommend the listing of all Diplodactylidae genera in Appendix III. Despite this family representing the greatest number of Australian species in trade, only one genus (of 7 traded) was included in the recent CITES amendments. Overall, a large number of Australian reptile and amphibian species are traded internationally and, although we acknowledge the value of Australia's recent CITES listing, we recommend the consideration of other taxa for similar inclusion in CITES.

Global invasion and biosecurity risk from the online trade in ornamental crayfish

Trade in undomesticated ornamental animals has rapidly expanded beyond brick-and-mortar retail stores to now include growing numbers of internet marketplaces. The growing volume, diversity, and origins of invasive non-native species in trade challenge already weak national biosecurity policies. Despite widespread focus on vertebrates, many knowledge gaps exist regarding the online global trade of ornamental invertebrates. We conducted the first global assessment of the online trade in and associated invasion risk of freshwater crayfishes, which are increasingly popular aquarium animals. We systematically examined e-commerce marketplaces in multiple languages, scrapping information that included species identity, price, quantity, and shipping designation from each crayfish listing. Next, we combined geographic pathways of shipping associated with online trade (introduction risk) and environmental suitability modeling (establishment risk) to estimate global risk of non-native crayfish invasion risk. We identified hundreds of online marketplaces and thousands of sale listings in 33 countries (5 continents) involving 60 species and representing a selling value of ∼US$1.5 million. Invasion risk of non-native crayfish in trade was widespread, with geographic hotspots coinciding with both elevated opportunities for introduction (greater shipping offerings) and establishment. Precise characterization of the online species trade is fundamental to support new and reformed biosecurity policies, build industry partnerships, and design educational campaigns to prevent species invasions through trade. We found that the taxonomy, geography, and economics of the global online ornamental crayfish trade are vast and require greater attention.

A Snapshot of the Global Trade of South African Native Vertebrate Species Not Listed on CITES

The Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES) aims to prevent the overexploitation of species by controlling their trade. However, there is currently no international regulatory framework to protect the trade of non-CITES species. We examined the LEMIS database, online trade, and scientific literature with the aim of identifying and compiling a list of South African native species traded as pets and wildlife products. We found that there are 223 non-CITES species traded as wildlife products and 95 species traded as pets. Mammals and birds were the most traded taxa for wildlife products, while reptiles and amphibians were mostly traded as pets. At the least, species traded as wildlife products and pets are currently not facing extinction, as most are categorized as Least Concern. However, some endemic species have an unknown population size, with Sclerophrys pantherina and Neamblysomus gunningi being Endangered. The international pet trade involves 10 countries, with the USA, the Czech Republic, and the UK being the largest importers. The trade of species as wildlife products involves 20 countries, with the USA being the major importer. This study emphasizes the necessity of strict regulations and international cooperation to control the wildlife trade effectively.

Early warning of trends in commercial wildlife trade through novel machine-learning analysis of patent filing

Unsustainable wildlife trade imperils thousands of species, but efforts to identify and reduce these threats are hampered by rapidly evolving commercial markets. Businesses trading wildlife-derived products innovate to remain competitive, and the patents they file to protect their innovations also provide an early-warning of market shifts. Here, we develop a novel machine-learning approach to analyse patent-filing trends and apply it to patents filed from 1970-2020 related to six traded taxa that vary in trade legality, threat level, and use type: rhinoceroses, pangolins, bears, sturgeon, horseshoe crabs, and caterpillar fungus. We found 27,308 patents, showing 130% per-year increases, compared to a background rate of 104%. Innovation led to diversification, including new fertilizer products using illegal-to-trade rhinoceros horn, and novel farming methods for pangolins. Stricter regulation did not generally correlate with reduced patenting. Patents reveal how wildlife-related businesses predict, adapt to, and create market shifts, providing data to underpin proactive wildlife-trade management approaches.

Assessing the Current Landscape of Reptile Pet Ownership in Hong Kong: A Foundation for Improved Animal Welfare and Future Research Directions

We investigated the evolving landscape of reptile pet ownership in Hong Kong. Employing a quantitative approach, a self-administered survey was distributed and over 200 reptile pet owners residing in Hong Kong responded. The survey instrument captured demographic data on pet ownership history, species preferences, husbandry practices, and veterinary care utilization. The findings revealed a strong interest in pet reptiles, with lizards being particularly popular (67%) among new owners. Turtles remain common (35%), likely due to cultural factors and perceived ease of care. However, a gap was noted between the awareness and the implementation of proper husbandry practices, with 51% of respondents expressing concerns about enrichment and 21% uncertain about appropriate enclosure size. Veterinary care utilization also showed a disconnect, with 50% of the respondents reporting no regular check-ups were performed, despite acknowledging its importance. Reptile behavior served as a well-being indicator. Over 90% of the respondents observed normal behaviors like locomotion and breathing. Interestingly, a positive correlation emerged between reptile behavior scores and duration of ownership (r = 0.200, p < 0.01), suggesting improved well-being for reptiles that were in long-term care. These findings emphasize the need for educational initiatives promoting responsible pet ownership practices and fostering collaboration between reptile owners, veterinarians, and animal welfare organizations. By addressing these knowledge gaps and promoting a collaborative approach, our results aim to contribute to enhanced reptile welfare in the context of Hong Kong's evolving pet ownership trends.

