1
|
Anionic Complex with Efficient Expression and Good Safety Profile for mRNA Delivery. Pharmaceutics 2021; 13:pharmaceutics13010126. [PMID: 33478077 PMCID: PMC7835867 DOI: 10.3390/pharmaceutics13010126] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/10/2020] [Revised: 01/14/2021] [Accepted: 01/15/2021] [Indexed: 01/31/2023] Open
Abstract
We previously found that a complex comprising plasmid DNA (pDNA), polyethylenimine (PEI), and γ-polyglutamic acid (γ-PGA) had high transgene efficiency without cytotoxicity in vitro and in vivo. However, messenger RNA (mRNA) remains an attractive alternative to pDNA. In this study, we developed a safe and effective delivery system for mRNA to prevent its degradation and efficiently deliver it into target cells. Various cationic and anionic complexes were produced containing PEI, γ-PGA, and an mRNA encoding firefly luciferase. Their physicochemical properties and cytotoxicities were analyzed and the in vitro and in vivo protein expression were determined. The cationic mRNA/PEI complex showed high in vitro protein expression with strong cytotoxicity. The anionic complex was constructed as mRNA/PEI8/γ-PGA12 complex with a theoretical charge ratio of 1:8:12 based on the phosphate groups of the mRNA, nitrogen groups of PEI, and carboxylate groups of γ-PGA. It was stable and showed high in vitro protein expression without cytotoxicity. After intravenous administration of mRNA/PEI8/γ-PGA12 complex to mice, high protein expression was observed in the spleen and liver and slight expression was observed in the lung over 24 h. Thus, the newly constructed mRNA/PEI8/γ-PGA12 complex provides a safe and effective strategy for the delivery of mRNA.
Collapse
|
2
|
Surface Sensitive Analysis Device using Model Membrane and Challenges for Biosensor-chip. BIOCHIP JOURNAL 2020. [DOI: 10.1007/s13206-019-4110-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
|
3
|
Ryu YS, Yun H, Chung T, Suh JH, Kim S, Lee K, Wittenberg NJ, Oh SH, Lee B, Lee SD. Kinetics of lipid raft formation at lipid monolayer-bilayer junction probed by surface plasmon resonance. Biosens Bioelectron 2019; 142:111568. [PMID: 31442945 DOI: 10.1016/j.bios.2019.111568] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/16/2019] [Revised: 07/27/2019] [Accepted: 08/02/2019] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
A label-free, non-dispruptive, and real-time analytical device to monitor the dynamic features of biomolecules and their interactions with neighboring molecules is an essential prerequisite for biochip- and diagonostic assays. To explore one of the central questions on the lipid-lipid interactions in the course of the liquid-ordered (lo) domain formation, called rafts, we developed a method of reconstituting continuous but spatially heterogeneous lipid membrane platforms with molayer-bilayer juntions (MBJs) that enable to form the lo domains in a spatiotemporally controlled manner. This allows us to detect the time-lapse dynamics of the lipid-lipid interactions during raft formation and resultant membrane phase changes together with the raft-associated receptor-ligand binding through the surface plasmon resonance (SPR). For cross-validation, using epifluorescence microscopy, we demonstrated the underlying mechanisms for raft formations that the infiltration of cholesterols into the sphingolipid-enriched domains plays a crucial roles in the membrane phase-separation. Our membrane platform, being capable of monitoring dynamic interactions among lipids and performing the systematic optical analysis, will unveil physiological roles of cholesterols in a variety of biological events.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Yong-Sang Ryu
- School of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Seoul National University, 1 Gwanak-ro, Gwanak-gu, Seoul, 08826, South Korea; Sensor System Research Center, Korea Institute of Science and Technology, Seongbuk-gu, Seoul, 02792, South Korea
| | - Hansik Yun
- School of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Seoul National University, 1 Gwanak-ro, Gwanak-gu, Seoul, 08826, South Korea
| | - Taerin Chung
- Inter-University Semiconductor Research Center, Seoul National University, 1 Gwanak-ro, Gwanak-gu, Seoul, 08826, South Korea
| | - Jeng-Hun Suh
- School of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Seoul National University, 1 Gwanak-ro, Gwanak-gu, Seoul, 08826, South Korea
| | - Sungho Kim
- School of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Seoul National University, 1 Gwanak-ro, Gwanak-gu, Seoul, 08826, South Korea
| | - Kyookeun Lee
- Inter-University Semiconductor Research Center, Seoul National University, 1 Gwanak-ro, Gwanak-gu, Seoul, 08826, South Korea
| | - Nathan J Wittenberg
- Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, University of Minnesota, 200 Union St SE, Minneapolis, MN, 55455, USA; Department of Chemistry, Lehigh University, Bethlehem, PA, 18015, USA
| | - Sang-Hyun Oh
- Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, University of Minnesota, 200 Union St SE, Minneapolis, MN, 55455, USA
| | - Byoungho Lee
- School of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Seoul National University, 1 Gwanak-ro, Gwanak-gu, Seoul, 08826, South Korea
| | - Sin-Doo Lee
- School of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Seoul National University, 1 Gwanak-ro, Gwanak-gu, Seoul, 08826, South Korea; Inter-University Semiconductor Research Center, Seoul National University, 1 Gwanak-ro, Gwanak-gu, Seoul, 08826, South Korea.
