Photothermal nanofibres enable safe engineering of therapeutic cells

A mini-review on gene delivery technique using nanoparticles-mediated photoporation induced by nanosecond pulsed laser

Nanosecond pulsed laser induced photoporation has gained increasing attention from scholars as an effective method for delivering the membrane-impermeable extracellular materials into living cells. Compared with femtosecond laser, nanosecond laser has the advantage of high throughput and low costs. It also has a higher delivery efficiency than continuous wave laser. Here, we provide an extensive overview of current status of nanosecond pulsed laser induced photoporation, covering the photoporation mechanism as well as various factors that impact the delivery efficiency of photoporation. Additionally, we discuss various techniques for achieving photoporation, such as direct photoporation, nanoparticles-mediated photoporation and plasmonic substrates mediated photoporation. Among these techniques, nanoparticles-mediated photoporation is the most promising approach for potential clinical application. Studies have already been reported to safely destruct the vitreous opacities in vivo by nanosecond laser induced vapor nanobubble. Finally, we discuss the potential of nanosecond laser induced phototoporation for future clinical applications, particularly in the areas of skin and ophthalmic pathologies. We hope this review can inspire scientists to further improve nanosecond laser induced photoporation and facilitate its eventual clinical application.

Photoporation-mediated spatial intracellular delivery of stem cell-derived cardiomyocytes

Human induced pluripotent stem cell-derived cardiomyocytes (iPSC-CMs) are promising candidates for disease modeling and therapeutic purposes, however, non-viral intracellular delivery in these cells remains challenging. Gold nanoparticle (AuNP)-sensitized photoporation creates transient pores in the cell membrane by vapor nanobubble formation, allowing diffusion of extracellular biomolecules. This non-viral technique was employed to test and optimize its distinct physical mode of action in iPSC-CMs. Photoporation optimization was aimed at achieving high delivery rates while minimizing cell death. Various AuNP concentrations, in conjunction with different laser fluences, were explored to facilitate the intracellular delivery of 10 kDa and 150 kDa FITC-labelled dextran as model macromolecules. Cardiomyocyte viability was assessed using the CellTiter-Glo® viability assay, while the delivery efficiency was quantified through flow cytometry. On 30 day-old cardiomyocytes, AuNP photoporation was able to yield ∼60 % delivery efficiency while maintaining a high cell viability (∼70 %). Overall, higher AuNP concentrations resulted in greater delivery efficiencies, albeit at the expense of lower cell viability. Finally, photoporation was capable of patterning a geometric shape, demonstrating its exceptional selective resolution in delivering molecules to spatially restricted regions of the cell culture. In conclusion, AuNP-photoporation exhibits considerable potential as an effective and gentle non-viral method for intracellular delivery in iPSC-CMs.•AuNP-photoporation is a non-viral intracellular delivery method suitable for iPSC-CMs with high efficiency and cell viability•This method is capable of spatially resolved intracellular delivery with excellent resolution.

Customizable Zr-MOF nanoantidote-based multieffective arsenic detoxification and its extended low-toxic therapy

Arsenic (As) poisoning has become a global public problem threatening human health. Chelation therapy (CT) is the preferred treatment for arsenic poisoning. Nevertheless, efficient and safe arsenic removal in vivo remains a daunting challenge due to the limitations of chelators, including weak affinity, poor cell membrane penetration, and short half-life. Herein, a mercapto-functionalized and size-tunable hierarchical porous Zr-MOF (UiO-66-TC-SH) is developed, which possesses abundant arsenic chemisorption sites, effective cell uptake ability, and long half-life, thereby efficiently removing toxic arsenic in vivo. Moreover, the strong binding affinity of UiO-66-TC-SH for arsenic reduces systemic toxicity caused by off-target effects. In animal trials, UiO-66-TC-SH decreases the blood arsenic levels of acute arsenic poisoning mice to a normal value within 48 h, and the efficacy is superior to clinical drugs 2,3-dimercaptopropanesulfonic acid sodium salt (DMPS). Meanwhile, UiO-66-TC-SH also significantly mitigates the arsenic accumulation in the metabolic organs of chronic arsenic poisoning mice. Surprisingly, UiO-66-TC-SH also accelerates the metabolism of arsenic in organs of tumor-bearing mice and alleviates the side effects of arsenic drugs antitumor therapy. STATEMENT OF SIGNIFICANCE: Arsenic (As) contamination has become a global problem threatening public health. The present clinical chelation therapy (CT) still has some limitations, including the weak affinity, poor cell membrane permeability and short half-life of hydrophilic chelators. Herein, a metal-organic framework (MOF)-based multieffective arsenic removal strategy in vivo is proposed for the first time. Mercapto-functionalized and size-tunable hierarchical porous Zr-MOF nanoantidote (denoted as UiO-66-TC-SH) is accordingly designed and synthesized. After injection, UiO-66-TC-SH can form Zr-O-As bonds and As-S bonds with arsenic, thus enhancing arsenic adsorption capacity, cycling stability and systemic safety simultaneously. The acute arsenic poisoning model results indicate that UiO-66-TC-SH shows superior efficacy to the clinical drug sodium dimercaptopropanesulfonate (DMPS). More meaningfully, we find that UiO-66-TC-SH also accelerates the metabolism of arsenic in organs of tumor-bearing mice and alleviates side effects of arsenic drugs anti-tumor therapy.

Non-viral delivery of RNA for therapeutic T cell engineering

Adoptive T cell transfer has shown great success in treating blood cancers, resulting in a growing number of FDA-approved therapies using chimeric antigen receptor (CAR)-engineered T cells. However, the effectiveness of this treatment for solid tumors is still not satisfactory, emphasizing the need for improved T cell engineering strategies and combination approaches. Currently, CAR T cells are mainly manufactured using gammaretroviral and lentiviral vectors due to their high transduction efficiency. However, there are concerns about their safety, the high cost of producing them in compliance with current Good Manufacturing Practices (cGMP), regulatory obstacles, and limited cargo capacity, which limit the broader use of engineered T cell therapies. To overcome these limitations, researchers have explored non-viral approaches, such as membrane permeabilization and carrier-mediated methods, as more versatile and sustainable alternatives for next-generation T cell engineering. Non-viral delivery methods can be designed to transport a wide range of molecules, including RNA, which allows for more controlled and safe modulation of T cell phenotype and function. In this review, we provide an overview of non-viral RNA delivery in adoptive T cell therapy. We first define the different types of RNA therapeutics, highlighting recent advancements in manufacturing for their therapeutic use. We then discuss the challenges associated with achieving effective RNA delivery in T cells. Next, we provide an overview of current and emerging technologies for delivering RNA into T cells. Finally, we discuss ongoing preclinical and clinical studies involving RNA-modified T cells.

Bridging Smart Nanosystems with Clinically Relevant Models and Advanced Imaging for Precision Drug Delivery

Intracellular delivery of nano-drug-carriers (NDC) to specific cells, diseased regions, or solid tumors has entered the era of precision medicine that requires systematic knowledge of nano-biological interactions from multidisciplinary perspectives. To this end, this review first provides an overview of membrane-disruption methods such as electroporation, sonoporation, photoporation, microfluidic delivery, and microinjection with the merits of high-throughput and enhanced efficiency for in vitro NDC delivery. The impact of NDC characteristics including particle size, shape, charge, hydrophobicity, and elasticity on cellular uptake are elaborated and several types of NDC systems aiming for hierarchical targeting and delivery in vivo are reviewed. Emerging in vitro or ex vivo human/animal-derived pathophysiological models are further explored and highly recommended for use in NDC studies since they might mimic in vivo delivery features and fill the translational gaps from animals to humans. The exploration of modern microscopy techniques for precise nanoparticle (NP) tracking at the cellular, organ, and organismal levels informs the tailored development of NDCs for in vivo application and clinical translation. Overall, the review integrates the latest insights into smart nanosystem engineering, physiological models, imaging-based validation tools, all directed towards enhancing the precise and efficient intracellular delivery of NDCs.