Two Major Extinction Events in the Evolutionary History of Turtles: One Caused by an Asteroid, the Other by Hominins

AbstractWe live in a time of accelerated biological extinctions that has the potential to mirror past mass extinction events. However, the rarity of mass extinctions and the restructuring of diversity they cause complicate direct comparisons between the current extinction crisis and earlier events. Among animals, turtles (Testudinata) are one of few groups that have both a rich fossil record and sufficiently stable ecological and functional roles to enable meaningful comparisons between the end-Cretaceous mass extinction (∼66 Ma) and the ongoing wave of extinctions. Here we analyze the fossil record of the entire turtle clade and identify two peaks in extinction rates over their evolutionary history. The first coincides with the Cretaceous-Paleogene transition, reflecting patterns previously reported for other taxa. The second major extinction event started in the Pliocene and continues until now. This peak is detectable only for terrestrial turtles and started much earlier in Africa and Eurasia than elsewhere. On the basis of the timing, geography, and functional group of this extinction event, we postulate a link to co-occurring hominins rather than climate change as the cause. These results lend further support to the view that negative biodiversity impacts were already incurred by our ancestors and related lineages and demonstrate the severity of this continued impact through human activities.

Threats to reptiles at global and regional scales

Reptiles are an important, yet often understudied, taxon in nature conservation. They play a significant role in ecosystems1 and can serve as indicators of environmental health, often responding more rapidly to human pressures than other vertebrate groups.2 At least 21% of reptiles are currently assessed as threatened with extinction by the IUCN.3 However, due to the lack of comprehensive global assessments until recently, they have been omitted from spatial studies addressing conservation or spatial prioritization (e.g., Rosauer et al.,4,5,6,7,8 Fritz and Rahbek,4,5,6,7,8 Farooq et al.,4,5,6,7,8 Meyer et al., 4,5,6,7,8 and Farooq et al.4,5,6,7,8). One important knowledge gap in conservation is the lack of spatially explicit information on the main threats to biodiversity,9 which significantly hampers our ability to respond effectively to the current biodiversity crisis.10,11 In this study, we calculate the probability of a reptile species in a specific location being affected by one of seven biodiversity threats-agriculture, climate change, hunting, invasive species, logging, pollution, and urbanization. We conducted the analysis at a global scale, using a 50 km × 50 km grid, and evaluated the impact of these threats by studying their relationship with the risk of extinction. We find that climate change, logging, pollution, and invasive species are most linked to extinction risk. However, we also show that there is considerable geographical variation in these results. Our study highlights the importance of going beyond measuring the intensity of threats to measuring the impact of these separately for various biogeographical regions of the world, with different historical contingencies, as opposed to a single global analysis treating all regions the same.

Status and trends in the international wildlife trade in Chameleons with a focus on Tanzania

Chameleons (family Chamaeleonidae) are a distinctive group of reptiles, mainly found in Africa, which have high local endemism and face significant threats from the international wildlife trade. We review the scale and structure of international chameleon trade, with a focus on collection in and exports from Tanzania; a hotspot of chameleon diversity. Analysis used data from the CITES Trade Database 2000-2019, combined with assessment of online trade, and on-the-ground surveys in Tanzania in 2019. Between 2000 and 2019, 1,128,776 live chameleons from 108 species were reported as exported globally, with 193,093 of these (from 32 species) exported by Tanzania. Both global and Tanzanian chameleon exports declined across the study period, driven by decreased trade in generalist genera. Whilst the proportion of captive-bred individuals increased across time for the generalist taxa, the majority of range-restricted taxa in trade remained largely wild-sourced. For Tanzanian exports, 41% of chameleons were from one of the 23 endemic species, and 10 of the 12 Tanzanian endemic species in trade are categorised as threatened with extinction by IUCN. In terms of online trade, of the 42 Tanzanian species assessed, there was evidence of online sale for 83.3% species, and 69% were actively for sale with prices listed. Prices were on average highest for Trioceros species, followed by Kinyongia, Rieppeleon, Rhampholeon, and Chameleo. Field work in Tanzania provided evidence that the historic harvest of endemic chameleon species has been higher than the quantities of these species reported as exported by Tanzania in their annual trade reports to CITES. However, we found no field evidence for trade in 2020 and 2021, in line with Tanzanian regulations that applied a blanket ban on all exports of live wild animals. Literature evidence, however, suggests that illegal trade continued to Europe from seizures of Tanzanian chameleon species in Austria in 2021.

Identifying inconsistencies in exotic pet regulations that perpetuate trade in risky species

Regulatory inconsistencies at different jurisdictional levels have contributed to the global expansion of the exotic pet trade, with resultant increases in the spread of invasive species and pathogens. Researchers have enumerated multiple limitations and environmental risks posed by international and national rules that govern the exotic pet trade, yet little attention has focused on the regulation of the exotic pet trade within national borders. We reviewed state-level regulations that apply to the trade of vertebrate animal taxa in the United States. Definitions and classifications for regulating different vertebrate taxa varied greatly across states, and the terms pet and companion animal were poorly defined and inconsistent across states. States implemented regulations that permit trade in exotic vertebrate pets that are banned from import into the United States owing to public health and conservation concerns. Once species have been imported into the United States, inconsistent internal regulations facilitate the movement of animals that pose substantial invasion and disease risks. Violations of state laws were typically listed as misdemeanors, and the median fine for violating state wildlife trade laws was $1000. Inconsistent and incomplete regulation of exotic vertebrate pets across state borders, in conjunction with limited penalties for violating regulations, has facilitated continued possession of exotic pets in states where these animals are banned. Based on our review of regulatory weaknesses, we conclude that a transition to a federally enforced list of vertebrate species that may be traded as pets is needed, with all other vertebrate species banned from the exotic pet trade unless their potential invasion and disease risks have been assessed and demonstrated to be low or nonexistent.