| |
Collapse
|
4
|
Rybczynska AA, Boersma HH, de Jong S, Gietema JA, Noordzij W, Dierckx RAJO, Elsinga PH, van Waarde A. Avenues to molecular imaging of dying cells: Focus on cancer. Med Res Rev 2018. [PMID: 29528513 PMCID: PMC6220832 DOI: 10.1002/med.21495] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
Successful treatment of cancer patients requires balancing of the dose, timing, and type of therapeutic regimen. Detection of increased cell death may serve as a predictor of the eventual therapeutic success. Imaging of cell death may thus lead to early identification of treatment responders and nonresponders, and to “patient‐tailored therapy.” Cell death in organs and tissues of the human body can be visualized, using positron emission tomography or single‐photon emission computed tomography, although unsolved problems remain concerning target selection, tracer pharmacokinetics, target‐to‐nontarget ratio, and spatial and temporal resolution of the scans. Phosphatidylserine exposure by dying cells has been the most extensively studied imaging target. However, visualization of this process with radiolabeled Annexin A5 has not become routine in the clinical setting. Classification of death modes is no longer based only on cell morphology but also on biochemistry, and apoptosis is no longer found to be the preponderant mechanism of cell death after antitumor therapy, as was earlier believed. These conceptual changes have affected radiochemical efforts. Novel probes targeting changes in membrane permeability, cytoplasmic pH, mitochondrial membrane potential, or caspase activation have recently been explored. In this review, we discuss molecular changes in tumors which can be targeted to visualize cell death and we propose promising biomarkers for future exploration.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Anna A Rybczynska
- Molecular Imaging Center, Department of Nuclear Medicine and Molecular Imaging, University of Groningen, University Medical Center Groningen, Groningen, the Netherlands.,Department of Genetics, University of Groningen, Groningen, the Netherlands
| | - Hendrikus H Boersma
- Molecular Imaging Center, Department of Nuclear Medicine and Molecular Imaging, University of Groningen, University Medical Center Groningen, Groningen, the Netherlands.,Department of Clinical Pharmacy & Pharmacology, University of Groningen, Groningen, the Netherlands
| | - Steven de Jong
- Department of Medical Oncology, University of Groningen, Groningen, the Netherlands
| | - Jourik A Gietema
- Department of Medical Oncology, University of Groningen, Groningen, the Netherlands
| | - Walter Noordzij
- Molecular Imaging Center, Department of Nuclear Medicine and Molecular Imaging, University of Groningen, University Medical Center Groningen, Groningen, the Netherlands
| | - Rudi A J O Dierckx
- Molecular Imaging Center, Department of Nuclear Medicine and Molecular Imaging, University of Groningen, University Medical Center Groningen, Groningen, the Netherlands.,Department of Nuclear Medicine, Ghent University, Ghent, Belgium
| | - Philip H Elsinga
- Molecular Imaging Center, Department of Nuclear Medicine and Molecular Imaging, University of Groningen, University Medical Center Groningen, Groningen, the Netherlands
| | - Aren van Waarde
- Molecular Imaging Center, Department of Nuclear Medicine and Molecular Imaging, University of Groningen, University Medical Center Groningen, Groningen, the Netherlands
| |
Collapse
|
5
|
Thomas AJ, Pulsipher A, Davis BM, Alt JA. LL-37 causes cell death of human nasal epithelial cells, which is inhibited with a synthetic glycosaminoglycan. PLoS One 2017; 12:e0183542. [PMID: 28837619 PMCID: PMC5570287 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0183542] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/24/2017] [Accepted: 08/07/2017] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