Coupling of nanostraws with diverse physicochemical perforation strategies for intracellular DNA delivery

Effective intracellular DNA transfection is imperative for cell-based therapy and gene therapy. Conventional gene transfection methods, including biochemical carriers, physical electroporation and microinjection, face challenges such as cell type dependency, low efficiency, safety concerns, and technical complexity. Nanoneedle arrays have emerged as a promising avenue for improving cellular nucleic acid delivery through direct penetration of the cell membrane, bypassing endocytosis and endosome escape processes. Nanostraws (NS), characterized by their hollow tubular structure, offer the advantage of flexible solution delivery compared to solid nanoneedles. However, NS struggle to stably self-penetrate the cell membrane, resulting in limited delivery efficiency. Coupling with extra physiochemical perforation strategies is a viable approach to improve their performance. This study systematically compared the efficiency of NS coupled with polyethylenimine (PEI) chemical modification, mechanical force, photothermal effect, and electric field on cell membrane perforation and DNA transfection. The results indicate that coupling NS with PEI modification, mechanical force, photothermal effects provide limited enhancement effects. In contrast, NS-electric field coupling significantly improves intracellular DNA transfection efficiency. This work demonstrates that NS serve as a versatile platform capable of integrating various physicochemical strategies, while electric field coupling stands out as a form worthy of primary consideration for efficient DNA transfection.

Biodegradable Electrospun Membranes for Sustainable Industrial Applications

The escalating demand for sustainable industrial practices has driven the exploration of innovative materials, prominently exemplified by biodegradable electrospun membranes (BEMs). This review elucidates the pivotal role of these membranes across diverse industrial applications, addressing the imperative for sustainability. Furthermore, a comprehensive overview of biodegradable materials underscores their significance in electrospinning and their role in minimizing the environmental impact through biodegradability. The application of BEMs in various industrial sectors, including water treatment, food packaging, and biomedical applications, are extensively discussed. The environmental impact and sustainability analysis traverse the lifecycle of BEMs, evaluating their production to disposal and emphasizing reduced waste and resource conservation. This review demonstrates the research about BEMs toward an eco-conscious industrial landscape for a sustainable future.

Supra-Photothermal CO2 Methanation over Greenhouse-Like Plasmonic Superstructures of Ultrasmall Cobalt Nanoparticles

Improving the solar-to-thermal energy conversion efficiency of photothermal nanomaterials at no expense of other physicochemical properties, e.g., the catalytic reactivity of metal nanoparticles, is highly desired for diverse applications but remains a big challenge. Herein, a synergistic strategy is developed for enhanced photothermal conversion by a greenhouse-like plasmonic superstructure of 4 nm cobalt nanoparticles while maintaining their intrinsic catalytic reactivity. The silica shell plays a key role in retaining the plasmonic superstructures for efficient use of the full solar spectrum, and reducing the heat loss of cobalt nanoparticles via the nano-greenhouse effect. The optimized plasmonic superstructure catalyst exhibits supra-photothermal CO2 methanation performance with a record-high rate of 2.3 mol gCo -1 h-1 , close to 100% CH4 selectivity, and desirable catalytic stability. This work reveals the great potential of nanoscale greenhouse effect in enhancing photothermal conversions through the combination with conventional promoting strategies, shedding light on the design of efficient photothermal nanomaterials for demanding applications.

Phase Engineered Cux S-Ag2 S with Photothermoelectric Activity for Enhanced Multienzyme Activity and Dynamic Therapy

The insufficient exposure sites and active site competition of multienzyme are the two main factors to hinder its therapeutic effect. Here, a phase-junction nanomaterial (amorphous-crystalline Cux S-Ag2 S) is designed and prepared through a simple room temperature ion-exchange process. A small amount of Ag+ is added into Cu7 S4 nanocrystals, which transforms Cu7 S4 into amorphous phased Cux S and produces crystalline Ag2 S simultaneously. In this structure, the overhanging bonds on the amorphous Cux S surface provide abundant active sites for optimizing the therapeutic activity. Meanwhile, the amorphous state enhances the photothermal effect through non-radiative relaxation, and due to its low thermal resistance, phase-junction Cux S-Ag2 S forms a significant temperature gradient to unlock the optimized thermo-electrodynamic therapy. Furthermore, benefiting from the high asymmetry of the amorphous state, the material forms a spin-polarized state that can effectively inhibit electron-hole recombination. In this way, the thermoelectric effect can facilitate the enzyme-catalyzed cycle by providing electrons and holes, enabling an enhanced coupling of thermoelectric therapy with multienzyme activity, which induces excellent anti-tumor performance. More importantly, the catalytic process simulated by density-functional theory proves that Ag+ alleviates the burden on the Cu sites through favorable adsorption of O2 and prevents active site competition.

Enhancing photodynamic therapy efficacy through silica nanoparticle-mediated delivery of temoporfin for targeted in vitro breast cancer treatment

Photodynamic therapy (PDT), an approach to cancer treatment, relies fundamentally on two key elements: a light source and a photosensitizing agent. A primary challenge in PDT is the efficient delivery of photosensitizers to the target tissue, hindered by the body's reticuloendothelial system (RES). Silica nanoparticles (SiNPs), known for their unique properties, emerge as ideal carriers in this context. In this study, SiNPs are utilized to encapsulate Temoporfin, a photosensitizer, aiming to enhance its delivery and reduce toxicity, particularly for treating MCF-7 cancer cells in vitro. The synthesized SiNPs were meticulously characterized by their size and shape using Transmission Electron Microscopy (TEM). The study also involved evaluating the cytotoxicity of both encapsulated and naked Temoporfin across various concentrations. The objective was to determine the ideal concentration and exposure duration using red laser light (intensity approximately 110 mW/cm2) to effectively eradicate MCF-7 cells. The findings revealed that Temoporfin, when encapsulated in SiNPs, demonstrated significantly greater effectiveness compared to its naked form, with notable improvements in concentration efficiency (50 %) and exposure time efficiency (76.6 %). This research not only confirms the superior effectiveness of encapsulated Temoporfin in eliminating cancer cells but also highlights the potential of SiNPs as an efficient drug delivery system in photodynamic therapy. This sets the groundwork for more advanced strategies in cancer treatment.

Polyethylenimine-modified graphene quantum dots promote endothelial cell proliferation

Endothelial cell proliferation plays an important role in angiogenesis and treatment of related diseases. The aim of this study was to evaluate the effect of polyethylenimine (PEI)-modified graphene quantum dots (GQDs) gene vectors on endothelial cell proliferation. The GQDs-cationic polymer gene vectors were synthesized by amidation reaction, and used to deliver pZNF580 gene to Human umbilical vein endothelial cells (HUVECs) for promoting their proliferation. The chemical modification of GQDs can adjust gene vectors' surface properties and charge distribution, thereby enhancing their interaction with gene molecules, which could effectively compress the pZNF580 gene. The CCK-8 assay showed that the cell viability was higher than 80% at higher vector concentration (40 μg/mL), demonstrating that the GQDs-cationic polymer gene vectors and their gene complex nanoparticles (NPs) having low cytotoxicity. The results of the live/dead cell double staining assay were consistent with those of the CCK-8 assay, in which the cell viability of the A-GQDs/pZNF580 (94.38 ± 6.39%), C-GQDs-PEI- polylactic acid-co-polyacetic acid (PLGA)/pZNF580 (98.65 ± 6.60%) and N-GQDs-PEI-PLGA/pZNF580 (90.08 ± 1.60%) groups was significantly higher than that of the Lipofectamine 2000/pZNF580 (71.98 ± 3.53%) positive treatment group. The results of transfection and western blot experiments showed that the vector significantly enhanced the delivery of plasmid to HUVECs and increased the expression of pZNF580 in HUVECs. In addition, the gene NPs better promote endothelial cell migration and proliferation. The cell migration rate and proliferation ability of C-GQDs-PEI-PLGA/pZNF580 and N-GQDs-PEI-PLGA/pZNF580 treatment groups were higher than those of Lipofectamine 2000/pDNA treatment group. Modified GQDs possess the potential to serve as efficient gene carriers. They tightly bind gene molecules through charge and other non-covalent interactions, significantly improving the efficiency of gene delivery and ensuring the smooth release of genes within the cell. This innovative strategy provides a powerful means to promote endothelial cell proliferation.

