Challenges and directions in studying cell-cell communication by extracellular vesicles

Integration of transcriptome and Mendelian randomization analyses in exploring the extracellular vesicle-related biomarkers of diabetic kidney disease

BACKGROUND

Diabetic Kidney Disease (DKD) is a common complication in patients with diabetes, and its pathogenesis remains incompletely understood. Recent studies have suggested that extracellular vesicles (EVs) may play a significant role in the initiation and progression of DKD. This study aimed to identify biomarkers associated with EVs in DKD through bioinformatics and Mendelian randomization (MR) analysis.

METHODS

This study utilized two DKD-related datasets, GSE96804 and GSE30528, alongside 121 exosome-related genes (ERGs) and 200 inflammation-related genes (IRGs). Differential analysis, co-expression network construction, and MR analysis were conducted to identify candidate genes. Machine learning techniques and expression validation were then employed to determine biomarkers. Finally, the potential mechanisms of action of these biomarkers were explored through Immunohistochemistry (IHC) staining, enrichment analysis, immune infiltration analysis, and regulatory network construction.

RESULTS

A total of 22 candidate genes were identified as causally linked to DKD. CMAS and RGS10 were identified as biomarkers, with both showing reduced expression in DKD. IHC confirmed low RGS10 expression, providing new insights into DKD management. CMAS was involved primarily in mitochondria-related pathways, while RGS10 was enriched in the extracellular matrix and associated pathways. Significant differences were observed in neutrophils and M2 macrophages between DKD and normal groups, correlating strongly with the biomarkers.

CONCLUSION

This study identified two EV-associated biomarkers, CMAS and RGS10, linked to DKD and elucidated their potential roles in disease progression. These results offer valuable insights for further exploration of DKD pathogenesis and the development of new therapeutic targets.

Correlation of extracellular vesicle Alu RNA with brain aging and neuronal injury: a potential biomarker for brain aging

BACKGROUND

Extracellular vesicles (EVs) are promising biomarkers for neurodegeneration. Alu elements are retrotransposons increasingly expressed with age and may be involved in aging-related diseases.

OBJECTIVE

To determine the potential of Alu RNA in plasma-derived EVs as a biomarker for brain aging and neuronal injury.

METHODS

EVs were isolated from plasma samples across different age groups. EV Alu RNA levels were measured and their associations with biomarkers of brain aging, including plasma neurofilament light chain (NfL), plasma amyloid-beta (Aβ42 and Aβ40), and plasma phosphorylated tau (p-Tau181), were analyzed.

RESULTS

EV Alu RNA levels were increased significantly with age and were strongly correlated with plasma NfL, suggesting a strong association between EV Alu RNA and neuronal injury. Significant correlations were also found between EV Alu RNA and plasma amyloid-beta levels, while no significant association was observed with tau pathology.

CONCLUSIONS

EV Alu RNA levels are elevated with age and associated with neuronal injury, highlighting their potential as a novel, non-invasive biomarker for brain aging and neurodegeneration.

Targeting capabilities of engineered extracellular vesicles for the treatment of neurological diseases

Recent advances in research on extracellular vesicles have significantly enhanced their potential as therapeutic agents for neurological diseases. Owing to their therapeutic properties and ability to cross the blood-brain barrier, extracellular vesicles are recognized as promising drug delivery vehicles for various neurological conditions, including ischemic stroke, traumatic brain injury, neurodegenerative diseases, glioma, and psychosis. However, the clinical application of natural extracellular vesicles is hindered by their limited targeting ability and short clearance from the body. To address these limitations, multiple engineering strategies have been developed to enhance the targeting capabilities of extracellular vesicles, thereby enabling the delivery of therapeutic contents to specific tissues or cells. Therefore, this review aims to highlight the latest advancements in natural and targeting-engineered extracellular vesicles, exploring their applications in treating traumatic brain injury, ischemic stroke, Parkinson's disease, Alzheimer's disease, amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, glioma, and psychosis. Additionally, we summarized recent clinical trials involving extracellular vesicles and discussed the challenges and future prospects of using targeting-engineered extracellular vesicles for drug delivery in treating neurological diseases. This review offers new insights for developing highly targeted therapies in this field.

Elucidation of extracellular vesicles behavior during capillary isoelectric focusing

In this study, we investigated the behavior of extracellular vesicles (EVs), during capillary isoelectric focusing (cIEF). For that, we used different approaches, imaging cIEF with a whole-column imaging detection (WCID) and conventional cIEF as well as different detection methods (LIF after EV labelling, native fluorescence and UV). Our study reveals that EVs exhibit significant aggregation during their migration toward, and upon reaching, their isoelectric point (pI). By optimizing key parameters such as voltage and the addition of solubilizers, we successfully reduced this issue, particularly with bovine milk EVs. Our findings also showed distinct pI regions observed for EVs isolated from different sources: bovine milk EVs shows acidic pI characteristics (4.0-4.1), while pig and human plasma EVs exhibit more basic pI zones (4.7-4.9 and 5.8-6.7, respectively). The study was extended to cIEF coupled to laser induced fluorescence detection (LIF) using intra-vesicular CFDA-labeled EVs, to better understand their susceptibilities. Prolonged mobilization time due to long capillary lengths adversely affected EV's integrity in conventional cIEF. Our study reveals the necessity to specific cIEF optimization for each EV source due to variations in charge distribution and aggregation behavior across different pI regions. The use of a short capillary length (<10 cm), low electric field and solubilizers such as Tween-20 is recommended to preserve EVs integrity during cIEF-EV studies.

Recent advances in bioreceptor-based sensing for extracellular vesicle analysis

Extracellular vesicles (EVs) are nanoscale, membrane-bound structures secreted by various cell types into biofluids. They show great potential as biomarkers for disease diagnostics, owing to their ability to carry molecular cargo that reflects their cellular origin. However, the inherent heterogeneity of EVs in terms of size, composition, and source presents significant challenges for reliable detection and analysis. Recent advances in bioreceptor-based biosensor technologies provide promising solutions by offering high sensitivity and specificity in EV detection and characterization. These technologies address the limitations of conventional methods, such as ultracentrifugation and bulk analysis. Biosensors utilizing antibodies, aptamers, peptides, lectins, and molecularly imprinted polymers enable precise detection of EV subpopulations by targeting specific EV surface markers, including proteins, lipids, and glycans. Additionally, these biosensors support multiplexed and real-time analysis while preserving the structural integrity of EVs. This review highlights the transformative potential of combining modern biosensing tools with bioreceptor technologies to advance EV research and diagnostics, paving the way for innovations in disease diagnostics and therapeutic monitoring.

Characterization, microRNA profiling, and immunomodulatory role of plasma-derived exosomes from olive flounder (Paralichthys olivaceus) in response to viral hemorrhagic septicemia virus

Viral hemorrhagic septicemia virus (VHSV) is a highly pathogenic virus that frequently infects olive flounder (Paralichthys olivaceus), causing viral hemorrhagic septicemia (VHS), and posing a significant threat to global aquaculture. This study characterizes plasma-derived exosomes from olive flounder following VHSV challenge (VHSV-Exo) or phosphate buffered saline (PBS) injection (PBS-Exo), comparing their morphology, physicochemical properties, molecular profiles, and immunomodulatory functions. Both PBS-Exo (118.3 ± 8.6 nm) and VHSV-Exo (82.6 ± 5.9 nm) exhibited the typical cup-shaped morphology of exosomes. The successful isolation and purity of exosomes were confirmed by the presence of exosome markers (CD81, CD9, and CD63) and the absence of albumin. High-throughput sequencing identified 13 differentially expressed (DE) microRNAs (miRNAs) between PBS-Exo and VHSV-Exo, including six upregulated and seven downregulated miRNAs (log2 fold change ≥1 or ≤ -1). Toxicity assessments revealed that neither PBS-Exo nor VHSV-Exo were toxic to murine macrophage Raw 264.7 cells or zebrafish larvae at tested doses (up to 100 and 400 μg/mL, respectively). The absence of green fluorescence at 96 h post-treatment of VHSV-Exo indicated minimal reactive oxygen species generation, further supporting exosome safety. Functional studies demonstrated that both in vitro (Raw 264.7 cells) and in vivo (adult zebrafish) treatments with exosomes regulated immune-related genes and proteins expression. Notabaly, VHSV-Exo exhibited superior immunomodulatory effects, as evidenced by enhanced immune gene and protein expression. To our knowledge, this is the first study demonstrating the immunomodulatory potential of VHSV-Exo. These findings highlight VHSV-Exo as a promising immunomodulatory agent, with potential applications as a prophylactic vaccine candidate against VHSV infection in aquaculture.