LL-37 is an immune peptide that regulates innate and adaptive immune responses in the upper airways. Elevated levels of LL-37 have been linked to cell death and inflammatory diseases, such as chronic rhinosinusitis (CRS). Glycosaminoglycans (GAGs) are polysaccharides that are found on respiratory epithelial cells and serve important roles in mucosal surface repair. Recent findings suggest that a synthetic glycosaminoglycan (GM-0111) can protect against LL-37-induced sinonasal mucosal inflammation and cell death in a murine model of acute RS. Herein, we elucidated the mechanisms by which LL-37 causes sinonasal inflammation and how GM-0111 can prevent these mechanisms. When challenged with LL-37, human nasal epithelial cells (HNEpCs) and mouse macrophages (J774.2) demonstrated increased release of adenosine triphosphate (ATP) and interleukin (IL)-6 and -8, as well as cell death and lysis. These cellular responses were all blocked dose-dependently by pre-treatment with GM-0111. We identified that LL-37-induced cell death is associated with caspase-1 and -8 activation, but not activation of caspase-3/7. These responses were again blocked by GM-0111. Our data suggest that LL-37 causes cellular death of HNEpCs and macrophages through the pro-inflammatory necrotic and/or pyroptotic pathways rather than apoptosis, and that a GM-0111 is capable of inhibiting these pro-inflammatory cellular events.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Andrew J. Thomas
- Division of Head and Neck Surgery, Rhinology - Sinus and Skull Base Surgery Program, Department of Surgery, University of Utah School of Medicine, Salt Lake City, Utah, United States of America
| | - Abigail Pulsipher
- Division of Head and Neck Surgery, Rhinology - Sinus and Skull Base Surgery Program, Department of Surgery, University of Utah School of Medicine, Salt Lake City, Utah, United States of America
- GlycoMira Therapeutics, Salt Lake City, Utah, United States of America
| | - Brock M. Davis
- Division of Head and Neck Surgery, Rhinology - Sinus and Skull Base Surgery Program, Department of Surgery, University of Utah School of Medicine, Salt Lake City, Utah, United States of America
| | - Jeremiah A. Alt
- Division of Head and Neck Surgery, Rhinology - Sinus and Skull Base Surgery Program, Department of Surgery, University of Utah School of Medicine, Salt Lake City, Utah, United States of America
- GlycoMira Therapeutics, Salt Lake City, Utah, United States of America
- * E-mail:
| |
Collapse
|
6
|
Lojk J, Strojan K, Miš K, Bregar BV, Hafner Bratkovič I, Bizjak M, Pirkmajer S, Pavlin M. Cell stress response to two different types of polymer coated cobalt ferrite nanoparticles. Toxicol Lett 2017; 270:108-118. [DOI: 10.1016/j.toxlet.2017.02.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/29/2016] [Revised: 01/09/2017] [Accepted: 02/07/2017] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
|
7
|
Crosby HA, Ihnat M, Miller KE. Evaluating the Toxicity of the Analgesic Glutaminase Inhibitor 6-Diazo-5-Oxo-L-Norleucine in vitro and on Rat Dermal Skin Fibroblasts. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2015; 1. [PMID: 29750203 DOI: 10.15406/mojt.2015.01.00005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
Abstract
6-diazo-5-oxo-l-norleucine (DON) is a glutamine antagonist produced naturally by Streptomyces. It inhibits several glutamine-dependent enzyme pathways. Of particular note is its inhibitory effect on the mitochondrial enzyme, glutaminase (GLS), the primary producer of neuronal glutamate. Glutamate is an excitatory neurotransmitter released by primary sensory peripheral nerve terminals and spinal synaptic terminals during pain signaling. Previous work using the tail incision and inflammatory models of pain has demonstrated that a single application of the glutaminase inhibitor, DON, into a surgical incision or the paw of arthritic animals results in pain relief. Even though this compound shows promise as a therapeutic agent, limited data exist regarding its dermal toxicity. As a first approach, we evaluated the effect of several concentrations of DON, on the viability, mitochondrial oxidative capacity and proliferation of rat skin fibroblasts, and then examined the