Trained quantity discrimination in invasive red-eared slider and a comparison with the native stripe-necked turtle

Little is known about the behavioral and cognitive traits that best predict invasion success. Evidence is mounting that cognitive performance correlates with survival and fecundity, two pivotal factors for the successful establishment of invasive populations. We assessed the quantity discrimination ability of the globally invasive red-eared slider (Trachemys scripta elegans). We further compared it to that of the native stripe-necked turtle (Mauremys sinensis), which has been previously evaluated for its superior quantity discrimination ability. Specifically, our experimental designs aimed to quantify the learning ability as numerosity pairs increased in difficulty (termed fixed numerosity tests), and the immediate response when turtles were presented with varied challenges concurrently in the same tests (termed mixed numerosity tests). Our findings reaffirm the remarkable ability of freshwater turtles to discern numerical differences as close as 9 vs 10 (ratio = 0.9), which was comparable to the stripe-necked turtle's performance. However, the red-eared slider exhibited a moderate decrease in performance in high ratio tests, indicating a potentially enhanced cognitive capacity to adapt to novel challenges. Our experimental design is repeatable and is adaptable to a range of freshwater turtles. These findings emphasize the potential importance of cognitive research to the underlying mechanisms of successful species invasions.

Assessing and improving the veracity of international trade in captive-bred animals

Captive breeding is often seen as a solution to sustainably increasing the supply of individuals in the wildlife trade. To be an effective conservation measure this requires robust systems to verify the authenticity of captive-bred species. The Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES) monitors the international trade in Listed species-which for many taxa is dominated by captive-bred individuals-using the Review of Captive Trade (RCT) process. A key question is how best to identify laundered or inauthentic captive-bred trade and how has this changed over time and space. We develop targeted assessments based on multiple RCT criteria to identify probable instances of laundering and misuse of source and purpose codes in international trade records, and apply this to 39,167 records of captive trade from 2000 to 2020 spanning 53,674,762 individuals. We find a very low proportion of trade volume (1.8%, 37,835 individuals) misreported as originating from non-existent, registered Appendix I-breeding facilities, and low instances of exporter-reported captive trade being recorded by importers as wild-sourced (<4%) or ranched (1%). We also find that <2% of species-year-exporter records have abrupt shifts from wild to captive sources, potentially indicating laundering. Conversely, we find high incidences of exporter- and importer-reported trade differing in whether the trade was commercial or not - a phenomenon we attribute to differing definitions, not illegal activity. Our results indicate a low incidence of concerning international trade being reported, but we suggest this likely stems from reporting requirements that limit our assessments. We highlight additional trade data that, if embedded into Party's annual reports, would vastly improve inferential potential, greatly increasing the number of records (Appendix II and III species) that could be verified with minimal effort for management authorities.

A synthesis of wild animal-related trade laws in some of the world's most biodiverse countries

We examined the laws and legal provisions governing the commercial trade of terrestrial wild fauna across the trade chain in some of the world's megadiverse countries and how these relate to key animal welfare and conservation concerns. Over the past century, an increase in the quantity and complexity of laws related to commercial wildlife trade has been observed in the 11 focal countries examined. Our review identified 95 laws with 560 provisions adopted since 1910 across these countries. Surprisingly, the level of biological diversity in a country does not correlate with the extent of legislation addressing wildlife trade. Moreover, legislation is unevenly distributed across different stages of the wildlife trade chain, with more provisions on extraction and transportation compared to captive management. Notably, animal welfare considerations are relatively underrepresented in legislation related to wildlife trade, despite their broad implications for public health and economies. Urgent legislative action is needed to meet global biodiversity targets and respond to the challenges posed by the growing scale and complexity of the wildlife trade. Recommendations are made to streamline legislation, consider the legal status of wild animals, and address gaps in enforcement mechanisms. We conclude that alignment of national and international regulations is crucial for the effective protection of both wild animal populations and individual animals' welfare in the context of commercial trade. Further research is needed to assess the effectiveness of existing laws, bridge legal gaps, and address diverse concerns related to wildlife trade, including public health and the rights of local communities.

Complete mitochondrial genome of the western painted turtle (Chrysemys picta bellii, Testudines: Emydidae) in Korea

The complete mitochondrial genome of Chrysemys picta bellii in Korea was sequenced and characterized. The mitochondrial genome consists of 37 genes (13 protein-coding genes, 22 transfer RNA genes, and 2 ribosomal RNA genes) and a noncoding region. Phylogenetic analysis based on the mitochondrial genome sequences revealed that C. p. bellii from Korea formed a cluster with C. p. bellii from China and C. picta from the USA, while showing clear separation from other turtle species within the C. picta cluster. This study presented the first complete mitochondrial genome from C. p. bellii in Korea, offering crucial information for managing invasive species and protecting the local ecosystem.

Quantifying global colonization pressures of alien vertebrates from wildlife trade

The global trade in live wildlife elevates the risk of biological invasions by increasing colonization pressure (the number of alien species introduced to an area). Yet, our understanding of species traded as aliens remains limited. We created a comprehensive global database on live terrestrial vertebrate trade and use it to investigate the number of traded alien species, and correlates of establishment richness for aliens. We identify 7,780 species involved in this trade globally. Approximately 85.7% of these species are traded as aliens, and 12.2% of aliens establish populations. Countries with greater trading power, higher incomes, and larger human populations import more alien species. These countries, along with island nations, emerge as hotspots for establishment richness of aliens. Colonization pressure and insularity consistently promote establishment richness across countries, while socio-economic factors impact specific taxa. Governments must prioritize policies to mitigate the release or escape of traded animals and protect global biosecurity.