Swallowed Embedding of Nanopetal-Rich Microflowers in Flexible Photocatalytic and Thermoresponsive Functional Composite Fibers

Developing efficient catalysts to degrade pollutants in water is a very important way to alleviate water pollution. However, it is crucial but challenging to broaden the functions of conventional photocatalysts and improve their environmental adaptability. In this paper, Bi(Er3+/Yb3+)OBr/polyacrylonitrile (BOB-EY/PAN) composite fibers with a swallowed-embedded structure assembled with nanopetal-rich microflowers were designed and fabricated, integrating photocatalytic and temperature-monitoring functions simultaneously. Their unique structure brings a large specific surface area, and the doping of rare earth ions improves the separation efficiency of electron-hole pairs, which enhances the photocatalytic efficiency and endows the fibers with a temperature-monitoring function at the same time. Under simulated sunlight irradiation, the nanofibers show a maximum degradation efficiency of 99.2% for tetracycline hydrochloride (TC) with a degradation constant of K as high as 0.078 min-1. Based on the fluorescence intensity ratio (FIR), the two thermally coupled levels of Er3+ in the nanofibers, 2H11/2 and 4S3/2, provide real-time temperature feedback, displaying a maximum relative sensitivity as high as 0.0215 K-1 at 303 K. Dual-functional BOB-EY/PAN composite nanofibers show great potential for industrial wastewater disposition, providing solutions for wastewater purification in special scenarios.

Psidium guajava L. phenolic compound-reinforced lamellar scaffold for tracheal tissue engineering

The aim of this work was to develop a dense lamellar scaffold, as a biomimetic material with potential applications in the regeneration of tracheal tissue after surgical tumor resection. The scaffolds were produced by plastic compression technique, exploiting the use of total phenolic compounds (TPC) from Psidium guajava Linn as a potential cross-linking agent in a polymeric mixture based on collagen (COL), silk fibroin (SF), and polyethylene glycol 400 (PEG 400). Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) and differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) confirmed the chemical interactions between the polymers and the cross-linking of TPC between COL and SF. Morphological analyses showed scaffolds with porosity, interconnectivity, and a porous surface structure with a gyroid-like geometry. The analysis of the anisotropic degree resulted in anisotropic structures (0.1% TFC and 0.3% TFC) and an isotropic structure (0.5% TFC). In the mechanical properties, it was evidenced greater resistance for the 0.3% TFC formulation. The addition of TPC percentages did not result in a significant difference (p > 0.05) in swelling capacity and disintegration rate. The results confirmed that TPC were able to modulate the morphological, morphometric, and mechanical properties of scaffolds. Thus, this study describes a potential new material to improve the regeneration of major tracheal structures after surgical tumor removal.

A Comprehensive Review of Small Interfering RNAs (siRNAs): Mechanism, Therapeutic Targets, and Delivery Strategies for Cancer Therapy

Small interfering RNA (siRNA) delivery by nanocarriers has been identified as a promising strategy in the study and treatment of cancer. Short nucleotide sequences are synthesized exogenously to create siRNA, which triggers RNA interference (RNAi) in cells and silences target gene expression in a sequence-specific way. As a nucleic acid-based medicine that has gained popularity recently, siRNA exhibits novel potential for the treatment of cancer. However, there are still many obstacles to overcome before clinical siRNA delivery devices can be developed. In this review, we discuss prospective targets for siRNA drug design, explain siRNA drug properties and benefits, and give an overview of the current clinical siRNA therapeutics for the treatment of cancer. Additionally, we introduce the siRNA chemical modifications and delivery systems that are clinically sophisticated and classify bioresponsive materials for siRNA release in a methodical manner. This review will serve as a reference for researchers in developing more precise and efficient targeted delivery systems, promoting ongoing advances in clinical applications.

An Integrative Bioorthogonal Nanoengineering Strategy for Dynamically Constructing Heterogenous Tumor Spheroids

Although tumor models have revolutionized perspectives on cancer aetiology and treatment, current cell culture methods remain challenges in constructing organotypic tumor with in vivo-like complexity, especially native characteristics, leading to unpredictable results for in vivo responses. Herein, the bioorthogonal nanoengineering strategy (BONE) for building photothermal dynamic tumor spheroids is developed. In this process, biosynthetic machinery incorporated bioorthogonal azide reporters into cell surface glycoconjugates, followed by reacting with multivalent click ligand (ClickRod) that is composed of hyaluronic acid-functionalized gold nanorod carrying dibenzocyclooctyne moieties, resulting in rapid construction of tumor spheroids. BONE can effectively assemble different cancer cells and immune cells together to construct heterogenous tumor spheroids is identified. Particularly, ClickRod exhibited favorable photothermal activity, which precisely promoted cell activity and shaped physiological microenvironment, leading to formation of dynamic features of original tumor, such as heterogeneous cell population and pluripotency, different maturation levels, and physiological gradients. Importantly, BONE not only offered a promising platform for investigating tumorigenesis and therapeutic response, but also improved establishment of subcutaneous xenograft model under mild photo-stimulation, thereby significantly advancing cancer research. Therefore, the first bioorthogonal nanoengineering strategy for developing dynamic tumor models, which have the potential for bridging gaps between in vitro and in vivo research is presented.

Temporal Immunomodulation via Wireless Programmed Electric Cues Achieves Optimized Diabetic Bone Regeneration

Mimicking the temporal pattern of biological behaviors during the natural repair process is a promising strategy for biomaterial-mediated tissue regeneration. However, precise regulation of dynamic cell behaviors allocated in a microenvironment post-implantation remains challenging until now. Here, remote tuning of electric cues is accomplished by wireless ultrasound stimulation (US) on an electroactive membrane for bone regeneration under a diabetic background. Programmable electric cues mediated by US from the piezoelectric membrane achieve the temporal regulation of macrophage polarization, satisfying the pattern of immunoregulation during the natural healing process and effectively promoting diabetic bone repair. Mechanistic insight reveals that the controllable decrease in AKT2 expression and phosphorylation could explain US-mediated macrophage polarization. This study exhibits a strategy aimed at precisely biosimulating the temporal regenerative pattern by controllable and programmable electric output for optimized diabetic tissue regeneration and provides basic insights into bionic design-based precision medicine achieved by intelligent and external field-responsive biomaterials.

Microfluidic device-fabricated spiky nano-burflower shape gold nanomaterials facilitate large biomolecule delivery into cells using infrared light pulses

Photothermal nanoparticle-sensitised photoporation is an emerging approach, which is considered an efficient tool for the intracellular delivery of biomolecules. Nevertheless, using this method to achieve high transfection efficiency generally compromises cell viability and uneven distribution of nanoparticles results in non-uniform delivery. Here, we show that high aspect ratio gold nano-burflowers, synthesised in a microfluidic device, facilitate highly efficient small to very-large cargo delivery uniformly using infrared light pulses without sacrificing cell viability. By precisely controlling the flow rates of shaping reagent and reducing agent, high-density (24 numbers) sharply branched spikes (∼80 nm tip-to-tip length) of higher aspect ratios (∼6.5) with a small core diameter (∼45 nm) were synthesised. As produced gold burflower-shape nanoparticles are biocompatible, colloidally stable (large surface zeta potential value), and uniform in morphology with a higher plasmonic peak (max. 890 nm). Theoretical analysis revealed that spikes on the nanoparticles generate a higher electromagnetic field enhancement upon interaction with light pulses. It induces plasmonic nanobubbles in the vicinity of the cells, followed by pore formation on the membrane leading to diverse biomolecular delivery into cells. Our platform has been successfully implemented for uniform delivery of small to very large biomolecules, including siRNA (20-24 bp), plasmid DNA expressing green fluorescent protein (6.2 kbp), Cas-9 plasmid (9.3 kbp), and β-galactosidase enzyme (465 kDa) into diverse mammalian cells with high transfection efficiency and cell viability. For very large biomolecules such as enzymes, the best results were achieved as ∼100% transfection efficiency and ∼100% cell viability in SiHa cells. Together, our findings demonstrate that the spiky gold nano-burflower shape nanoparticles manufactured in a microfluidic system exhibited excellent plasmonic behaviour and could serve as an effective tool in manipulating cell physiology.