Differential expression of bovine milk-derived exosomal miRNAs and their role in modulating endometrial receptivity during early pregnancy

Endometrial receptivity is critical for successful implantation of bovine embryos. MicroRNA (miRNA), as a key regulator of uterine receptivity, is involved in physiological processes such as cell differentiation, proliferation, and apoptosis. The aim of this study was to identify pregnancy-specific miRNAs derived from milk exosomes of non-pregnant and early pregnant cows. In addition, bioinformatics analysis was used to assess the differential expression, target genes, and functions of these miRNAs in order to examine their significance in endometrial cell regulation. Exosomes were isolated from milk using an exosome extraction kit and then identified by Western blotting and transmission electron microscopy. We used Illumina high-throughput sequencing to profile miRNAs and identify differentially expressed miRNAs in bovine milk-derived exosomes at different stages of pregnancy (days 15, 25 and 30) and in non-pregnant cows (day 0). The sequencing data revealed a significant upregulation of bta-miR-125b in pregnant cows at days 15 and 25 compared to non-pregnant cows. Bta-miR-125b targets the Leukemia inhibitory factor (LIF), which is thought to play a critical role in the development of endometrial receptivity by regulating gene expression. KEGG pathway enrichment and Gene Ontology analysis indicated that the target genes of the differential miRNAs were significantly enriched in the key signaling pathways, including the MAPK, phosphatidylinositol signaling system and PI3K-Akt signaling pathways, as well as physiological activities such as RNA polymerase II transcriptional regulation, protein phosphorylation, apoptosis control and cell proliferation regulation. These signaling pathways and physiological activities are all indispensable parts during the process of pregnancy. These findings emphasize bta-miR-125b critical function in regulating endometrial receptivity via important signaling pathways, providing potential indicators for early pregnancy detection and insights into enhancing reproductive efficiency in dairy cows.

Exosomes: a potential tool in the diagnosis, prognosis and treatment of patients with colorectal cancer

Colorectal cancer (CRC), a commonly diagnosed malignancy, is one of the most frequent causes of cancer-related deaths worldwide. To effectively lower the death rate from this disease, it is essential to create public health methods, including developing new biomarkers that facilitate screening, diagnosis, prognosis, and therapy response prediction. CRC-derived Exosomes are a type of extracellular vesicle that transport functional molecules like proteins, lipids, nucleic acids (DNA, mRNA, miRNA, lncRNA, and noncoding RNA), and other metabolites, which act as molecular cargos to facilitate transportation. Exosomes generated and secreted from cancer cells are key biomarkers for early, noninvasive cancer diagnosis, prognosis, and treatment response, with their biogenesis in CRC offering molecular insights. Their expression varies across time, tissues, and disease stages. Thus, the development of innovative and effective techniques for isolating and detecting exosomes holds great potential for tumor diagnosis, prognosis prediction, and developing techniques (MSC-derived exosome, DC-derived exosome, engineered exosome, etc.) and their contents to improve the specificity and efficacy of therapies for patients with CRC. This review explores the features and formation of CRC-derived exosomes, highlighting their diagnostic, prognostic, and therapeutic significance through a comprehensive analysis of exosome extraction, identification, purification, and documented biological roles in existing literature.

Synovial fibroblast derived small extracellular vesicles miRNA15-29148 promotes articular chondrocyte apoptosis in rheumatoid arthritis

Rheumatoid arthritis (RA) is a systemic autoimmune disease in which synovial fibroblasts (SFs) maintain chronic inflammation by secreting proinflammatory mediators, leading to joint destruction. While the role of proinflammatory mediators in this process is well-established, the contribution of non-inflammatory regulators in SFs to joint pathology remains poorly understood. In this study, we investigated the non-inflammatory role of SFs in RA using a co-culture model, and found that SFs from RA patients promote apoptosis of human chondrocytes. Mechanistic investigations reveal that SFs can secrete small extracellular vesicles (sEVs), which are taken up by chondrocytes and induce chondrocyte apoptosis in both normal chondrocytes and chondrocytes from patients with RA. sEV-derived miRNA 15-29148 are identified as key signaling molecules mediating the apoptosis effects of chondrocytes. Further studies reveal that SF-derived miRNA 15-29148 targeting CIAPIN1 results in increased chondrocyte apoptosis. We further demonstrate that SF-derived miRNA 15-29148 is transferred to chondrocytes, exacerbating cartilage damage in vivo. Moreover, chondrocyte-specific aptamer-modified polyamidoamine nanoparticles not only ameliorated RA but also prevented its onset. This study suggests that, in RA, the secretion of specific sEV-miRNAs from SFs plays a crucial role in promoting chondrocyte apoptosis, potentially through non-inflammatory regulation, and that sEV-miRNA inhibition in SFs may represent an early preventive treatment strategy for cartilage degradation in RA.

Minimum information for studies of extracellular vesicles (MISEV) as toolbox for rigorous, reproducible and homogeneous studies on extracellular vesicles

Studies based on extracellular vesicles (EVs) have been multiplying exponentially for almost two decades, since they were first identified as vectors of cell-cell communication. However, several of these studies display a lack of rigor in EVs characterization and isolation, without discriminating between the different EV populations, thus generating conflicting and unreproducible results. There is therefore a strong need for standardization and guidelines to conduct studies that are rigorous, transparent, reproducible and comply with certain nomenclatures concerning the type of EVs used. The International Society for Extracellular Vesicles (ISEV) published the Minimum Information for Studies of Extracellular Vesicles (MISEV) in 2014, updating it in 2018 and 2023 to reflect different study contexts and technical advancements. The primary objective of this review is to inform future authors about EVs, including their history, nomenclature, and technical recommendations for the for isolation and functionality analysis for conducing EV-based studies according to current standards. Additionally, it aims to inform reviewers about the key parameters required for characterizing EV preparations.

Changes in circulating extracellular vesicle cargo are associated with cognitive decline after major surgery: an observational case-control study

BACKGROUND

Postoperative neurocognitive decline is a frequent complication triggered by unclear signalling mechanisms. This observational case-control study investigated the effects of hip or knee replacement surgery on the composition of circulating extracellular vesicles (EVs), potential periphery-to-brain messengers, and their association with neurocognitive outcomes.

METHODS

We mapped the microRNAome and proteome of plasma-derived EVs from 12 patients (six with good and six with poor neurocognitive outcomes at 3 months after surgery) at preoperative and postoperative timepoints (4, 8, 24, and 48 h). Complement C3-EV association was confirmed by flow cytometry in plasma- and cerebrospinal fluid (CSF)-derived EVs, with total plasma and CSF C3 and C3a concentrations determined using enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay.

RESULTS

Differential expression analysis found eight dysregulated EV microRNAs (miRNAs) exclusively in the poor neurocognitive outcomes group. Pathway analysis suggested potential downregulation of proliferative pathways and activation of extracellular matrix and inflammatory response pathways in EV target tissues. Proteome analysis revealed a time-dependent increase in immune-related EV proteins, including complement system proteins, notably EV surface-associated C3. Such upward kinetics was detected earlier in the poor neurocognitive outcomes group. Interestingly, CSF-derived EVs from the same group showed a drastic drop of C3 at 48 h with unchanged concentrations in the good neurocognitive outcomes group. Functionally, the complement system was activated in both patient groups in plasma, but only in the poor neurocognitive outcomes group in CSF.

CONCLUSIONS

Our findings highlight the impact of surgery on plasma- and CSF-derived EVs, particularly in patients with poor neurocognitive outcomes, indicating a potential role for EVs. The small sample size necessitates verification with a larger patient cohort.