Reaction to Novel Objects and Fecal Glucocorticoid Metabolite Levels in Two Species of Nocturnal Geckos

Many reptiles are maintained in captivity and heavily traded, although welfare measures for many species are not well established and are under-researched compared to other animals. In this study, we focused on two of these species: crested geckos (Correlophus ciliatus) and leopard geckos (Eublepharis macularius). To better interpret their behavior in captivity, the individual reaction to novel objects and the fecal glucocorticoid metabolite levels were measured in an attempt to identify the potential correlation between them. Also, we explored if some characteristic of the objects (e.g., color, shape, or smell) resulted in being more attractive to some species and/or individuals. Equivalent responses to different objects were not obtained for all the geckos, the behavioral response being highly individual and context-dependent, although modulated by the species. Individuals which manipulated earlier and interacted longer with novel objects showed lower basal fecal corticosterone metabolite (FCM) levels. Differences according to the species suggested that crested geckos have significantly greater and more variable FCM levels than leopard geckos. Our results can help to understand the reaction of geckos to novelty and have the potential to serve in their welfare assessment, although more studies are needed to proper establish welfare protocols.

Online classified adverts reflect the broader United Kingdom trade in turtles and tortoises rather than drive it

Online sales are increasingly a route by which exotic animals are sold in the global pet trade. There are numerous types of online platforms and transaction types, and dedicated classified advertisement sites are a popular means of buying and selling animals. Despite their large and increasing use, we have a relatively poor understanding of the number of, and taxonomic variation in, the animals sold online. This information may be key in efforts to optimise the welfare of the animals being sold, and the ethics and sustainability of the trade via that platform. To fill this knowledge gap, we monitored and analysed the advertisements of chelonians (turtles and tortoises) placed on one of the United Kingdom's largest dedicated classified ads sites, www.pets4homes.co.uk, over the course of a year, from July 2020 until June 2021. We analysed temporal, taxonomic, and advertiser related trends in the volumes of advertisements placed and compared the prices and the sentiment of language within adverts for different species. We found that the species advertised, the prices requested, and infrequent use of the site by most advertisers is consistent with most adverts being for animals being resold by casual users. Further, we found that turtles were consistently advertised for lower prices and in multiples than tortoises, and that the language with which they were advertised was less positive. We conclude that on this website the online trade reflects the broader trade, rather than drives the sales of chelonians in the UK, and that any interventions aiming to improve welfare and sustainability would be better placed earlier in the supply chain.

Humanity's diverse predatory niche and its ecological consequences

Although humans have long been predators with enduring nutritive and cultural relationships with their prey, seldom have conservation ecologists considered the divergent predatory behavior of contemporary, industrialized humans. Recognizing that the number, strength and diversity of predator-prey relationships can profoundly influence biodiversity, here we analyze humanity's modern day predatory interactions with vertebrates and estimate their ecological consequences. Analysing IUCN 'use and trade' data for ~47,000 species, we show that fishers, hunters and other animal collectors prey on more than a third (~15,000 species) of Earth's vertebrates. Assessed over equivalent ranges, humans exploit up to 300 times more species than comparable non-human predators. Exploitation for the pet trade, medicine, and other uses now affects almost as many species as those targeted for food consumption, and almost 40% of exploited species are threatened by human use. Trait space analyses show that birds and mammals threatened by exploitation occupy a disproportionally large and unique region of ecological trait space, now at risk of loss. These patterns suggest far more species are subject to human-imposed ecological (e.g., landscapes of fear) and evolutionary (e.g., harvest selection) processes than previously considered. Moreover, continued overexploitation will likely bear profound consequences for biodiversity and ecosystem function.

Reliability of social media data in monitoring the global pet trade in ants

The global pet trade is a major risk to biodiversity and humans and has become increasingly globalized, diversified, digitalized, and extremely difficult to control. With billions of internet users posting online daily, social media could be a powerful surveillance tool. But it is unknown how reliably social media can track the global pet trade. We tested whether Instagram data predicted the geographic distribution of pet stores and the taxonomic composition of traded species in the emerging pet trade in ants (Hymenoptera, Formicidae). We visited 138 online stores selling ants as pets worldwide and recorded the species traded. We scraped ∼38,000 Instagram posts from ∼6300 users referencing ants as pets and analyzed comments on post and geolocation (available for ∼1800 users). We tested whether the number of Instagram users predicted the number of ant sellers per country and whether the species referenced as pets on Instagram matched the species offered in online stores, with a particular focus on invasive species. The location of Instagram users referencing ants as pets predicted the location of ant sellers across the globe (R²  = 0.87). Instagram data detected 439 of the 631 ant species traded in online stores (70%), including 59 of the 68 invasive species traded (87%). The number of Instagram users referencing a species was a good predictor of the number of sellers offering the species (R²  = 0.77). Overall, Instagram data provided affordable and reliable data for monitoring the emerging pet trade in ants. Easier access to these data would facilitate monitoring of the global pet trade and help implement relevant regulations in a timely manner.