Physical Properties of Ultrafine Bubbles Generated Using a Generator System

BACKGROUND/AIM

Ultrafine bubbles (UFBs) have been extensively researched owing to their promising physical and biological properties. However, determining the lifespan or ideal concentration of UFBs for various biological events is challenging. This study aimed to determine the maximum concentration and longest lifespan of UFBs and to verify the validity of UFBs for assessing cell properties.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

A generator system (HMB-H0150+P001, TOSSLEC Corporation Limited, Kyoto, Japan) generated UFBs using various gases. The size and concentration of UFBs in ultrapure water and cell culture medium were measured through a nanoparticle tracking analysis method.

RESULTS

The UFB concentration increased when the generator operated in a time dependent manner. The mean size of UFBs was approximately 120 nm. In the UFB lifespan, the concentration decreased by approximately 30% within the first two weeks of generation and was stable for up to 6 months. The UFB size increased by approximately 20% within the first two weeks of generation and demonstrated minor changes until the 6th month. The number of cells differed significantly with various concentrations of nitrogen gas UFBs.

CONCLUSION

The generator system can generate UFBs with multiple concentrations within a suitable temperature. Consequently, the solution containing UFBs could be widely acceptable in cell culture systems.

Advanced Materials and Delivery Systems for Enhancement of Chimeric Antigen Receptor Cells

Chimeric antigen receptor (CAR) cell therapy is a great success and breakthrough in immunotherapy. However, there are still lots of barriers to its wide use in clinical, including long time consumption, high cost, and failure against solid tumors. For these challenges, researches are deplored to explore CAR cells to more appliable products in clinical. This minireview focuses on the advanced non-viral materials for CAR-T transfection ex vivo with better performance, delivery systems combined with other therapy for enhancement of CAR-T therapy in solid tumors. In addition, the targeted delivery platform for CAR cells in vivo generation as a breakthrough technology as its low cost and convenience. In the end, the prospective direction and future of CAR cell therapy are discussed.

Nanopore Electroporation Device for DNA Transfection into Various Spreading and Nonadherent Cell Types

Cell transfection plays a crucial role in the study of gene function and regulation of gene expression. The existing gene transfection methods, such as chemical carriers, viruses, electroporation, and microinjection, suffer from limitations, including cell type dependence, reliance on cellular endocytosis, low efficiency, safety concerns, and technical complexity. Nanopore-coupled electroporation offers a promising approach to localizing electric fields for efficient cell membrane perforation and nucleic acid transfection. However, the applicability of nanopore electroporation technology across different cell types lacks a systematic investigation. In this study, we explore the potential of nanopore electroporation for transfecting DNA plasmids into various cell types. Our nanopore electroporation device employs track-etched membranes as the core component. We find that nanopore electroporation efficiently transfects adherent cells, including well-spreading epithelial-like HeLa cells, cardiomyocyte-like HL-1 cells, and dendritic-cell-like DC2.4 cells. However, it shows a limited transfection efficiency in weakly spreading macrophages (RAW264.7) and suspension cells (Jurkat). To gain insights into these observations, we develop a COMSOL model, revealing that nanopore electroporation better localizes the electric field on adherent and well-spreading cells, promoting favorable membrane poration conditions. Our findings provide valuable references for advancing nanopore electroporation as a high-throughput, safe, and efficient gene transfection platform.

Intracellular protein delivery: New insights into the therapeutic applications and emerging technologies

The inability to cross the plasma membranes traditionally limited the therapeutic use of recombinant proteins. However, in the last two decades, novel technologies made delivering proteins inside the cells possible. This allowed researchers to unlock intracellular targets, once considered 'undruggable', bringing a new research area to emerge. Protein transfection systems display a large potential in a plethora of applications. However, their modality of action is often unclear, and cytotoxic effects are elevated, whereas experimental conditions to increase transfection efficacy and cell viability still need to be identified. Furthermore, technical complexity often limits in vivo experimentation, while challenging industrial and clinical translation. This review highlights the applications of protein transfection technologies, and then critically discuss the current methodologies and their limitations. Physical membrane perforation systems are compared to systems exploiting cellular endocytosis. Research evidence of the existence of either extracellular vesicles (EVs) or cell-penetrating peptides (CPPs)- based systems, that circumvent the endosomal systems is critically analysed. Commercial systems, novel solid-phase reverse protein transfection systems, and engineered living intracellular bacteria-based mechanisms are finally described. This review ultimately aims at finding new methodologies and possible applications of protein transfection systems, while helping the development of an evidence-based research approach.

Flexible electronics for cardiovascular healthcare monitoring

Cardiovascular diseases (CVDs) are one of the most urgent threats to humans worldwide, which are responsible for almost one-third of global mortality. Over the last decade, research on flexible electronics for monitoring and treatment of CVDs has attracted tremendous attention. In contrast to conventional medical instruments in hospitals that are usually bulky, hard to move, monofunctional, and time-consuming, flexible electronics are capable of continuous, noninvasive, real-time, and portable monitoring. Notable progress has been made in this emerging field, and thus a number of significant achievements and concomitant research prospects deserve attention for practical implementation. Here, we comprehensively review the latest progress of flexible electronics for CVDs, focusing on new functions provided by flexible electronics. First, the characteristics of CVDs and flexible electronics and the foundation of their combination are briefly reviewed. Then, four representative applications of flexible electronics for CVDs are elaborated: blood pressure (BP) monitoring, electrocardiogram (ECG) monitoring, echocardiogram monitoring, and direct epicardium monitoring. Their operational principles, progress, merits and demerits, and future efforts are discussed. Finally, the remaining challenges and opportunities for flexible electronics for cardiovascular healthcare are outlined.

Enhanced Intracellular Delivery and Cell Harvest Using a Candle Soot-Based Photothermal Platform with Dual-Stimulus Responsiveness

Intracellular delivery of bioactive macromolecules and functional materials plays a crucial role in fundamental biological research and clinical applications. Nondestructive and efficient harvesting of engineered cells is also required for some specific applications. In this work, we develop a multifunctional platform based on candle soot modified with copolymer brushes containing temperature-responsive poly(N-isopropylacrylamide) (PNIPAAm) and sugar-responsive phenylboronic acid (PBA) components. This platform possesses a high cell adhesion capacity due to the inherent hierarchical structure of candle soot and the formation of boronate ester bonds between the PBA groups and glycoproteins on the cell membrane. Under the irradiation of a near-infrared laser, the excellent light-to-heat conversion ability of candle soot enables the highly efficient delivery of macromolecules into diverse cells (including hard-to-transfect cells) attached to the surface via a photothermal-poration mechanism. Owing to the temperature-responsive properties of PNIPAAm and the sugar-responsive properties of PBA, the engineered cells could be harvested nondestructively from the platform by a mild treatment using a cold fructose solution. A proof-of-concept experiment demonstrates that fibroblasts attached to the surface could be transfected by a functional plasmid encoding basic fibroblast growth factor and then harvested efficiently and recultured with improved proliferation and migration ability. The whole delivery-harvesting process required less than 1 h, allowing the cells to be engineered without compromising their viability. This platform thus provides a widely applicable method for both the intracellular delivery of diverse macromolecules efficiently as well as harvesting engineered cells simply and safely, holding great potential for biomedical applications.