Computational studies for the development of extracellular vesicle-based biosensors

Cancer affects millions of people, and early detection and efficient treatment are two strong levers to hurdle this disease. Recent studies on exosomes, a subset of extracellular vesicles, have deliberately shown the potential to function as a biomarker or treatment tool, thereby attracting the attention of researchers who work on developing biosensors. Due to the ability of computational methods to predict of the behavior of biomolecules, the combination of experimental and computational methods would enhance the analytical performance of the biosensor, including sensitivity, accuracy, and specificity, even detecting such vesicles from bodily fluids. In this regard, the role of computational methods such as molecular docking, molecular dynamics simulation, and density functional theory is overviewed in the development of biosensors. This review highlights the investigations and studies that have been reported using these methods to design exosome-based biosensors. This review concludes with the role of the quantum mechanics/molecular mechanics method in the investigation of chemical processes of biomolecular systems and the deficiencies in using this approach to develop exosome-based biosensors. In addition, the artificial intelligence theory is explained briefly to show its importance in the study of these biosensors.

The cell biology of Extracellular Vesicles: A jigsaw puzzle with a myriad of pieces

Extracellular vesicle (EV) research has expanded beyond traditional boundaries, evolving into an inter-kingdom endeavor. First described over 50 years ago, EVs are now recognized as playing diverse roles in basic cellular functions, such as intercellular communication, transport, and cell migration. Their biogenesis and secretion involve complex molecular processes, with cargos that include proteins, lipids, and genetic material. Despite advances, isolation and purification methods are still developing. EVs are present in all body fluids, with different subtypes fulfilling distinct roles. Nonetheless, in biological ecosystems, vesicle diversity can be seen as a strength where each one complements the other in the dialogue between cells and tissues. The involvement of EVs in homeostasis and disease and their well-recognized potential for diagnosis and therapeutics will continue to boost investigations to reveal their fundamental biology.

Decoding Complex Biological Milieus: SHINER's Approach to Profiling and Functioning of Extracellular Vesicle Subpopulations

Extracellular vesicles (EVs) are celebrated for their pivotal roles in cellular communication and their potential in disease diagnosis and therapeutic applications. However, their inherent heterogeneity acts as a double-edged sword, complicating the isolation of specific EV subpopulations. Conventional EV isolation methods often fall short, relying on biophysical properties, while affinity-based techniques may compromise EV integrity and utility with harsh recovery conditions. To address these limitations, the SHINER (subpopulation homogeneous isolation and nondestructive EV release) workflow is introduced, which redefines how EVs are isolated and recoverd, featuring the innovative SWITCHER (switchable extracellular vesicle releaser) tool. The SHINER workflow facilitates the precise purification and gentle recovery of target EV subpopulations from complex biological mixtures, preserving their structural integrity and biological functionality. Importantly, SHINER demonstrates exceptional adaptability to multiple markers and clinical applications. It not only enhances the ability to trace EV origins for accurate disease diagnosis but also advances fundamental EV research and provides standardized EV materials for therapeutic innovations. By improving the understanding of EVs and enabling the development of personalized diagnostics and treatments, SHINER propels EV-based science into new frontiers of advanced medicine, offering transformative potential for healthcare.

Exploring adipose tissue-derived extracellular vesicles in inter-organ crosstalk: Implications for metabolic regulation and adipose tissue function

Intercellular and inter-organ communication systems are vital for tissue homeostasis and disease development, utilizing soluble bioactive molecules for signaling. The field of extracellular vesicle (EV) biology has rapidly expanded in recent decades, highlighting EVs as effective bioactive nanovectors for cell-to-cell communication in various physiological and pathological contexts. Numerous studies indicate that adipocyte-derived EVs are crucial components of the adipose secretome, playing a key role in autocrine and paracrine interactions within adipose tissue, as well as in endocrine signaling. This review aims to present an updated perspective on EVs as mediators of communication between adipose tissue and other organs, while also examining their therapeutic potential in the light of recent advancements in EV biology research.

Mitochondrial Distribution and Osteocyte Mechanosensitivity

PURPOSE OF REVIEW

Mechanical loading of bone is an important physical stimulus for bone tissue remodeling and adaptation. It is transmitted from the extracellular matrix all the way to the osteocyte nucleus via the extracellular matrix-integrin-cytoskeleton-nucleus system. Mitochondria are integral in sensing of mechanical loads to allow the cell to adapt to its environment. This review provides a background of mitochondrial distribution in osteocytes especially during mechanical loading, discussing the importance of mitochondrial distribution in osteocyte mechanosensitivity and mechanotransduction.

RECENT FINDINGS

Mitochondria throughout the osteocyte are highly dynamic and provide essential metabolic and signal functions to regulate osteocyte morphology and function. They undergo the processes of fission and fusion accompanied by mitochondrial DNA distribution. The mitochondrial network structure and function in osteocytes can be regulated by mechanical loading. Interestingly, mitochondria can be transmitted by osteocytes into adjacent cells to communicate with them via tunneling nanotubes, migrasomes, and blebbisomes, causing changes in cell morphology and/or function. Mitochondrial distribution in or out osteocytes can be rearranged by physical and (bio)chemical signals via fission and fusion, as well as tunneling nanotubes, migrasomes, and blebbisomes. Mechanical loading-induced changes in mitochondria may drive signaling pathways of cell function in aging and diseases. More insights into interactions between neighbouring osteocytes and between osteocytes and other cell types would facilitate the development of new strategies to apply mitochondrial therapy for bone-related diseases.

Facile preparation of isolation columns filled with integral hybrid materials for efficient isolation of extracellular vesicles from microliter sample

BACKGROUND

Extracellular vesicles (EVs) and their anomalously altered cargoes represent a promising avenue for clinical diagnostics and prognostics. A critical challenge in EV research is the efficient isolation of these vesicles from complex biological samples with high recovery and purity. Although various of materials have good performance in EV isolation, these materials focus on the nanomaterials, which require multiple solution transfer steps in their use process. It will inevitably lead to sample loss, and is difficult to combine with online sample processing methods.

RESULTS

In this study, we introduce a novel isolation column for isolation of EVs, termed EvBHM, which leverages a bi-functional hybrid monolith and a polyethylene (PE) sieve plate. This design integrates the membrane insertion of distearoyl phospholipid ethanolamine (DSPE) with metal affinity chromatography (MAC), utilizing the interaction between titanium ions and the phospholipid membrane of EVs. The PE sieve plate serves as a robust support for the pore structure. This method provides a straightforward and user-friendly approach to prepare the isolation column, which demonstrates superior enrichment efficiency for EVs from microliter of cell culture media or plasma, ensuring minimal sample loss and high purity. Consequently, 37 up-regulated and 91 down-regulated proteins of plasma in colorectal cancer (CRC) patients are found over the health donors, and serval of them are associated with the occurrence and development of CRC.

SIGNIFICANCE

This method provides a straightforward and user-friendly approach to prepare of the isolation column, which demonstrates superior enrichment efficiency for EVs from microliter of cell culture media or serum as low as 10 μL, ensuring minimal sample loss and high purity. The results suggest this isolated method based on EvBHM isolation column is a promising strategy to search biomarkers for early diagnosis of cancers.

Utilizing Extracellular Vesicles from Phaeodactylum tricornutum as a Novel Approach for Protecting the Skin from Oxidative Damage

Oxidative stress is a principal factor contributing to skin damage induced by deleterious stimuli, including ultraviolet (UV) radiation. Microalgae-derived extracellular vesicles (EVs), particularly those from Phaeodactylum tricornutum (PTEV), are gaining recognition as a potential therapeutic avenue for restoring skin homeostasis, owing to their scalable production and multifaceted biological activities. This study evaluates the therapeutic effects of PTEV on oxidative damage in H2O2-stimulated HaCaT cells and UV-exposed KM mouse models, based on the extraction and characterization of PTEV. Subsequently, the oxidative stress injury model of HaCaT cells induced by H2O2 and the acute photodamage model of KM mice skin induced by UV were established. The results show that HaCaT cells exhibit a time-dependent uptake of PTEV, confirming that PTEV is nontoxic and has the potential for intercellular cross-boundary regulation. Treatment with PTEV can enhance the vitality of H2O2-stimulated HaCaT cells, reduce intracellular ROS levels, and increase antioxidant enzyme activity in the cells. Further evaluation revealed that PTEV can inhibit UV-induced thickening of the epidermis and degradation of collagen fibers in mice by suppressing the overexpression of matrix metalloproteinase (MMP-3) induced by UV. It enhances the expression of type I collagen (COL1A1) and increases the activity of antioxidant enzymes, as well as the overall antioxidant capacity of tissues. Additionally, PTEV reduces the increase in malondialdehyde levels and lowers the expression levels of inflammatory factors TNF-α and IL-6, thereby protecting the skin barrier and function in mice with acute photodamage. Continuous production of PTEV offers promising applications in therapeutic strategies.