effect of DON after incubation with human liver microsomes on proliferation. Finally, we evaluated DON treated rat skin (tail and hind paw) for cellular necrosis, inflammation and mitotic bodies. No significant effects (p > 0.05) of DON were noted on apoptosis, necrosis, and mitochondrial activity in experiments with cultured rat skin fibroblasts. Flow cytometry revealed the absence of apoptosis in cells treated at the IC50 of 232.5 μM. Enhanced toxicity post-exposure to human microsomes was not observed when compared to DON alone. The H&E staining of the rat skin revealed no obvious pathology in the DON treatment group (10 mM). DON has no/minimal cellular toxicity in vitro on dermal fibroblasts at concentrations that effectively provide analgesia. The local application of concentrations greater than the in vitro IC50 for DON revealed no in vivo skin toxicity. These data provide results indicating zero-to-minimal cellular toxicity with DON and support the further investigation of DON as an analgesic.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Heith A Crosby
- Department of Anatomy and Cell Biology, Oklahoma State University-Center for Health Sciences, USA
| | - Michael Ihnat
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Oklahoma-Health Sciences Center, USA
| | - Kenneth E Miller
- Department of Anatomy and Cell Biology, Oklahoma State University-Center for Health Sciences, USA
| |
Collapse
|
8
|
Chen HM, Zhu BZ, Chen RJ, Wang BJ, Wang YJ. The pentachlorophenol metabolite tetrachlorohydroquinone induces massive ROS and prolonged p-ERK expression in splenocytes, leading to inhibition of apoptosis and necrotic cell death. PLoS One 2014; 9:e89483. [PMID: 24586814 PMCID: PMC3935892 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0089483] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/20/2013] [Accepted: 01/20/2014] [Indexed: 12/01/2022] Open
Abstract
Pentachlorophenol (PCP) has been used extensively as a biocide and a wood preservative and has been reported to be immunosuppressive in rodents and humans. Tetrachlorohydroquinone (TCHQ) is a major metabolite of PCP. TCHQ has been identified as the main cause of PCP-induced genotoxicity due to reactive oxidant stress (ROS). However, the precise mechanisms associated with the immunotoxic effects of PCP and TCHQ remain unclear. The aim of this study was to examine the effects of PCP and TCHQ on the induction of ROS and injury to primary mouse splenocytes. Our results shown that TCHQ was more toxic than PCP and that a high dose of TCHQ led to necrotic cell death of the splenocytes through induction of massive and sudden ROS and prolonged ROS-triggered ERK activation. Inhibition of ROS production by N-acetyl-cysteine (NAC) partially restored the mitochondrial membrane potential, inhibited ERK activity, elevated caspase-3 activity and PARP cleavage, and, eventually, switched the TCHQ-induced necrosis to apoptosis. We suggest that prolonged ERK activation is essential for TCHQ-induced necrosis, and that ROS play a pivotal role in the different TCHQ-induced cell death mechanisms.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Hsiu-Min Chen
- Department of Environmental and Occupational Health, National Cheng Kung University, Medical College, Tainan, Taiwan
| | - Ben-Zhan Zhu
- State Key Laboratory of Environmental Chemistry and Ecotoxicology, Research Center for Eco-Environmental Sciences, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Rong-Jane Chen
- Department of Environmental and Occupational Health, National Cheng Kung University, Medical College, Tainan, Taiwan
| | - Bour-Jr. Wang
- Department of Occupational and Environmental Medicine, National Cheng Kung University Hospital, Tainan, Taiwan
- Department of Cosmetic Science and Institute of Cosmetic Science, Chia Nan University of Pharmacy and Science, Tainan, Taiwan
- * E-mail: (Y-JW); (B-JW)
| | - Ying-Jan Wang
- Department of Environmental and Occupational Health, National Cheng Kung University, Medical College, Tainan, Taiwan
- * E-mail: (Y-JW); (B-JW)
| |
Collapse
|
9
|