Determining the sustainability of legal wildlife trade

Exploitation of wildlife represents one of the greatest threats to species survival according to the Intergovernmental Science-Policy Platform on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services. Whilst detrimental impacts of illegal trade are well recognised, legal trade is often equated to being sustainable despite the lack of evidence or data in the majority of cases. We review the sustainability of wildlife trade, the adequacy of tools, safeguards, and frameworks to understand and regulate trade, and identify gaps in data that undermine our ability to truly understand the sustainability of trade. We provide 183 examples showing unsustainable trade in a broad range of taxonomic groups. In most cases, neither illegal nor legal trade are supported by rigorous evidence of sustainability, with the lack of data on export levels and population monitoring data precluding true assessments of species or population-level impacts. We propose a more precautionary approach to wildlife trade and monitoring that requires those who profit from trade to provide proof of sustainability. We then identify four core areas that must be strengthened to achieve this goal: (1) rigorous data collection and analyses of populations; (2) linking trade quotas to IUCN and international accords; (3) improved databases and compliance of trade; and (4) enhanced understanding of trade bans, market forces, and species substitutions. Enacting these core areas in regulatory frameworks, including CITES, is essential to the continued survival of many threatened species. There are no winners from unsustainable collection and trade: without sustainable management not only will species or populations become extinct, but communities dependent upon these species will lose livelihoods.

Human activities favour prolific life histories in both traded and introduced vertebrates

Species' life histories determine population demographics and thus the probability that introduced populations establish and spread. Life histories also influence which species are most likely to be introduced, but how such 'introduction biases' arise remains unclear. Here, we investigate how life histories affect the probability of trade and introduction in phylogenetic comparative analyses across three vertebrate classes: mammals, reptiles and amphibians. We find that traded species have relatively high reproductive rates and long reproductive lifespans. Within traded species, introduced species have a more extreme version of this same life history profile. Species in the pet trade also have long reproductive lifespans but lack 'fast' traits, likely reflecting demand for rare species which tend to have slow life histories. We identify multiple species not yet traded or introduced but with life histories indicative of high risk of future trade, introduction and potentially invasion. Our findings suggest that species with high invasion potential are favoured in the wildlife trade and therefore that trade regulation is crucial for preventing future invasions.

Mitochondrial DNA and Distribution Modelling Evidenced the Lost Genetic Diversity and Wild-Residence of Star Tortoise, Geochelone elegans (Testudines: Testudinidae) in India

The Indian star tortoise (Geochelone elegans) is a massively traded animal in South Asia. To mitigate this risk, the conservation agencies recommended guidelines to safeguard this charismatic species in nature. We adopted mitochondrial DNA-based investigation and performed species distribution modeling of G. elegans throughout its distribution range in the Indian subcontinent. The genetic analyses revealed weak genetic landscape shape interpolations, low intraspecific distances (0% to 1.5%) with mixed haplotype diversity, and a single molecular operational taxonomic unit (MOTU) in the cytochrome b gene dataset. The star tortoise, G. elegans, and its sister species Geochelone platynota showed a monophyletic clustering in the Bayesian (BA) phylogeny. We also attempt to understand the habitat suitability and quality of G. elegans in its distribution range. Our results suggest that, out of the extant area, only 56,495 km² (9.90%) is suitable for this species, with regions of highest suitability in Sri Lanka. Comparative habitat quality estimation suggests the patch shape complexity and habitat fragmentation are greater in the western and southern ranges of India, which have been greatly influenced by an increased level of urbanization and agriculture practices. We have also provided a retrospect on the potential threat to G. elegans related to the wildlife trade on the regional and international spectrum. Our results detected multiple trading hubs and junctions overlying within the suitable ranges which need special attention in the vicinity. The present study calls for a proper conservation strategy to combat the fragmented distribution and explicitly recommends intensive genetic screening of founder individuals or isolated adult colonies, implementing scientific breeding, and subsequent wild release to restore the lost genetic diversity of star tortoises.

The ecological drivers and consequences of wildlife trade

Wildlife trade is a key driver of extinction risk, affecting at least 24% of terrestrial vertebrates. The persistent removal of species can have profound impacts on species extinction risk and selection within populations. We draw together the first review of characteristics known to drive species use - identifying species with larger body sizes, greater abundance, increased rarity or certain morphological traits valued by consumers as being particularly prevalent in trade. We then review the ecological implications of this trade-driven selection, revealing direct effects of trade on natural selection and populations for traded species, which includes selection against desirable traits. Additionally, there exists a positive feedback loop between rarity and trade and depleted populations tend to have easy human access points, which can result in species being harvested to extinction and has the potential to alter source-sink dynamics. Wider cascading ecosystem repercussions from trade-induced declines include altered seed dispersal networks, trophic cascades, long-term compositional changes in plant communities, altered forest carbon stocks, and the introduction of harmful invasive species. Because it occurs across multiple scales with diverse drivers, wildlife trade requires multi-faceted conservation actions to maintain biodiversity and ecological function, including regulatory and enforcement approaches, bottom-up and community-based interventions, captive breeding or wildlife farming, and conservation translocations and trophic rewilding. We highlight three emergent research themes at the intersection of trade and community ecology: (1) functional impacts of trade; (2) altered provisioning of ecosystem services; and (3) prevalence of trade-dispersed diseases. Outside of the primary objective that exploitation is sustainable for traded species, we must urgently incorporate consideration of the broader consequences for other species and ecosystem processes when quantifying sustainability.