METTL3-mediated m⁶A methylation in cardiac diseases: pathogenic roles and therapeutic potential

Cardiac dysfunction is a leading cause of death each year, putting heavy burdens on the global healthcare system. To improve our understanding of cardiac disease, novel perspectives for exploring their pathogenesis mechanisms are needed, which contributes to finding novel diagnoses and therapy targets for cardiac disease. To be noteworthy, researchers have paid great attention to understanding the pathogenesis of cardiac diseases from the perspective of methyltransferase-like 3 (METTL3, the catalytic core)-mediated RNA N6-methyladenosine modification and targeting METTL3 for therapy. Therefore, we aim to evaluate the significance of METTL3 in cardiac diseases. In the present review, we summarize and analyze all studies reporting the involvement of METTL3 in cardiac diseases (acute myocardial infarction, myocardial ischemia/reperfusion injury, cardiac hypertrophy, and cardiac fibrosis) to interpret their interrelationship. This review suggests that METTL3 is a risk gene for cardiac diseases, which shows great promise as a disease diagnosis and prognosis biomarker and is poised to serve as an important target in drug development. Collectively, this review presents a comprehensive, cutting-edge overview of METTL3 in cardiac diseases, which could be a valuable reference for researchers to understand disease pathogenesis and develop novel drugs.

Extracellular Vesicles in the Crosstalk of Autophagy and Apoptosis: A Role for Lipid Rafts

Autophagy and apoptosis are two essential mechanisms regulating cell fate. Although distinct, their signaling pathways are closely interconnected through various crosstalk mechanisms. Lipid rafts are described to act as both physical and functional platforms during the early stages of autophagic and apoptotic processes. Only recently has a role for lipid raft-associated molecules in regulating EV biogenesis and release begun to emerge. In particular, lipids of EV membranes are essential components in conferring stability to these vesicles in different extracellular environments and/or to facilitate binding or uptake into recipient cells. In this review we highlight these aspects, focusing on the role of lipid molecules during apoptosis and secretory autophagy pathways. We describe the molecular machinery that connects autophagy and apoptosis with vesicular trafficking and lipid metabolism during the release of EVs, and how their alterations contribute to the development of various diseases, including autoimmune disorders and cancer. Overall, these findings emphasize the complexity of autophagy/apoptosis crosstalk and its key role in cellular dynamics, supporting the role of lipid rafts as new therapeutic targets.

Extracellular Vesicle-Based Drug Delivery Systems in Cancer Therapy

Extracellular vesicles (EVs) are lipid bilayer-enclosed particles secreted by cells and ubiquitously present in various biofluids. They not only mediate intercellular communication but also serve as promising drug carriers that are capable of delivering therapeutic agents to target cells through their inherent physicochemical properties. In this review, we summarized the recent advances in EV isolation techniques and innovative drug-loading strategies. Furthermore, we emphasized the distinct advantages and therapeutic applications of EVs derived from different cellular sources in cancer treatment. Finally, we critically evaluated the ongoing clinical trials utilizing EVs for drug delivery and systematically assessed both the opportunities and challenges associated with implementing EV-based drug delivery systems in cancer therapy.

Modulating binding affinity of aptamer-based loading constructs enhances extracellular vesicle-mediated CRISPR/Cas9 delivery

The CRISPR/Cas9 toolbox consists of modular nucleases that can be employed to efficiently modify genomic sequences with high specificity. However, delivery of the large Cas9-sgRNA ribonucleoprotein (RNP) complexes remains challenging due to their immunogenicity, size, and overall negative charge. An approach to overcome these limitations is the use of extracellular vesicles (EVs) as intracellular delivery vehicles. EVs exhibit the natural ability to carry and deliver RNA and proteins across biological barriers, and can be engineered to load and deliver a variety of biotherapeutic molecules. Previous studies have shown that efficient EV-mediated cargo delivery does not only require active loading strategies, but also benefits from strategies to release cargo from the EV membrane. Here, we load Cas9 RNP complexes into EVs by expressing sgRNAs containing MS2 aptamers (MS2-sgRNAs), alongside Cas9 and a fusion protein of CD63 and tandem MS2 coat proteins (MCPs). We demonstrate that efficient Cas9 RNP delivery can also be facilitated by modulating the binding affinity between MS2 aptamers and the MCPs. To study the effect of altering the binding affinity between the MS2 hairpin and the MCP on Cas9 RNP delivery, various mutations affecting the binding affinity were made in both the interacting MS2-hairpin and the RNA-binding domain of the MCPs. Comparing Cas9 RNP delivery of the modulated MS2-sgRNAs revealed that adapting binding affinity highly affects functional RNP delivery. Mutations resulting in high affinity did not facilitate efficient RNP delivery unless combined with a photo-inducible release strategy, showing that cargo release was a limiting factor in RNP delivery. Mutations that decreased affinity resolved this issue, resulting in Cas9 RNP delivery without the requirement of additional release strategies. However, further decreasing affinity resulted in decreased Cas9 gene-editing efficiency due to decreased levels of Cas9 RNP loading into EVs. A similar effect on functional delivery was seen after modification of the RNA-binding domain of the MCPs. Our results demonstrate that EVs are capable of functional Cas9-sgRNA complex delivery, and that modulation of binding affinity can be used to increase efficient functional delivery with non-covalent loading constructs, without the need for additional engineering strategies for cargo release.

From Mechanism to Therapy: The Role of MSC-EVs in Alleviating Radiation-Induced Injuries

Radiation injury is a severe issue in both nuclear accidents and cancer radiotherapy. Ionizing radiation impairs the regenerative and repair capabilities of tissues and organs, resulting in a scarcity of effective therapeutic approaches to prevent or mitigate such injuries. Mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) possess favorable biological characteristics and have emerged as ideal candidates for the treatment of radiation injury. However, the use of MSCs as therapeutic agents is associated with uncertainties in therapeutic efficacy, transient effects, and the risk of immune rejection. Recent advances in research have revealed that extracellular vesicles (EVs) derived from mesenchymal stem cells (MSC-EVs) exhibit similar beneficial properties to MSCs and represent a promising cell-free therapy for mitigating radiation injuries. MSC-EVs are enriched with microRNAs (miRNAs), proteins, and lipids, which can modulate immune responses, inflammatory reactions, cell survival, and proliferation in irradiated tissues. This review synthesizes recent studies on the application of MSC-EVs in radiation injury, focusing on the therapeutic effects and mechanisms of MSC-EVs derived from various sources in radiation-induced diseases of different organs. The therapeutic potential of MSC-EVs for radiation injury provides valuable insights for addressing ionizing radiation-induced injuries and offers a reference for future clinical applications.

Engineering pyroptotic vesicles as personalized cancer vaccines

Tumour vaccines are designed to stimulate the host's immune system against existing tumours or tumour recurrence. However, individual differences, tumour heterogeneity and side effects hinder the applications of current tumour vaccines and require the development of personalized cancer vaccines. To overcome these challenges, we engineered pyroptotic vesicles-extracellular vesicles formed during tumour cell pyroptosis-as a tumour vaccine platform. The extracted pyroptotic vesicles possess abundant tumour antigens and potent immune-stimulating ability and, loaded into a biocompatible hydrogel, they can be implanted into post-surgical tumour cavities to prevent tumour recurrence. The pyroptotic-vesicle-based vaccine outperforms both exosome- and apoptotic-body-based vaccines in inhibiting tumour recurrence and metastasis in different post-surgical mouse models. Mechanistic studies reveal that the pyroptotic-vesicle-based vaccine could stimulate robust antigen-specific dendritic cell and T cell immune responses against both artificial OVA antigens and cancer neoantigens. In sum, our vaccine platform can be tailored to stimulate robust antitumour immune responses for treating individual cancer patients.