Choroid plexus tumors: A spectrum from benign to malignant

Choroid plexus tumors (CPT) are believed to originate from outgrowths of the choroid plexus. Despite their broad spectrum of symptoms, invasive nature, and prognosis, most CPTs typically exhibit similar presentations due to their relationship with the cerebral ventricles, as well as the mechanical obstruction and mass effect associated with their growth. In addition, these tumors mainly affect the pediatric population, further complicating the differentiation between benign and malignant subtypes. The World Health Organization classifies CPTs into three grades, namely, grades I, II, or III, based on their mitotic activity, which determine the benign or malignant nature of the tumors. CPTs classified by the World Health Organization (WHO) include choroid plexus papillomas (CPP), atypical CPPs (aCPP), and malignant choroid plexus carcinomas (CPC). Choroid plexus adenomas represent an additional category of benign CPTs not officially classified by the WHO. Despite the variations in histology, immunohistochemistry, imaging, treatment, and prognosis, CPTs cannot be reliably distinguished based solely on clinical presentation. Therefore, in this review, we aim to provide a comprehensive overview of each tumor subtype, along with the current management approach and emerging treatments.

Microbial synthesis of Prussian blue for potentiating checkpoint blockade immunotherapy

Cancer immunotherapy is revolutionizing oncology. The marriage of nanotechnology and immunotherapy offers a great opportunity to amplify antitumor immune response in a safe and effective manner. Here, electrochemically active Shewanella oneidensis MR-1 can be applied to produce FDA-approved Prussian blue nanoparticles on a large-scale. We present a mitochondria-targeting nanoplatform, MiBaMc, which consists of Prussian blue decorated bacteria membrane fragments having further modifications with chlorin e6 and triphenylphosphine. We find that MiBaMc specifically targets mitochondria and induces amplified photo-damages and immunogenic cell death of tumor cells under light irradiation. The released tumor antigens subsequently promote the maturation of dendritic cells in tumor-draining lymph nodes, eliciting T cell-mediated immune response. In two tumor-bearing mouse models using female mice, MiBaMc triggered phototherapy synergizes with anti-PDL1 blocking antibody for enhanced tumor inhibition. Collectively, the present study demonstrates biological precipitation synthetic strategy of targeted nanoparticles holds great potential for the preparation of microbial membrane-based nanoplatforms to boost antitumor immunity.

Photothermal Controlled-Release Immunomodulatory Nanoplatform for Restoring Nerve Structure and Mechanical Nociception in Infectious Diabetic Ulcers

Infectious diabetic ulcers (IDU) require anti-infection, angiogenesis, and nerve regeneration therapy; however, the latter has received comparatively less research attention than the former two. In particular, there have been few reports on the recovery of mechanical nociception. In this study, a photothermal controlled-release immunomodulatory hydrogel nanoplatform is tailored for the treatment of IDU. Due to a thermal-sensitive interaction between polydopamine-reduced graphene oxide (pGO) and the antibiotic mupirocin, excellent antibacterial efficacy is achieved through customized release kinetics. In addition, Trem2⁺ macrophages recruited by pGO regulate collagen remodeling and restore skin adnexal structures to alter the fate of scar formation, promote angiogenesis, accompanied by the regeneration of neural networks, which ensures the recovery of mechanical nociception and may prevent the recurrence of IDU at the source. In all, a full-stage strategy from antibacterial, immune regulation, angiogenesis, and neurogenesis to the recovery of mechanical nociception, an indispensable neural function of skin, is introduced to IDU treatment, which opens up an effective and comprehensive therapy for refractory IDU.

Photothermal Nanomaterials: A Powerful Light-to-Heat Converter

All forms of energy follow the law of conservation of energy, by which they can be neither created nor destroyed. Light-to-heat conversion as a traditional yet constantly evolving means of converting light into thermal energy has been of enduring appeal to researchers and the public. With the continuous development of advanced nanotechnologies, a variety of photothermal nanomaterials have been endowed with excellent light harvesting and photothermal conversion capabilities for exploring fascinating and prospective applications. Herein we review the latest progresses on photothermal nanomaterials, with a focus on their underlying mechanisms as powerful light-to-heat converters. We present an extensive catalogue of nanostructured photothermal materials, including metallic/semiconductor structures, carbon materials, organic polymers, and two-dimensional materials. The proper material selection and rational structural design for improving the photothermal performance are then discussed. We also provide a representative overview of the latest techniques for probing photothermally generated heat at the nanoscale. We finally review the recent significant developments of photothermal applications and give a brief outlook on the current challenges and future directions of photothermal nanomaterials.

A Magneto-Heated Silk Fibroin Scaffold for Anti-Biofouling Solar Steam Generation

Macroscopic 3D porous materials are ideal solar evaporators for water purification. However, the limited sunlight intensity and penetrating depth during solar-driven evaporation cannot prevent the biofouling formation by photothermal effect, thus leading to the deterioration of evaporation rate. Herein, a magnetic heating strategy is reported for anti-biofouling solar steam generation based on a magnetic silk fibroin (SF) scaffold with bi-heating property. Under one sun, the solar-heated top surface of magnetic SF scaffolds accelerates water evaporation at 2.03 kg m^-2 h^-1 , while the unheated inner channels suffer from the formation of biofilm. When exposed to alternating magnetic field (AMF), the magnetic SF scaffold can be integrally heated, leading to an efficient inner temperature to prevent biofouling in channels for water transportation. Accordingly, magneto-heated scaffolds show steady water evaporation rates after exposure to S. aureus and E. coli, which maintained 93.6-94.6% of original performance. In contrast, the evaporation rates of the scaffolds without AMF treatment are reduced to 1.31 (S. aureus) and 1.32 (E. coli) kg m^-2 h^-1 , decreased by 35.5% and 35.0%, respectively. In addition, the magneto-heated scaffold inhibits biofouling formation in natural lake water, maintaining 99.5% original performance.

Electrospun PVB/AVE NMs as mask filter layer for win-win effects of filtration and antibacterial activity

The COVID-19 pandemic has caused serious social and public health problems. In the field of personal protection, the facial masks can prevent infectious respiratory diseases, safeguard human health, and promote public safety. Herein, we focused on preparing a core filter layer for masks using electrospun polyvinyl butyral/apocynum venetum extract nanofibrous membranes (PVB/AVE NMs), with durable interception efficiency and antibacterial properties. In the spinning solution, AVE acted as a salt to improve electrical conductivity, and achieve long-lasting interception efficiency with adjustable pore size. It also played the role of an antibacterial agent in PVB/AVE NMs to achieve win-win effects. The hydrophobicity of PVB-AVE-6% was 120.9° whereas its filterability reached 98.3% when the pressure drop resistance was 142 Pa. PVB-AVE-6% exhibited intriguing properties with great antibacterial rates of 99.38% and 98.96% against S. aureus and E. coli, respectively. After a prolonged usability test of 8 h, the filtration efficiency of the PVB/AVE masks remained stable at over 97.7%. Furthermore, the antibacterial rates of the PVB/AVE masks on S. aureus and E. coli were 96.87% and 96.20% respectively, after using for 2 d. These results indicate that PVB/AVE NMs improve the protective performance of ordinary disposable masks, which has certain application in air filtration.