The Social Representations of Zoo Goers toward Crocodiles and Turtles: Structural Analysis and Implications for Conservation

Zoos have changed dramatically over the last century and today attract millions of people worldwide, being places where visitors can closely watch wildlife and learn about the species on display. Although present at most zoos, reptiles are challenging animals in terms of visitor interest and engagement, as some species do not fit aesthetic standards from the human standpoint, have culturally negative perceptions or generate aversive emotions. By studying zoo visitors’ social representations of crocodiles and turtles, we aimed to detail their structures, as well as identifying their prototypical elements that help to understand their emotional and cognitive framing. The findings show the crocodile’s prototypical image as a big, fearsome predator with teeth as its main physical attribute. Male visitors showed a more emotional perception of this animal. The turtle’s prototypical image is a slow, hard-shelled ancestral sea animal with a neutral-to-positive set of traits, with no particular differences between genders. Our results shed a more detailed light on some of the social constructs that make up the mental images of these animals, which can help the zoological community direct communication toward a more fluent conversation between stakeholders toward conservation.

The U.S. market for imported wildlife not listed in the CITES multilateral treaty

The international wildlife trade presents severe conservation and environmental security risks, yet no international regulatory framework exists to monitor the trade of species not listed in the appendices of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES). We explored the composition and dynamics of internationally regulated versus nonregulated trade, with a focus on importations of wild-caught terrestrial vertebrates entering the United States from 2009 to 2018. We used 10 years of species-level trade records of the numbers of live, wild-caught animals imported to the United States and data on International Union for the Conservation of Nature (IUCN) estimates of extinction risk to determine whether there were differences in the diversity, abundance, and risk to extinction among imports of CITES-listed versus unlisted species. We found 3.6 times the number of unlisted species in U.S. imports compared with CITES-listed species (1366 vs. 378 species). The CITES-listed species were more likely to face reported conservation threats relative to unlisted species (71.7% vs. 27.5%). However, 376 unlisted species faced conversation threats, 297 species had unknown population trends, and 139 species were without an evaluation by the IUCN. Unlisted species appearing for the first time in records were imported 5.5 times more often relative to CITES-listed species. Unlisted reptiles had the largest rate of entry, averaging 53 unique species appearing in imports for the first time per year. Overall trade quantities were approximately 11 times larger for imports of unlisted species relative to imports of CITES-listed species. Countries that were top exporters of CITES-listed species were mostly different from exporters of unlisted species. Because of the vulnerabilities of unlisted, traded species entering the United States and increasing global demand, we strongly recommend governments adapt their policies to monitor and report on the trade of all wildlife.

Forensic Genetic Analyses of Melanistic Iguanas Highlight the Need to Monitor the Iguanid Trade

Simple Summary

The illegal pet trade remains an ongoing, substantial threat to wild populations, especially small insular populations, and can even lead to extinction. Fraudulent activity within the global reptile trade is known to occur, but its identification through forensic applications depends on knowledge of diversity within wild populations. In this study, we assessed the geographic origin of melanistic iguanas (Iguana iguana), which are only found in nations that have never authorized legal export of live animals. Analysis of genetic data from two pet iguanas in the USA flag these as originating from Saba or Montserrat, from which no export permits have ever been issued, confirming their illegal origin. Despite the international trade in I. iguana, in which tens- if not hundreds of thousands of specimens are traded each year, only a handful of individuals have been genetically assessed. Our work highlights the utility of applying forensic genetic techniques to this trade in order to track and discourage illegal activity.

Abstract

Lizards within the Iguana iguana species complex are among the most common reptilian pets, with the widest natural geographic range among iguanids. Deep phylogenetic divergence distinguishes multiple mitochondrial clades, and several taxonomic changes have recently been proposed. These small populations, typically island endemics, are threatened by numerous factors, including the international pet trade. Recent investigations reveal the absence of required CITES permits for lawful export of animals, providing evidence of ongoing illegal trade. Additional monitoring of trade in iguanas can be achieved through the application of forensic molecular techniques. In this study, two captive melanistic iguanas were genotyped for molecular markers for which geographic distributions of alleles have been established. Mitochondrial sequencing indicates that both animals carry a haplotype known to originate from the islands of Saba and Montserrat, populations taxonomically proposed to be Iguana melanoderma. Genotypes at 15 microsatellite loci are equally consistent with this origin, given the results of a principal component analysis. This first forensic genetic assessment within the extensive I. iguana pet trade highlights the presence of illegal activity. The need for additional forensic assessments of pet-trade iguanas is evident, especially given that their value is driven by variety and rarity, which is further intensified by recent taxonomic changes.

Novel chytrid pathogen variants and the global amphibian pet trade

Global wildlife trade spreads emerging infectious diseases that threaten biodiversity. The amphibian chytrid pathogen Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis (Bd) has caused population declines and species extinctions worldwide except in Asia. Fire-bellied toads (Bombina orientalis), exported in large numbers from Asia, are tolerant of Bd and carry hypervirulent ancestral chytrid BdAsia-1 variants. We assayed the virulence of a new isolate of BdAsia-1 on the model Australasian frog host Litoria caerulea. Infected individuals (n = 15) all showed rapid disease progression culminating in death, whereas sham-inoculated individuals (n = 10) presented no clinical signs of disease and all survived (log rank test, χ² = 15.6, df = 1, p < 0.0001). The virulence of the new isolate of BdAsia-1 is comparable to the one we assayed previously (χ² = 0.0, df = 1, p = 0.91). Internationally traded wildlife, even when they appear healthy, can carry hypervirulent variants of pathogens. Once new pathogen variants escape into the environment, native species that have had no opportunity to evolve resistance to them may perish. Our study suggests that hypervirulent pathogens are being spread by the international pet trade. Notifiable wildlife diseases attributable to locally endemic pathogens often fail to generate conservation concern so are rarely subject to border surveillance or import controls. Because of the danger novel variants pose, national border control agencies need to implement disease screening and quarantine protocols to ensure the safety of their endemic fauna.