A novel function for exosomes in depression

Exosomes are a class of extracellular vesicles that encompass a diverse array of bioactive molecules, including proteins, lipids, mRNA, and microRNA(miRNA). Virtually all cell types release exosomes under both physiological and pathological conditions. In addition to electrical and chemical signals, exosomes are an alternative route of signaling between cells in the brain. In the brain, they are involved in processes such as synaptic plasticity, neuronal stress response, intercellular communication, and neurogenesis. A number of studies have shown that exosomes regulate the occurrence and development of depression by participating in the regulation of hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis, brain-derived neurotrophic factor, immune inflammatory response and other mechanisms, showing that they may become potential biological agents for the diagnosis and treatment of depression. In addition, exosomes have the ability to easily cross the blood-brain barrier, making them ideal drug or molecular delivery tools for the central nervous system. Engineered exosomes have good brain targeting ability, and their research in central nervous system diseases has begun to emerge. However, the molecular pathways involved in the pathogenesis of depression remain unknown, and further studies are needed to fully understand the role of exosomes in the development or improvement of depression. Therefore, in this review, we mainly focus on the diagnostic performance and therapeutic effect of exosomes in depression, and explore the advantages of exosomes as biomarkers and gene delivery vectors for depression.

Regulation of synaptic mitochondria by extracellular vesicles and its implications for neuronal metabolism and synaptic plasticity

Mitochondrial metabolism in neurons is necessary for energetically costly processes like synaptic transmission and plasticity. As post-mitotic cells, neurons are therefore faced with the challenge of maintaining healthy functioning mitochondria throughout lifetime. The precise mechanisms of mitochondrial maintenance in neurons, and particularly in morphologically complex dendrites and axons, are not fully understood. Evidence from several biological systems suggests the regulation of cellular metabolism by extracellular vesicles (EVs), secretory lipid-enclosed vesicles that have emerged as important mediators of cell communication. In the nervous system, neuronal and glial EVs were shown to regulate neuronal circuit development and function, at least in part via the transfer of protein and RNA cargo. Interestingly, EVs have been implicated in diseases characterized by altered metabolism, such as cancer and neurodegenerative diseases. Furthermore, nervous system EVs were shown to contain proteins related to metabolic processes, mitochondrial proteins and even intact mitochondria. Here, we present the current knowledge of the mechanisms underlying neuronal mitochondrial maintenance, and highlight recent evidence suggesting the regulation of synaptic mitochondria by neuronal and glial cell EVs. We further discuss the potential implications of EV-mediated regulation of mitochondrial maintenance and function in neuronal circuit development and synaptic plasticity.

Role of Exosomes in Cardiovascular Disease: A Key Regulator of Intercellular Communication in Cardiomyocytes

In the cardiovascular system, different types of cardiovascular cells can secrete specific exosomes and participate in the maintenance of cardiovascular function and the occurrence and development of diseases. Exosomes carry biologically active substances such as proteins and nucleic acids from cells of origin and can be used as biomarkers for disease diagnosis and prognosis assessment. In addition, exosome-mediated intercellular communication plays a key role in the occurrence and development of cardiovascular diseases and has become a potential therapeutic target. This article emphasizes the importance of understanding the mechanism of exosomes in cardiovascular diseases and systematically details the current understanding of exosomes as regulators of intercellular communication in cardiomyocytes, providing a basis for future research and therapeutic intervention.

MiR-451a-Enriched Small Extracellular Vesicles Derived from Mg2+-Activated DPSCs Induce Vascularized Bone Regeneration through the AKT/eNOS/NO Axis

Blood vessel formation is a necessary part of bone tissue regeneration. MSCs-sEVs play a vital role in the in vivo bone regeneration strategy. However, natural MSCs-sEVs suffer from limited blood vessel formation potency, which makes it difficult to induce vascularized bone regeneration. Here, sEVs derived from magnesium cation-activated DPSCs (Mg2+-EVs) are purified and found to have superior potential in promoting endothelial cell migration and angiogenesis, as well as BMSC proliferation and osteogenesis. The beneficial effects of Mg2+-EVs could be attributed to the enrichment of miR-451a and the subsequent regulation and activation of AKT/eNOS signaling pathways. On this basis, Mg2+-EVs are delivered on β-TCP-modified GelMA scaffolds for slow release and better bioavailability. The rat cranial defect model verifies that GelMA/β-TCP with Mg2+-EVs has enhanced potential of inducing vascularized bone regeneration. The present study provides a cation-activated strategy to modulate the cargos and contents of MSC-derived sEVs, obtaining desirable vascular promotion and bone regeneration potential. Furthermore, the developed β-TCP-modified delivery scaffolds represent a promising strategy for efficient loading and slow-release delivery of sEVs for clinical translation.

The 8th International Symposium on Phospholipids in Pharmaceutical Research - An update on current research in phospholipids presented at the biennial symposium of the Phospholipid Research Center Heidelberg

This Conference Report recaps recent advances in the research on phospholipids and their applications for advanced drug delivery and analytical purposes that have been presented at the "8th International Symposium on Phospholipids in Pharmaceutical Research" of the Phospholipid Research Center (PRC), held from September 09-11, 2024, at the University of Heidelberg, Germany. The PRC is a non-profit organization focused on expanding and sharing scientific and technological knowledge of phospholipids in pharmaceutical and related applications. This is accomplished by, e.g., funding doctoral and postdoctoral research projects at universities worldwide. The PRC organizes this symposium every two years, at which international experts from science and industry present innovative and new applications of phospholipids. This year's symposium highlighted advancements in lipid-based gene and RNA delivery, anisotropic lipid nanoparticles, PEGylation challenges, tetraether lipids for drug delivery, ethical considerations in publishing, multifunctional lipopeptides, and phospholipid applications in therapeutics. Discussions also showcased award-winning research on optimizing liposome drug compatibility, reflecting the expanding role of phospholipids in pharmaceutical science.

A transcriptomic and proteomic analysis and comparison of human brain tissue from patients with and without epilepsy

The present study was to investigate potential biomarkers and therapeutic targets for epilepsy by conducting a transcriptomic and proteomic analysis of human brain tissue from patients with epileptic lesions. Brain tissue was collected from the epileptic lesions after surgical resection and surgical removed brain tissue from non-epileptic patients. Using RNA sequencing and iTRAQ-based proteomic analysis, The transcriptomic analysis identified 1,604 DEGs, with 584 upregulated and 1,020 downregulated. The proteomic analysis identified 694 DEPs, with 331 upregulated and 363 downregulated. The combined transcriptomic and proteomic analysis showed that the DEGs and DEPs were mainly enriched in biological processes such as D-aspartate transport, transmembrane transport, cell junctions, vesicle transport, and metabolic processes. Tubulin polymerization promoting protein family member-3 (TPPP3), proprotein convertase subtilisin/kexin type-1 (PCSK1), and dihydropyrimidinase-like 3 (DPYSL3) were significantly altered in the epilepsy patients, and their expression trends were confirmed by the RT-qPCR, WB, and IHC staining results. By integrating transcriptomic and proteomic analyses, we identified genes and proteins expressed differently in epileptic and non-epileptic patients and their associated biological processes. Three key DEPs (TPPP3, PCSK1, and DPYSL3) were identified, indicating their potential significance in the pathological mechanisms of epilepsy.

Extracellular vesicle as a next-generation drug delivery platform for rheumatoid arthritis therapy

Rheumatoid arthritis (RA) is a systemic autoimmune disorder characterized by chronic inflammation and progressive damage to connective tissue. It is driven by dysregulated cellular homeostasis, often leading to autoimmune destruction and permanent disability in severe cases. Over the past decade, various drug delivery systems have been developed to enable targeted therapies for disease prevention, reduction, or suppression. As an emerging therapeutic platform, extracellular vesicles (EVs) offer several advantages over conventional drug delivery systems, including biocompatibility and low immunogenicity. Consequently, an increasing number of studies have explored EV-based delivery systems in the treatment of RA, leveraging their natural ability to evade phagocytosis, prolong in vivo half-life, and minimize the immunogenicity of therapeutic agents. In this review, we first provide an in-depth overview of the pathogenesis of RA and the current treatment landscape. We then discuss the classification and biological properties of EVs, their potential therapeutic mechanisms, and the latest advancements in EVs as drug delivery platforms for RA therapy. We emphasize the significance of EVs as carriers in RA treatment and their potential to revolutionize therapeutic strategies. Furthermore, we examine key technological innovations and the future trajectory of EV research, focusing on the challenges and opportunities in translating these platforms into clinical practice. Our discussion aims to offer a comprehensive understanding of the current state and future prospects of EV-based therapeutics in RA.