Ultrafast Laser Plasmonic Fabrication of Nanocrystals by Molecule Modulation for Photoresponse Multifunctional Structures

Nanotechnology has attracted wide research attention in constructing functional devices, including integrated circuits, transparent electrodes, and flexible actuators. Bottom-up fabrication is an important approach for functional structure manufacture, however, the controllable fabrication of complex architectures for practical applications has long been a challenge. Here, a novel strategy of laser plasmonic fabrication based on glue molecule modulation is proposed that can assemble metal nanocrystals into interconnected pattern networks. The plasmonic response of nanocrystals is adjustable with molecule modulation, which is a benefit for the effective formation of laser-induced localized oscillating electrons. The further decomposition of molecules and the movement of nanocrystal surface atoms can achieve the coalescence of assembled nanocrystals. It demonstrates that complex architectures can be controllably constructed by molecule level modulation. Through molecule-assisted laser plasmonic fabrication, the functional nanocrystals with enhanced photothermal capacity can be used for information encryption and soft machinery. This work expands the knowledge of bottom-up fabrication and provides a method for designing functional nanocrystals for a wide range of applications.

Engineering optical tools for remotely controlled brain stimulation and regeneration

Neurological disorders are one of the world's leading medical and societal challenges due to the lack of efficacy of the first line treatment. Although pharmacological and non-pharmacological interventions have been employed with the aim of regulating neuronal activity and survival, they have failed to avoid symptom relapse and disease progression in the vast majority of patients. In the last 5 years, advanced drug delivery systems delivering bioactive molecules and neuromodulation strategies have been developed to promote tissue regeneration and remodel neuronal circuitry. However, both approaches still have limited spatial and temporal precision over the desired target regions. While external stimuli such as electromagnetic fields and ultrasound have been employed in the clinic for non-invasive neuromodulation, they do not have the capability of offering single-cell spatial resolution as light stimulation. Herein, we review the latest progress in this area of study and discuss the prospects of using light-responsive nanomaterials to achieve on-demand delivery of drugs and neuromodulation, with the aim of achieving brain stimulation and regeneration.

Photothermal Nanomaterial-Mediated Photoporation

ConspectusDelivering biological effector molecules in cultured cells is of fundamental importance to any study or application in which the modulation of gene expression is required. Examples range from generating engineered cell lines for studying gene function to the engineering of cells for cell-based therapies such as CAR-T cells and gene-corrected stem cells for regenerative medicine. It remains a great challenge, however, to deliver biological effector molecules across the cell membrane with minimal adverse effects on cell viability and functionality. While viral vectors have been frequently used to introduce foreign nucleic acids into cells, their use is associated with safety concerns such as immunogenicity, high manufacturing cost, and limited cargo capacity.For photoporation, depending on the laser energy, membrane permeabilization happens either by local heating or by laser-induced water vapor nanobubbles (VNB). In our first study on this topic, we demonstrated that the physical force exerted by suddenly formed VNB leads to more efficient intracellular delivery as compared to mere heating. Next, we explored the use of different photothermal nanomaterials, finding that graphene quantum dots display enhanced thermal stability compared to the more traditionally used gold nanoparticles, hence providing the possibility to increase the delivery efficiency by repeated laser activation. To enable its use for the production of engineered therapeutic cells, it would be better if contact with cells with nondegradable nanoparticles is avoided as it poses toxicity and regulatory concerns. Therefore, we recently demonstrated that photoporation can be performed with biodegradable polydopamine nanoparticles as well. Alternatively, we demonstrated that nanoparticle contact can be avoided by embedding the photothermal nanoparticles in a substrate made from biocompatible electrospun nanofibers. With this variety of photoporation approaches, over the years we demonstrated the successful delivery of a broad variety of biologics (mRNA, siRNA, Cas9 ribonucleoproteins, nanobodies, etc.) in many different cell types, including hard-to-transfect cells such as T cells, embryonic stem cells, neurons, and macrophages.In this Account, we will first start with a brief introduction of the general concept and a historical development of photoporation. In the next two sections, we will extensively discuss the various types of photothermal nanomaterials which have been used for photoporation. We discriminate two types of photothermal nanomaterials: single nanostructures and composite nanostructures. The first one includes examples such as gold nanoparticles, graphene quantum dots, and polydopamine nanoparticles. The second type includes polymeric films and nanofibers containing photothermal nanoparticles as well as composite nanoscale biolistic nanostructures. A thorough discussion will be given for each type of photothermal nanomaterial, from its synthesis and characterization to its application in photoporation, with its advantages and disadvantages. In the final section, we will provide an overall discussion and elaborate on future perspectives.

Boron nitride decorated poly(vinyl alcohol)/poly(acrylic acid) composite nanofibers: A promising material for biomedical applications

In this study, polyvinyl alcohol (PVA) and polyacrylic acid (PAA) nanofibers loaded with boron nitride nanoparticles (mBN) were fabricated by using electrospinning and crosslinked by heat treatment. The physical, chemical, and mechanical properties, hydrophilic behavior, and degradability of composite nanofibers were evaluated. The mechanical properties such as elastic modulus, elongation percentage at the break, and mechanical strength of PVA/PAA nanofibers improved with mBN loading. The thermal conductivity of composite nanofibers reached 0.12 W/m·K at mBN content of 1.0 wt% due to the continuous heat conduction pathways of mBN. In the meantime, while there was no cytotoxicity recorded for both L929 and HUVEC cell lines for all composite nanofibers, the antimicrobial efficiency improved with the incorporation of mBN compared with PVA/PAA and recorded as 68.8% and 75.1% for Escherichia coli and Staphylococcus aureus, respectively. On this basis, the present work proposes a promising biomaterial for biomedical applications such as dual drug delivery, particularly including both hydrophobic and hydrophilic drugs or wound dressing.

Multifunctional and multimodality theranostic nanomedicine for enhanced phototherapy

Photodynamic therapy (PDT) has attracted much attention in recent years for its favorable therapeutic efficacy in cancer therapy. However, PDT alone is insufficient to improve the therapeutic efficiency mainly due to the limited penetration depth of light, the insufficient O₂ supply in the hypoxic microenvironment, and the high level of reducing substances in cancer cells. To overcome these limitations, a multifunctional MnO₂ nanoparticle was constructed with honeycomb MnO₂ which was loaded with the photosensitizer Ce6 and modified with polydopamine on its surface (HMnO₂/C&P) to achieve efficient PDT/mild photothermal treatment (PTT) combination therapy. HMnO₂/C&P had high drug loading contents (11.2% Ce6) and can be responsive to the tumor microenvironment (TME), supply O₂ to alleviate the hypoxic microenvironment, and clear GSH to reduce the consumption of ROS, thus enhancing the PDT effect. The introduction of PDA can improve the stability of HMnO₂/C&P, and further give the ability of PTT to act as nanomedicine. The results of in vitro and in vivo experiments show that HMnO₂/C&P based PDT/mild PTT combination therapy has an excellent inhibitory effect on tumor growth. Meanwhile, HMnO₂/C&P can act as a fluorescence imaging reagent and a TME triggerable magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) contrast agent, thus having excellent multimodal self-tracking abilities. Collectively, this study provides a new perspective on the design of multifunctional theranostic nanomedicine to maximize the efficacy of cancer phototherapy.

Activation of KLF6 by titanate nanofibers and regulatory roles of KLF6 on ATF3 in the endothelial monolayer and mouse aortas

Although titanium (Ti)-based nanomaterials (NMs) were traditionally considered as biologically inert materials, it was recently reported that Ti-based NMs induce adverse vascular effects by inhibiting Kruppel-like factor 2 (KLF2) and/or KLF4, vasoprotective KLFs with well-documented regulatory activity in NO signaling. However, the potential roles of other KLFs are not clear. KLF6 was recently identified as an important KLF involved in regulating endothelial dysfunction, inflammation, and angiogenesis, therefore, this study investigated the influence of titanate nanofibers (TiNFs) on KLF6-mediated events. Ingenuity pathway analysis (IPA) showed that TiNFs altered the expression of a panel of KLF6-related genes: KLF6-mediated gene ontology (GO) terms were altered, categories including cytokine-mediated signaling pathways, transcription factor (TF) functions and membrane-bound organelles. Additionally, RT-PCR confirmed that TiNFs increased KLF6 activating transcription factor 3 (ATF3), a TF involved in endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress, and ELISA confirmed the increase of soluble monocyte chemotactic protein 1 (sMCP-1), a KLF6-related inflammatory cytokine. Interestingly, the activation of klf6, atf3 and C-C motif chemokine ligand 2 (ccl2; mcp-1 encoding gene) was observed in aortas of mice following one-time intravenous injection but not intratracheal instillation of TiNFs (100 μg per mouse), indicating a need for direct contact with NMs to activate klf6-mediated pathways in vivo. In endothelial cells, KLF6 knockdown inhibited the expression of ATF3 but not CCL2, suggesting the regulatory role of KLF6 in ATF3 expression. Overall, this study uncovered a previously unknown role of KLF6 in TiNF-induced vascular effects both in vitro and in vivo.