Home and hub: pet trade and traditional medicine impact reptile populations in source locations and destinations

The pet trade and Traditional Chinese Medicine (TCM) consumption are major drivers of global biodiversity loss. Tokay geckos (Gekko gecko) are among the most traded reptile species worldwide. In Hong Kong, pet and TCM markets sell tokay geckos while wild populations also persist. To clarify connections between trade sources and destinations, we compared genetics and stable isotopes of wild tokays in local and non-local populations to dried individuals from TCM markets across Hong Kong. We found that TCM tokays are likely not of local origin. Most wild tokays were related to individuals in South China, indicating a probable natural origin. However, two populations contained individuals more similar to distant populations, indicating pet trade origins. Our results highlight the complexity of wildlife trade impacts within trade hubs. Such trade dynamics complicate local legal regulation when endangered species are protected, but the same species might also be non-native and possibly damaging to the environment.

Bites by Non-Native Reptiles in France: Species, Circumstances and Outcome

We aimed to make an exhaustive assessment of circumstances of bites by exotic reptiles bred in France. A retrospective observational study was conducted in all the reported cases from 2000 to 2020 in French poison control centers (PCCs). Two hundred and eighteen cases of bites were recorded. The sex ratio (M/F) of the patients was 1.79 and the mean age of the patients was 29.0 ± 15.8 years. Twenty-two cases (10.1%) occurred during the deep night. One hundred and eighty-six bites (85.7%) occurred in a private context; however, there were more cases of high severity when it occurred in a professional setting (60.0% vs. 11.2%, p < 0.01). The feeding/nursing activity accounted for 54.7% cases. Forty-three species of snake were identified; 28 were considered venomous. There were no deaths among the patients in the study. Most of the cases (85.8%) were of mild severity. All of the patients bitten by a venomous reptile were hospitalized: 10 patients received an antivenom; and 2 required surgery. Bites occurred at home and by a small number of popular non-venomous reptile species (pythons and boas, colubrids). These occurred mainly when handling the animals. The rare envenomations were mainly by Asian and American crotalids, followed by elapids. One-third of them were treated with antivenom when available.

Cultural and Medicinal Use of Amphibians and Reptiles by Indigenous People in Punjab, Pakistan with Comments on Conservation Implications for Herpetofauna

Simple Summary

Humans have interacted with reptile and amphibian species for millennia. The current study was designed to collect knowledge about the use of amphibian and reptile species by the native peoples residing along the Jhelum and Chenab rivers in Punjab, Pakistan. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first quantitative assessment of the cultural uses of amphibian and reptile species in the study area. However, hunting, trade, and cultural use are the greatest threats to the diversity of the amphibians and reptiles in the studied area. These threats can potentially lead to their extinction. It is important to protect the highly endangered and vulnerable species employed in therapeutic medications, more specifically in terms of their conservation.

Abstract

Amphibians and reptiles have interacted with humans for millennia. However, humans interact with amphibian and reptile species in different manners, which depend on their culture and traditions. This study was designed to better understand the interactions between amphibian and reptile species and their usage among the native peoples in the vicinity of the Jhelum and Chenab rivers, Pakistan. Information was collected through semi-structured interviews and questionnaires, and was analyzed by using different indices, including the frequency of citation, corrected fidelity level, fidelity level, relative importance level, and informant major ailment. Two amphibians and twenty-six reptile species were used in therapeutic medicine in the study area. Based on the cultural analysis, we found that Naja naja (black cobra) was highly cited across all cultural groups. A 100% Fidelity Level was calculated for the following species: Naja naja (eye infection), Varanus bengalensis (joint pain), Eurylepis taeniolatus (cataract), and Acanthodactylus cantoris (cancer). We found five endangered species in the study area, i.e., Aspideretes gangeticus, A. hurum, Chitra indica, Varanus flavescens, and Geoclemys hamiltonii, that were used to cure joint pain, muscle stretching and pain, backbone pain, paralysis, and psoriasis, respectively. Likewise, Lissemys punctata andersoni, a vulnerable species as labelled by the International Union for Conservation of Nature, was extensively used for the treatment of joint pain, body pain, paralysis, and arthritis in the study area. In terms of conservation, it is critical to protect the highly vulnerable and endangered species that are being used in therapeutic medicines. Our findings may be helpful for the conservation of amphibian and reptile species by helping to make an effective plan to prevent their extinction. The main threats to the diversity of amphibian and reptile species in the area are hunting, trading, and cultural use. These threats could potentially lead to the extinction of these species. Therefore, with the involvement of concerned authorities, e.g., local stakeholders, the Ministry of Climate Change, provincial wildlife departments, academia, and conservation managers, immediate conservation measures should be taken for the protection and sustainable utilization of medicinal species.