Exosome-Based Therapeutics in Dermatology

Exosomes (Exos) are tiny extracellular vesicles containing a variety of active biomolecules that play important parts in intercellular communication and influence the functions of target cells. The potential of Exos in the treatment of dermatological diseases has recently been well appreciated. This review highlights the constituents, function, and delivery of Exos, with a particular focus on their applications in skin therapy. Firstly, we offer a concise overview of the biochemical properties of Exos, including their sources, structures, and internal constituents. Subsequently, the biomedical functions of Exos and the latest advances in the extraction and purification of Exos are summarized. We further discuss the modes of delivery of Exos and underscore the potential of biomaterials in this regard. Finally, we summarize the application of Exo-aided therapy in dermatology. Overall, the objective of this review is to provide a comprehensive perspective on the applications and recent advancements of Exo-based approaches in treating skin diseases, with the intention of guiding future research efforts.

Urinary Extracellular Vesicle Analysis Reveals Early Signs of Kidney Inflammation and Damage in Single Ventricle Paediatric Patients After Fontan Operation

Background

Extracellular vesicles present in urine (uEVs) are gaining considerable interest as biomarkers, to monitor and predict kidney physio-pathological state. Patients with single ventricle defects and hemodynamic stabilization by Fontan intervention may develop kidney dysfunction as one of the most prevalent extracardiac co-morbidity. Our study aimed to characterize uEVs in children with single ventricle heart defects who underwent Fontan surgery, focusing on markers for monitoring and predicting kidney function, to get physio-pathological insights on possible mechanisms of tissue damage and progression.

Methods

We isolated uEVs from urine of 60 paediatric patients affected by single ventricle defects, and from 10 healthy subjects. We analysed uEVs to assess the presence of the reno-protective hormone Klotho, using super resolution microscopy of single uEVs and ELISA. Moreover, we analysed the levels of markers of kidney regeneration, such as CD133 and CD24, and of inflammation using a bead-based cytofluorimetric multiplex analysis. The markers' levels were correlated with patients' demographical, clinical and surgical data.

Results

uEVs from children with single ventricle defects showed reduced levels of Klotho and CD133, compared with the ones of healthy subjects. In parallel, the levels of inflammatory markers (CD3, CD56, and HLA-DR) were significantly higher. Interestingly, levels of inflammatory markers correlated with age of patients and distance from surgery.

Conclusion

This study demonstrates that single ventricle patients, who underwent Fontan's surgery, present altered levels of uEV biomarkers related to regeneration, inflammation and fibrosis, suggesting the presence of early signs of kidney damage and inflammation, compatible with the complexity of the pathology.

Advances in dendritic cell-based therapeutic tumor vaccines

Dendritic cell-based therapeutic tumor vaccines are an active immunotherapy that has been commonly tried in the clinic,traditional treatment modalities for malignant tumors, such as surgery, radiotherapy and chemotherapy, have the disadvantages of high recurrence rates and side effects. The dendritic cell vaccination destroys cells from tumors by means of the patient's own system of immunity, a very promising treatment. However, due to the suppression of the tumor immune microenvironment, the difficulty of screening for optimal specific antigens, and the high technical difficulty of vaccine production. Most tumor vaccines currently available in the clinic have failed to produce significant clinical therapeutic effects. In this review, the fundamentals of therapeutic dendritic cells vaccine therapy are briefly outlined, with a focus on the progress of therapeutic Dendritic cells vaccine research in the clinic and the initiatives undertaken to enhance dendritic cell vaccinations' anti-tumor effectiveness. It is believed that through the continuous exploration of novel therapeutic strategies, therapeutic dendritic cells vaccines can play a greater role in improving tumor treatment for tumor patients.

Role of Extracellular Vesicles in the Pathogenesis of Brain Metastasis

Extracellular vesicles (EVs) are small particles released by various cells, including cancer cells. They play a significant role in the development of different cancers, including brain metastasis. These EVs transport biomolecular materials such as RNA, DNA, and proteins from tumour cells to other cells, facilitating the spread of primary tumours to the brain tissue. EVs interact with the endothelial cells of the blood-brain barrier (BBB), compromising its integrity and allowing metastatic cells to pass through easily. Additionally, EVs interact with various cells in the brain's microenvironment, creating a conducive environment for incoming metastatic cells. They also influence the immune system within this premetastatic environment, promoting the growth of metastatic cells. This review paper focuses on the research regarding the role of EVs in the development of brain metastasis, including their impact on disrupting the BBB, preparing the premetastatic environment, and modulating the immune system. Furthermore, the paper discusses the potential of EVs as diagnostic and prognostic biomarkers for brain metastasis.

Osteosarcoma Cell-Derived Migrasomes Promote Macrophage M2 Polarization to Aggravate Osteosarcoma Proliferation and Metastasis

The local tumor microenvironment (TME) of osteosarcoma (OS) includes several tumor niches that control tumor growth and cell extravasation. Migrasomes are recently discovered extracellular vesicles produced during cell migration. Herein, the results show OS cell production of migrasomes in vivo and in vitro. Osteosarcoma cell-derived migrasomes (OCDMs) aggravate OS proliferation and metastasis, and impeding OCDM formation alleviates the malignant progression of OS. Further studies revealed that migrasome-associated nanoparticles (MANPs) are the functional unit of OCDMs and that OCDMs promote M2 polarization of macrophages in the TME in a MANPs-dependent manner. Moreover, milk fat globule-EGF factor 8 (MFGE8) in OCDMs is identified as a key protein that enhances phagocytosis to promote the M2 polarization of macrophages. Overall, the results reveal that OCDMs enhance the M2 polarization of macrophages in the TME to aggravate OS progression via MFGE8. These findings may guide the development of OCDM-modulating OS therapies.

Impact of FASN-enriched EVs on endothelial cell function in obstructive sleep apnea hypopnea syndrome

Endothelial dysfunction is a key factor linking obstructive sleep apnea hypopnea syndrome (OSAHS) with cardiovascular diseases. In this study, we used advanced proteomics and metabolomics approaches to investigate the impact of extracellular vesicles (EVs) derived from the serum of OSAHS patients on endothelial function. Our multi-omics analysis identified dysregulated pathways related to fatty acid metabolism, apoptosis regulation, and inflammatory responses, highlighting fatty acid synthase (FASN) as a crucial player in OSAHS-induced endothelial dysfunction. Both in vitro and in vivo experiments demonstrated that FASN-enriched EVs impair endothelial cell viability and disrupt metabolic homeostasis, offering new insights for the development of targeted therapies for cardiovascular complications associated with OSAHS.

M2 Macrophage-Derived Extracellular Vesicles Reprogram Immature Neutrophils into Anxa1hi Neutrophils to Enhance Inflamed Bone Regeneration

Periodontitis is a microbiome-related inflammation that can lead to irreversible bone reduction and even tooth loss. This study reveals that macrophage polarization states significantly influence periodontal homeostasis, with M2 macrophage-derived extracellular vesicles (M2-EVs) playing a pivotal role in mitigating periodontitis-induced bone loss. Single-cell RNA sequencing of periodontal tissues treated with M2-EVs uncovered a unique Anxa1hi neutrophil subpopulation exhibiting pro-reparative properties. This subpopulation is characterized by immaturity and demonstrated osteogenic and angiogenic capabilities in vivo, partially mediated through the secretion of oncostatin M (OSM) signals. The findings suggest that this functional heterogeneity arises from M2-EVs disrupting the neutrophil maturation trajectory, with pivotal reprogramming genes, such as Acvrl1 and Fpr2, driving the differentiation of the Anxa1hi reparative subpopulation. This work underscores the potential of targeting M2 macrophage-neutrophil interactions to promote the regeneration of inflamed bone tissues.

Muscle-Derived Small Extracellular Vesicles Mediate Exercise-Induced Cognitive Protection in Chronic Cerebral Hypoperfusion

Physical exercise protects against cognitive impairment caused by chronic cerebral hypoperfusion (CCH). However, the mechanisms through which exercise sends signals from the periphery to the central nervous system remain incompletely understood. This study demonstrated that exercise promotes the secretion of muscle-derived small extracellular vesicles (sEVs), which facilitate interorgan communication between the muscle and the brain. Systematic delivery of muscle-derived sEVs enhances synaptic plasticity and alleviated cognitive impairment in CCH. Notably, miRNA sequencing reveal miR-17/20a-5p as key cargos in sEVs involved in the exercise-induced muscle-brain crosstalk. Muscle-derived sEVs are also identified as the primary source of swimming-induced miR-17/20a-5p in circulating sEVs. Mechanistically, miR-17/20a-5p binds to the DEP-domain containing mTOR-interacting protein (DEPTOR) and activates the mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR) pathway in the hippocampus. Depletion of miR-17/20a-5p from muscle-derived sEVs impairs the exercise-induced enhancement of synaptic plasticity and cognitive function. Moreover, overexpression of DEPTOR in the hippocampus attenuates the cognitive benefits of exercise. Conversely, hippocampus-specific activation of mTOR reverses these effects, highlighting the crucial role of mTOR in mediating the positive effects of exercise. Collectively, these findings identify miR-17/20a-5p in muscle-derived sEVs as the exercise-induced myokine with potent effects on the brain, emphasizing the therapeutic potential of exercise in managing cognitive impairment.