Two-dimensional nanomaterials: synthesis and applications in photothermal catalysis

Photothermal catalysis, as one of the emerging technologies with synergistic effects of photochemistry and thermochemistry, is highly attractive in the fields of environment and energy. Two-dimensional (2D) nanomaterials have received extensive attention toward photothermal catalysis because of their ultrathin layer structures, superior physical and optical properties, and high surface areas. These merits are beneficial for shortening the transfer distance of charge carriers, improving the efficiency of solar to thermal, and providing a great opportunity for the development of photothermal chemistry. In this review, we have summarized the state-of-art advances in various 2D nanomaterials with emphasis on the driving force and relevant mechanism of photothermal catalysis, including the involved three types, namely, localized surface plasmonic resonance (LSPR), nonradiative relaxation, and thermal vibrations of molecules. Moreover, the synthesis strategies of 2D materials and their photothermal applications in carbon dioxide (CO₂) conversion, hydrogen (H₂) production, volatile organic compounds (VOCs) degradation, and water (H₂O) purification have been discussed in detail. Ultimately, the existing challenges and prospects of future development in the field are proposed. It is believed that this review will afford a great reference for the exploration of the high-efficiency 2D nanomaterials and their structure-activity relationship.

Novel opto-fluidic drug delivery system for efficient cellular transfection

Intracellular drug delivery is at the heart of many diagnosis procedures and a key step in gene therapy. Research has been conducted to bypass cell barriers for controlled intracellular drug release and made consistent progress. However, state-of-the-art techniques based on non-viral carriers or physical methods suffer several drawbacks, including limited delivery yield, low throughput or low viability, which are key parameters in therapeutics, diagnostics and drug delivery. Nevertheless, gold nanoparticle (AuNP) mediated photoporation has stood out as a promising approach to permeabilize cell membranes through laser induced Vapour NanoBubble (VNB) generation, allowing the influx of external cargo molecules into cells. However, its use as a transfection technology for the genetic manipulation of therapeutic cells is hindered by the presence of non-degradable gold nanoparticles. Here, we report a new optofluidic method bringing gold nanoparticles in close proximity to cells for photoporation, while avoiding direct contact with cells by taking advantage of hydrodynamic focusing in a multi-flow device. Cells were successfully photoporated with [Formula: see text] efficiency with no significant reduction in cell viability at a throughput ranging from [Formula: see text] to [Formula: see text]. This optofluidic approach provides prospects of translating photoporation from an R &D setting to clinical use for producing genetically engineered therapeutic cells.

Response Surface Methodology to Efficiently Optimize Intracellular Delivery by Photoporation

Photoporation is an up-and-coming technology for the gentle and efficient transfection of cells. Inherent to the application of photoporation is the optimization of several process parameters, such as laser fluence and sensitizing particle concentration, which is typically done one factor at a time (OFAT). However, this approach is tedious and runs the risk of missing a global optimum. Therefore, in this study, we explored whether response surface methodology (RSM) would allow for more efficient optimization of the photoporation procedure. As a case study, FITC-dextran molecules of 500 kDa were delivered to RAW264.7 mouse macrophage-like cells, making use of polydopamine nanoparticles (PDNPs) as photoporation sensitizers. Parameters that were varied to obtain an optimal delivery yield were PDNP size, PDNP concentration and laser fluence. Two established RSM designs were compared: the central composite design and the Box-Behnken design. Model fitting was followed by statistical assessment, validation, and response surface analysis. Both designs successfully identified a delivery yield optimum five- to eight-fold more efficiently than when using OFAT methodology while revealing a strong dependence on PDNP size within the design space. In conclusion, RSM proves to be a valuable approach to efficiently optimize photoporation conditions for a particular cell type.

Lipid-coated red fluorescent carbon dots for imaging and synergistic phototherapy in breast cancer

The synthesis of carbon dots using plant leaves is a facile and economically viable approach. Here we report the development of lipid-coated red fluorescent carbon dots (LRCDs), a biocompatible and stable nanomaterial, utilizing Clitoria ternatea leaves. The red fluorescent carbon dots (RCDs) were prepared by hydrothermal method, followed by lipid coating using rotary evaporation for imaging-guided phototherapy. RCDs generate heat in tandem with NIR laser irradiation and could therefore be employed as a photothermal agent in cancer therapy. Additionally, the fluorescent nature of RCDs can be utilized in bioimaging. The fabricated RCDs displayed a characteristic fluorescent emission maximum at 672 nm with a shoulder peak at 723 nm. Hydrophobicity is a major drawback associated with the RCDs, which limits their therapeutic efficiency due to poor biodistribution and rapid clearance. To address this limitation, we coated RCDs with soya lecithin to generate hydrophilic LRCDs with better bioavailability and therapeutic effectiveness. Further analysis using MTT assay reveals high biocompatibility and a distinct photothermal ablation potency of LRCDs against L929 and 4T1 cells, respectively. LRCDs could potentially be synthesized on a large scale and used for a variety of applications due to their low-cost, and biocompatibility.

Thermal immuno-nanomedicine in cancer

Immunotherapy has revolutionized the treatment of patients with cancer. However, promoting antitumour immunity in patients with tumours that are resistant to these therapies remains a challenge. Thermal therapies provide a promising immune-adjuvant strategy for use with immunotherapy, mostly owing to the capacity to reprogramme the tumour microenvironment through induction of immunogenic cell death, which also promotes the recruitment of endogenous immune cells. Thus, thermal immunotherapeutic strategies for various cancers are an area of considerable research interest. In this Review, we describe the role of the various thermal therapies and provide an update on attempts to combine these with immunotherapies in clinical trials. We also provide an overview of the preclinical development of various thermal immuno-nanomedicines, which are capable of combining thermal therapies with various immunotherapy strategies in a single therapeutic platform. Finally, we discuss the challenges associated with the clinical translation of thermal immuno-nanomedicines and emphasize the importance of multidisciplinary and inter-professional collaboration to facilitate the optimal translation of this technology from bench to bedside.

Tumor-targeted molybdenum disulfide@barium titanate core-shell nanomedicine for dual photothermal and chemotherapy of triple-negative breast cancer cells

Combinational therapy can improve the effectiveness of cancer treatment by overcoming individual therapy shortcomings, leading to accelerated cancer cell apoptosis. Combinational cancer therapy is attained by a single nanosystem with multiple physicochemical properties providing an efficient synergistic therapy against cancer cells. Herein, we report a folate receptor-targeting dual-therapeutic (photothermal and chemotherapy) core-shell nanoparticle (CSNP) exhibiting a molybdenum disulfide core with a barium titanate shell (MoS₂@BT) to improve therapeutic efficacy against triple-negative breast cancer (TNBC) MDA-MB-231 cells. A simple hydrothermal approach was used to achieve the MoS₂@BT CSNPs, and their diameter was calculated to be approximately 180 ± 25 nm. In addition to improving the photothermal efficiency and stability of the MoS₂@BT CSNPs, their surface was functionalized with polydopamine (PDA) and subsequently modified with folic acid (FA) to achieve enhanced tumour-targeting CSNPs, named MoS₂@BT-PDA-FA (MBPF). Then, gemcitabine (Gem) was loaded into the MBPF, and its loading and releasing efficacy were calculated to be 17.5 wt% and 64.5 ± 3%, respectively. Moreover, the photothermal conversion efficiency (PCE) of MBPF was estimated to be 35.3%, and it also showed better biocompatibility, which was determined by an MTT assay. The MBPF significantly increased the ambient temperature to 56.3 °C and triggered Gem release inside the TNBC cells when exposed to a near-infrared (NIR) laser (808 nm, 1.5 W cm^-2, 5 min). Notably, the MoS₂@BT-based nanosystem was used as a photothermal agent and a therapeutic drug-loading container for combating TNBC cells. Benefiting from the combined therapy, MBPF reduced TNBC cell viability to 81.3% due to its efficient synergistic effects. Thus, the proposed tumour-targeting MoS₂@BT CSNP exhibits high drug loading, better biocompatibility, and improved anticancer efficacy toward TNBC cells due to its dual therapeutic approach in a single system, which opens up a new approach for dual cancer therapy.