Commercial trade of wild animals: examining the use of the IUCN Red List and CITES Appendices as the basis for corporate trade policies

Wildlife exploitation is considered a predominant factor driving global biodiversity loss and zoonotic disease transmission, in addition to a range of concerns for animal welfare and ecosystem health. One of the ways in which wild animals are exploited is for commercial trade as exotic pets, fashion products, luxury foods, traditional medicine, entertainment, ornaments and more. While the trade in some wildlife species is restricted or prohibited under various domestic and international laws, many species are not bound by legal protection and are traded in largely unmonitored numbers with the potential for severe consequences. Companies, particularly large e-commerce platforms, are increasingly adopting policies to restrict the legal trade in wild animals. Due to the absence of clear guidelines for corporate services of wildlife trade, these policies commonly adopt pre-determined species lists, such as the International Union for the Conservation of Nature’s (IUCN) Red List of Threatened Species or the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES) Appendices, as the basis for ‘negative lists’ to guide which species to restrict trade in. However, these databases were not intended for this application and there has been no assessment of their use for this purpose. Here, we summarise and compare the scale and scope of species listed on the IUCN Red List and the CITES Appendices, to discuss how much additional protection these lists provide wild animals if used as policy instruments to guide corporate wildlife trade restrictions beyond the relevant legal bounds. Based on our results, we discuss why that using one list or another would likely omit taxa of conservation concern from protection, and using both lists in conjunction would still not comprehensively reflect all species vulnerable to extinction as a result of exploitation. Further, neither list can mitigate the animal welfare and public health concerns inherently associated with all commercial wildlife trade. We recommend that companies looking to develop policies relating to commercial wildlife trade consider going beyond the scope of predetermined species lists to help mitigate the harmful effects of commercial wildlife exploitation via trade for all wild animals.

Wildlife Trade and Law Enforcement: A Proposal for a Remodeling of CITES Incorporating Species Justice, Ecojustice, and Environmental Justice

Wildlife trade is an increasing problem worldwide, whether legal or illegal. It causes species extinction, connects to organized crime and contributes to social unrest. Wildlife trade is regulated through the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES), a convention that includes most of the countries in the world. Even though wildlife trade is not necessarily breach of any law, wildlife trade still constitutes severe breaches of species justice, ecojustice, environmental justice, and animal rights. By employing these perspectives in the study of wildlife trade, the harms nonhuman animals suffer as victims of this trade receives a broader concern than that encompassed through conventional criminology. This article addresses nonhuman animal victimization through a theoretical lens that includes the justice perspective found in green criminology, and Nussbaum's concept of dignified existence. Empirically the article is based on an ongoing research project: Criminal Justice, Wildlife Conservation, and Animal rights in the Anthropocene (CRIMEANTHROP). The article starts with an introduction, followed by theoretical outlining and a presentation of empirical findings. These findings are discussed using the theoretical perspectives mentioned above. The concluding discussion suggests a radical shift in the function of CITES, from trade to conditional aid.

Living under the risk of extinction: population status and conservation needs assessment of a micro–endemic tiger gecko in Vietnam

Human impact is considered the major threat to the global decline of biodiversity, especially for threatened endemic species in karst ecosystems. Studies assessing a species' demography based on temporal and spatial indicators of population size, density and structure are expected to evaluate the level of impact of threats and are therefore becoming increasingly important for species conservation efforts. Goniurosaurus huuliensis, an endemic species in Vietnam, is one of the most threatened reptiles in the world. This karst–adapted species is classified by the IUCN Red List as Critically Endangered and listed under CITES Appendix II due to habitat loss and over–exploitation for the international pet trade. Here we provide the first evaluation of the population status of G. huuliensis. We applied a 'capture mark–recapture' method to estimate the population size and identify the population density and structure. The total population size was estimated to comprise a maximum of 1,447 individuals in integrated suitable habitats, possibly reaching up to 2,855 individuals exclusively in karst habitats within the total extension of occurrence. This is exceedingly lower than the threshold for a minimum viable population. Furthermore, G. huuliensis is documented to occur in extremely small mean population densities of only 6.4 indiv./km and 2.5 indiv./km/day along the surveyed transects. Based on the demographic information, the ongoing severe human impact (e.g. wildlife exploitation and limestone quarrying) is driving G. huuliensis to the brink of extinction. In situ conservation measures are therefore urgently required. We recommend that in-situ actions should be increased, and a plan should be developed to establish a species and habitat conservation area for G. huuliensis.

Conservation and cultural intersections within Hong Kong's snake soup industry

Snake soup continues to be an iconic tradition in Cantonese culture. Yet little is known about the relationship between snake soup consumption in Hong Kong, wild snake populations, and the communities depending on this tradition for their livelihoods. We applied an interdisciplinary approach including interviews with shopkeepers and genetic analyses of snake meat samples to determine the species consumed in Hong Kong, their source locations, and shopkeepers’ views on the future of the industry. We genetically identified the common rat snake Ptyas mucosa, widely distributed throughout East and Southeast Asia, and the Javan spitting cobra Naja sputatrix, endemic to Indonesia, as the species most commonly consumed, which was consistent with interview responses. According to interviews, snakes had mostly been imported from mainland China in the past, but now tend to be sourced from Southeast Asia, particularly Indonesia. Interviews also revealed a pessimistic outlook on the continuation of this tradition because of various factors, including a lasting yet misinformed association of snakes with the 2002–2003 outbreak of severe acute respiratory syndrome. Given the COVID-19 pandemic and China's ensuing ban on the consumption of terrestrial wildlife, Hong Kong's snake soup industry will probably continue to rely on Southeast Asian sources to persist. Given the cultural and conservation issues surrounding this tradition, further research on the economic, ecological and social consequences of snake consumption is needed to examine the broader implications of snake soup and similar industries in the region.