Extracellular vesicle-based point-of-care testing for diagnosis and monitoring of Alzheimer's disease

Extracellular vesicles (EVs) show potential for early diagnosis of Alzheimer's disease (AD) and monitoring of its progression. However, EV-based AD diagnosis faces challenges due to the small size and low abundance of biomarkers. Here, we report a fully integrated organic electrochemical transistor (OECT) sensor for ultrafast, accurate, and convenient point-of-care testing (POCT) of serum EVs from AD patients. By utilizing acoustoelectric enrichment, the EVs can be quickly propelled, significantly enriched, and specifically bound to the OECT detection area, achieving a gain of over 280 times response in 30 s. The integrated POCT sensor can detect serum EVs from AD patients with a limit of detection as low as 500 EV particles/mL and a reduced detection time of just two minutes. Furthermore, the integrated POCT sensors were used to monitor AD progression in an AD mouse model by testing the mouse Aβ EVs at different time courses (up to 18 months) and compared with the Aβ accumulation using high-resolution magnetic resonance imaging (MRI). This innovative technology has the potential for accurate and rapid diagnosis of Alzheimer's and other neurodegenerative diseases, and monitoring of disease progression and treatment response.

L1CAM+ extracellular vesicles derived from the serum of adolescents with major depressive disorder induce depression-like phenotypes in adolescent mice

BACKGROUND

It has been reported that L1 cell adhesion molecule (L1CAM) antibody can capture neuron-derived extracellular vesicles (NDEVs) derived from peripheral blood. This antibody is significantly associated with occurrence of adult psychiatric disorders. However, the role and mechanism of L1CAM+ EVs (L1+ EVs) in adolescent with major depressive disorder (AMDD) is not well understood. This research aimed to explore the function and potential mechanism of L1+ EVs and miRNAs genes in AMDD.

METHODS

L1+ EVs derived from the serum of AMDD and healthy controls (HC) were transplanted into adolescent mice via tail vein. Their effects were explored using behavioral tests, hippocampal Nissl staining, and whole genome mRNA sequencing. MiRNAs expression in L1+ EVs was evaluated by whole-genome sequencing and qRT-PCR. Bioinformatics analysis was employed to explore the possible pathogenic molecular mechanisms of these miRNAs in AMDD.

RESULTS

Transplantation of L1+ EVs from AMDD induced depression-like behavior and hippocampal neuronal damage in adolescent mice and aberrant expression of 298 mRNA genes. The molecular signals related to MDD were enriched in the top pathways of the differentially expressed genes. Compared with HC, miR-375-3p and miR-200a-3p were upregulated in L1+ EVs from AMDD, miR-375-3p was also increased in the hippocampus of AMDD serum L1+ EVs-recipient mice. Bioinformatics analysis revealed that miR-375-3p might modulate the network of molecules associated with the MAPK pathway via protein interaction involving hippocampal differential genes Cadm2, Cacna2d1, and Casz1.

CONCLUSION

MiR-375-3p might contribute to L1+ EVs-induced AMDD. L1+ EVs miR-375-3p and miR-200a-3p could potentially serve as potential biomarkers for AMDD.

Methionine-Specific Bioconjugation for Single-Molecule Force Spectroscopy of Cell Surface Proteins

Cell surface proteins play crucial roles in various cellular processes, including intercellular communication, adhesion, and immune responses. However, investigating these proteins using single-molecule force spectroscopy (SMFS) has been hindered by challenges in site-specific protein modification while preserving their native state. Here, we introduce a methionine-specific bioconjugation strategy utilizing a bespoke hypervalent iodine reagent for highly selective, rapid, and robust methionine labeling. Since methionine is often the first amino acid incorporated into proteins via initiator tRNA, this approach enables precise N-terminal labeling and attachment, facilitating more reliable SMFS studies. The resulting covalent linkage remains intact during mechanical unfolding or conformational changes of proteins, with a mechanical stability exceeding 600 pN, allowing accurate measurements before detachment from AFM cantilever tips or cell surfaces. Additionally, this method improves sampling rates and data quality. We successfully applied this technique to light-induced protein printing and natural surface protein studies, demonstrating its potential for advancing protein mechanics research in living cells. This strategy provides significant advantages for SMFS in the study of complex cellular systems.

Extracellular vesicles in triple-negative breast cancer: current updates, challenges and future prospects

Breast cancer (BC) remains a complex and widespread problem, affecting millions of women worldwide, Among the various subtypes of BC, triple-negative breast cancer (TNBC) is particularly challenging, representing approximately 20% of all BC cases, and the survival rate of TNBC patients is generally worse than other subtypes of BC. TNBC is a heterogeneous disease characterized by lack of expression of three receptors: estrogen (ER), progesterone (PR), and human epidermal growth factor receptor 2 (HER2), resulting conventional hormonal therapies are ineffective for its management. Despite various therapeutic approaches have been explored, but no definitive solution has been found yet for TNBC. Current treatments options are chemotherapy, immunotherapy, radiotherapy and surgery, although, these therapies have some limitations, such as the development of resistance to anti-cancer drugs, and off-target toxicity, which remain primary obstacles and significant challenges for TNBC. Several findings have shown that EVs exhibit significant therapeutic promise in many diseases, and a similar important role has been observed in various types of tumor. Studies suggest that EVs may offer a potential solution for the management of TNBC. This review highlights the multifaceted roles of EVs in TNBC, emphasizing their involvement in disease progression, diagnosis and therapeutic approach, as well as their potential as biomarkers and drug delivery.

The Effects of Extracellular Vesicles Derived from Hydatid Cyst Fluid on the Expression of microRNAs Involved in Liver Fibrosis

INTRODUCTION

Hydatidosis is a zoonotic neglected disease caused by the larval stage of Echinococcus granulosus. Evidence suggests a communication between hydatid cyst (HC) and hosts via extracellular vesicles (EVs). However, a little is known about the communication between EVs derived from HC fluid (HCF) and host cells. The current study aimed to investigate the effect of HCF derived EVs on expression of fibrotic and anti-fibrotic miRNAs in THP-1 cell line.

METHODS

In the current study, EVs were isolated using ultracentrifugation from wild-infected sheep HCF and characterized by western blot, electron microscope, and size distribution analysis. The effects of EVs on the expression levels of microRNAs (mir-16, mir-29a, and mir-155) involved in liver fibrosis were investigated using quantitative real-time PCR (qRT-PCR), 3 and 24 h after incubation.

RESULTS

Western blot analyses confirmed the expression of CD63 marker, while Calnexin and CD81 were absent in EVs samples. The SEM and morphology revealed round shape vesicles. The DLS analysis showed average size distribution 130.6 nm diameter. The expression levels of mir-16 and mir-29a were significantly upregulated after 3 h for 8.66 and 3.420, respectively, while they were significantly downregulated after 24 h for 3.853 and 1.859, respectively.

CONCLUSION

The main mechanism of the communication between EVs derived from HCF and their host remains unclear. Our results suggest that HC may modulate the expression of miRNAs, involved in liver fibrosis via EVs.

Reduction of alternative polarization of macrophages by short-term activated hepatic stellate cell-derived small extracellular vesicles

BACKGROUND

Activated hepatic stellate cells (HSCs) induce alternative (M2) polarization of macrophages and contribute to the progression of fibrosis and hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC). However, the effects of small extracellular vesicles released by HSCs (HSC-sEVs) during activation remain largely unknown.