Delivery of macromolecules in unstimulated T cells by photoporation with polydopamine nanoparticles

Ex vivo modification of T cells with exogenous cargo is a common prerequisite for the development of T cell therapies, such as chimeric antigen receptor therapy. Despite the clinical success and FDA approval of several such products, T cell manufacturing presents unique challenges related to therapeutic efficacy after adoptive cell transfer and several drawbacks of viral transduction-based manufacturing, such as high cost and safety concerns. To generate cellular products with optimal potency, engraftment potential and persistence in vivo, recent studies have shown that minimally differentiated T cell phenotypes are preferred. However, genetic engineering of quiescent T cells remains challenging. Photoporation is an upcoming alternative non-viral transfection method which makes use of photothermal nanoparticles, such as polydopamine nanoparticles (PDNPs), to induce transient membrane permeabilization by distinct photothermal effects upon laser irradiation, allowing exogenous molecules to enter cells. In this study, we analyzed the capability of PDNP-photoporation to deliver large model macromolecules (FITC-dextran 500 kDa, FD500) in unstimulated and expanded human T cells. We compared different sizes of PDNPs (150, 250 and 400 nm), concentrations of PDNPs and laser fluences and found an optimal condition that generated high delivery yields of FD500 in both T cell phenotypes. A multiparametric analysis of cell proliferation, surface activation markers and cytokine production, revealed that unstimulated T cells photoporated with 150 nm and 250 nm PDNPs retained their propensity to become activated, whereas those photoporated with 400 nm PDNPs did less. Our findings show that PDNP-photoporation is a promising strategy for transfection of quiescent T cells, but that PDNPs should be small enough to avoid excessive cell damage.

On-Off Phagocytosis and Switchable Macrophage Activation Stimulated with NIR for Infected Percutaneous Tissue Repair of Polypyrrole-Coated Sulfonated PEEK

Intelligent control of the immune response is essential for obtaining percutaneous implants with good sterilization and tissue repair abilities. In this study, polypyrrole (Ppy) nanoparticles enveloping a 3D frame of sulfonated polyether ether ketone (SP) surface are constructed, which enhance the surface modulus and hardness of the sulfonated layer by forming a cooperative structure of simulated reinforced concrete and exhibit a superior photothermal effect. Ppy-coated SP could quickly accumulate heat on the surface by responding to 808 nm near-infrared (NIR) light, thereby killing bacteria, and destroying biofilms. Under NIR stimulation, the phagocytosis and M1 activation of macrophages cultured on Ppy-coated SP are enhanced by activating complement 3 and its receptor, CD11b. Phagocytosis and M1 activation are impaired along with abolishment of NIR stimulation in the Ppy-coated SP group, which is favorable for tissue repair. Ppy-coated SP promotes Collagen-I, vascular endothelial growth factor, connective tissue growth factor, and α-actin (Acta2) expression by inducing M2 polarization owing to its higher surface modulus. Overall, Ppy-coated SP with enhanced mechanical properties could be a good candidate for clinical percutaneous implants through on-off phagocytosis and switchable macrophage activation stimulated with NIR.

Nanomaterial-mediated photoporation for intracellular delivery

Translocation of extrinsic molecules into living cells is becoming increasingly crucial in biological studies ranging from cell engineering to biomedical applications. The concerns regarding biosafety and immunogenicity for conventional vectors and physical methods yet challenge effective intracellular delivery. Here, we begin with an overview of approaches for trans-membrane delivery up to now. These methods are featured with a relatively mature application but usually encounter low cell survival. Our review then proposes an advanced application for nanomaterial-sensitized photoporation triggered with a laser. We cover the mechanisms, procedures, and outcomes of photoporation-induced intracellular delivery with a highlight on its versatility to different living cells. We hope the review discussed here encourages researchers to further improvement and applications for photoporation-induced intracellular delivery. STATEMENT OF SIGNIFICANCE.

Biomaterials based on hyaluronic acid, collagen and peptides for three-dimensional cell culture and their application in stem cell differentiation

In recent decades, three-dimensional (3D) cell culture technologies have been developed rapidly in the field of tissue engineering and regeneration, and have shown unique advantages and great prospects in the differentiation of stem cells. Herein, the article reviews the progress and advantages of 3D cell culture technologies in the field of stem cell differentiation. Firstly, 3D cell culture technologies are divided into two main categories: scaffoldless and scaffolds. Secondly, the effects of hydrogels scaffolds and porous scaffolds on stem cell differentiation in the scaffold category were mainly reviewed. Among them, hydrogels scaffolds are divided into natural hydrogels and synthetic hydrogels. Natural materials include polysaccharides, proteins, and their derivatives, focusing on hyaluronic acid, collagen and polypeptides. Synthetic materials mainly include polyethylene glycol (PEG), polyacrylic acid (PAA), polyvinyl alcohol (PVA), etc. In addition, since the preparation techniques have a large impact on the properties of porous scaffolds, several techniques for preparing porous scaffolds based on different macromolecular materials are reviewed. Finally, the future prospects and challenges of 3D cell culture in the field of stem cell differentiation are reviewed. This review will provide a useful guideline for the selection of materials and techniques for 3D cell culture in stem cell differentiation.

Hemicellulose-based hydrogels for advanced applications

Hemicellulose-based hydrogels are three-dimensional networked hydrophilic polymer with high water retention, good biocompatibility, and mechanical properties, which have attracted much attention in the field of soft materials. Herein, recent advances and developments in hemicellulose-based hydrogels were reviewed. The preparation method, formation mechanism and properties of hemicellulose-based hydrogels were introduced from the aspects of chemical cross-linking and physical cross-linking. The differences of different initiation systems such as light, enzymes, microwave radiation, and glow discharge electrolytic plasma were summarized. The advanced applications and developments of hemicellulose-based hydrogels in the fields of controlled drug release, wound dressings, high-efficiency adsorption, and sensors were summarized. Finally, the challenges faced in the field of hemicellulose-based hydrogels were summarized and prospected.

Heterogeneous Electrospinning Nanofiber Membranes with pH-regulated Ion Gating for Tunable Osmotic Power Harvesting

Biological ion channels existing in organisms are critical for many biological processes. Inspired by biological ion channels, the heterogeneous electrospinning nanofiber membranes (HENM) with functional ion channels are constructed by electrospinning technology. The HENM successfully realizes ion-gating effects, which can be used for tunable energy conversions. Introduction of pyridine and carboxylic acid groups into the HENM plays an important role in generating unique and stable ion transport behaviors, in which gates become alternative states of open and close, responding to symmetric/asymmetric pH stimulations. Then we used the HENM to convert osmotic energy into electric energy which reach a maximum value up to 12.34 W m^-2 and the output power density of HENM-based system could be regulated by ion-gating effects. The properties of the HENM provide widespread potentials in application of smart nanofluidic devices, energy conversion, and water treatment.