METHODS

The aim of this study was to investigate the role of extracellular vesicles released by HSCs (HSC-sEVs) at different stages of activation in macrophage polarization. The effects of sEVs from short-term activated and long-term activated HSCs on liver macrophages was studied. Small RNA sequencing analyses were performed to obtain differential miRNAs transported by the short-term and long-term activated HSC- sEVs. The in vivo effects of short-term activated HSC-sEV-specific miRNA on liver macrophage and liver fibrosis were confirmed in a CCl4-induced liver injury mouse model. To study the tumor suppressive effects of the macrophages educated by short-term activated HSC-sEV-specific miRNA, human hepatoma cells were mixed and subcutaneously cotransplanted with miR-99a-5p mimic-pretreated macrophages.

RESULTS

We found that consistent with activated HSCs, long-term activated HSC-sEVs (14dHSC-sEVs) induce bone marrow-derived monocytes (MOs) toward an M2 phenotype, but short-term activated HSC-sEVs (3dHSC-sEVs) induce the resident macrophages (Kupffer cells, KCs) toward a classically activated (M1) phenotype. We identified five 3dHSC-sEV-specific miRNAs, including miR-99a-5p. In vitro and in vivo experiments support that miR-99a-5p negatively regulates alternative polarization of macrophages, decreases collagen deposition in chronic liver injury model, and suppresses the progression of hepatoma in a xenograft model partially by targeting CD93.

CONCLUSION

Collectively, our work reveals an unexpected proinflammatory role of 3dHSC-sEVs, preliminarily explores the underlying mechanism, and evaluates the therapeutic potential of 3dHSC-sEV-specific miR-99a-5p for liver fibrosis and tumorigenesis.

The roles of extracellular vesicles in mental disorders: information carriers, biomarkers, therapeutic agents

Mental disorders are complex conditions that encompass various symptoms and types, affecting approximately 1 in 8 people globally. They place a significant burden on both families and society as a whole. So far, the etiology of mental disorders remains poorly understood, making diagnosis and treatment particularly challenging. Extracellular vesicles (EVs) are nanoscale particles produced by cells and released into the extracellular space. They contain bioactive molecules including nucleotides, proteins, lipids, and metabolites, which can mediate intercellular communication and are involved in various physiological and pathological processes. Recent studies have shown that EVs are closely linked to mental disorders like schizophrenia, major depressive disorder, and bipolar disorder, playing a key role in their development, diagnosis, prognosis, and treatment. Therefore, based on recent research findings, this paper aims to describe the roles of EVs in mental disorders and summarize their potential applications in diagnosis and treatment, providing new ideas for the future clinical transformation and application of EVs.

A Simple Modification Results in a Significant Improvement in Measuring the Size of Extracellular Vesicles

OBJECTIVE

Size distribution is an important biophysical property of extracellular vesicles (EVs). EVs include small EVs (s-EVs) and large EVs (l-EVs) by size. Differential ultracentrifugation (dUC) is widely used to separate EVs from biofluids, but it can precipitate large impurity particles. Dynamic light scattering (DLS) is a simple and fast method for analyzing the size distribution of EVs. However, this approach is nonideal for heterogeneous and polydisperse samples since a small quantity of large impurity particles can markedly disturb the DLS results. Here, we developed a simple method to improve the reliability of DLS measurements.

METHODS

Plasma was obtained from 13 volunteers. The plasma was first processed by dUC to obtain crude l-EVs. The crude l-EVs were filtered with syringe filters (pore size of 1 μm and membrane material of hydrophilic polyvinylidene fluoride (PVDF)) to remove large impurity particles from l-EVs. The size distributions of the crude l-EVs and filtered l-EVs were measured via DLS.

RESULTS

After the samples were filtered, the coefficients of variation of the hydrodynamic radius and Peak 1 intensity of the filtered l-EVs decreased from 20.39% (12.76-28.96%) and 20.44% (14.58-28.32%) to 3.05% (1.79-4.72%) and 3.43% (1.76-5.88%), respectively, compared with those of the crude l-EVs.

CONCLUSION

These findings suggest that filtration can effectively separate circulating l-EVs in plasma to remove large impurity particles and make samples suitable for characterization by DLS. Our findings provide a simple method to improve precision via DLS to measure the size distribution of EVs.

Inflammation-triggered Gli1+ stem cells engage with extracellular vesicles to prime aberrant neutrophils to exacerbate periodontal immunopathology

Periodontitis is a prevalent and progressive detrimental disease characterized by chronic inflammation, and the immunopathological mechanisms are not yet fully understood. Mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) play crucial roles as immunoregulators and maintain tissue homeostasis and regeneration, but their in vivo function in immunopathology and periodontal tissue deterioration is still unclear. Here, we utilized multiple transgenic mouse models to specifically mark, ablate and modulate Gli1+ cells, a critical and representative subset of MSCs in the periodontium, to explore their specific role in periodontal immunopathology. We revealed that Gli1+ cells, upon challenge with an inflammatory microenvironment, significantly induce rapid trafficking and aberrant activation of neutrophils, thus exacerbating alveolar bone destruction. Mechanistically, extracellular vesicles (EVs) released by Gli1+ cells act as crucial immune regulators in periodontal tissue, mediating the recruitment and activation of neutrophils through increased neutrophil generation of reactive oxygen species and stimulation of nuclear factor kappa-B signaling. Furthermore, we discovered that CXC motif chemokine ligand 1 (CXCL1) is exposed on the surface of EVs derived from inflammation-challenged Gli1+ cells to prime aberrant neutrophils via the CXCL1-CXC motif chemokine receptor 2 (CXCR2) axis. Importantly, specific inhibition of EV release from Gli1+ cells or pharmacological therapy with GANT61 ameliorates periodontal inflammation and alveolar bone loss. Collectively, our findings identify previously unrecognized roles of Gli1+ cells in orchestrating infiltration and promoting aberrant activation of neutrophils under inflammation, which provides pathological insights and potential therapeutic targets for periodontitis.

Extracellular Vesicle-Packaged Linc-ZNF25-1 from Pancreatic Cancer Cell Promotes Pancreatic Stellate Cell Uptake of Asparagine to Advance Chemoresistance

Extensive fibrous stroma plays an important role in gemcitabine (GEM) resistance. However, the mechanism by which pancreatic cancer cells interact with pancreatic stellate cells (PSCs) to promote GEM resistance remains unclear. This study investigates the role of metabolic crosstalk between these two cells in inducing GEM resistance. Extracellular vesicles (EVs) of parental and GEM-resistant pancreatic cancer cells are extracted and performed metabolic assays and long noncoding RNA (lncRNA) sequencing. Pancreatic cancer cell-derived EVs promote PSCs activation and extracellular matrix formation, and GEM-resistant pancreatic cancer cells produce more asparagine (Asn), favoring PSCs activation. Mechanistically, pancreatic cancer cell-derived EVs mediate linc-ZNF25-1 to promote Asn uptake via the IGF2BP3/c-Myc/SLC1A5 pathway in PSCs. In addition, mouse models elucidate the oncogenic function of linc-ZNF25-1 and the enhanced therapeutic effect of asparaginase (L-ASNase) in combination with GEM in pancreatic cancer. This study demonstrates that pancreatic cancer cell-derived EVs promote the uptake of Asn released from pancreatic cancer cells through the upregulation of SLC1A5 in PSCs, facilitating PSCs activation and pancreatic cancer resistance to GEM. L-ASNase in combination with GEM is a potential therapeutic strategy for targeting stromal cells to enhance the efficacy of chemotherapeutic agents against pancreatic cancer.

Extracellular particles: emerging insights into central nervous system diseases

Extracellular particles (EPs), including extracellular vesicles (EVs) and non-vesicular extracellular particles (NVEPs), are multimolecular biomaterials released by cells that play a crucial role in intercellular communication. Recently, new subtypes of EPs associated with central nervous system (CNS), such as exophers and supermeres have been identified. These EPs provide new perspectives for understanding the pathological progression of CNS disorders and confer potential diagnostic value for liquid biopsies in neurodegenerative diseases (NDs). Moreover, EPs have emerged as promising drug delivery vehicles and targeted platforms for CNS-specific therapies. In this review, we delineate the landscape of EP subtypes and their roles in the pathophysiology of CNS diseases. We also review the recent advances of EP-based diagnosis in NDs and highlight the importance of analytical platforms with single-particle resolution in the exploitation of potential biomarkers. Furthermore, we summarize the application of engineered EVs in the treatment of CNS diseases and outline the underexplored potential of NVEPs as novel therapeutic agents.