Takemura G, Kanoh M, Minatoguchi S, Fujiwara H. Cardiomyocyte apoptosis in the failing heart — A critical review from definition and classification of cell death. Int J Cardiol 2013; 167:2373-86. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ijcard.2013.01.163] [Citation(s) in RCA: 86] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/19/2012] [Revised: 12/13/2012] [Accepted: 01/13/2013] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
|
10
|
Pedersen SS, Keller AK, Nielsen MK, Jespersen B, Falborg L, Rasmussen JT, Heegaard CW, Rehling M. Cell injury after ischemia and reperfusion in the porcine kidney evaluated by radiolabelled microspheres, sestamibi, and lactadherin. EJNMMI Res 2013; 3:62. [PMID: 23924517 PMCID: PMC3750402 DOI: 10.1186/2191-219x-3-62] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/02/2013] [Accepted: 07/25/2013] [Indexed: 11/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Background The purpose of the present study was to quantify renal cell injury after ischemia and reperfusion in a pig model using 99mTc-lactadherin as a marker of apoptosis and 99mTc-sestamibi as a marker of mitochondrial dysfunction. Methods Thirty-four pigs were randomized into unilateral renal warm ischemia of 120 (WI120) or 240 min (WI240). The glomerular filtration rate (GFR) was calculated by renal clearance of 51Cr-ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid, and apoptosis was quantified by immunohistochemical detection of caspase-3. After 240 min of reperfusion, intravenous 99mTc-lactadherin or 99mTc-sestamibi was injected simultaneously with 153Gd microspheres into the aorta. Ex-vivo static planar images of the kidneys were acquired for determination of the differential renal function of tracer distribution using a gamma camera. Results In WI120, there was no significant difference in the uptake of microspheres in the ischemic and contralateral normal kidney indicating adequate perfusion (uptake in ischemic kidney relative to the sum of uptake in both kidneys; 46% ± 12% and 51% ± 5%). In WI240, the uptake of microspheres was severely reduced in both groups (17% ± 11% and 27% ± 17%). GFR was severely reduced in the post ischemic kidney in both groups. In both groups, the uptake of lactadherin was reduced (41% ± 8%, 17% ± 13%) but not different from the uptake of 153Gd microspheres. Caspase-3-positive cell profiles were increased in the post-ischemic kidneys (p < 0.001) and increased as the length of ischemia increased (p = 0.003). In both WI120 and WI240, the amount of 99mTc-sestamibi in the ischemic kidney was significantly lower than the amount of 153Gd microspheres (40 ± 5 versus 51 ± 5 and 20 ± 11 versus 27 ± 17; p < 0.05). Conclusions In an established pig model with unilateral renal warm ischemia, we found significantly reduced 99mTc-sestamibi uptake relative to perfusion in the kidneys exposed to ischemia indicating a potential ability to detect renal ischemic and reperfusion injuries. However, apoptosis was not detected using 99mTc-lactadherin in the post-ischemic kidneys despite increased number of caspase-3-positive cell profiles. Trial registration This study is approved by the Danish Inspectorate of Animal Experiments (2010/561-1837).
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Stine S Pedersen
- Institute of Clinical Medicine, Aarhus University, Aarhus, Denmark ; Department of Clinical Physiology and Nuclear Medicine, Aarhus University Hospital, Skejby, Denmark
| | - Anna K Keller
- Institute of Clinical Medicine, Aarhus University, Aarhus, Denmark ; Department of Urology, Aarhus University Hospital, Skejby, Denmark
| | - Marie K Nielsen
- Institute of Clinical Medicine, Aarhus University, Aarhus, Denmark
| | - Bente Jespersen
- Institute of Clinical Medicine, Aarhus University, Aarhus, Denmark ; Department of Nephrology, Aarhus University Hospital, Skejby, Denmark
| | - Lise Falborg
- Department of Clinical Physiology and Nuclear Medicine, Aarhus University Hospital, Skejby, Denmark
| | - Jan T Rasmussen
- Protein Chemistry Laboratory, Department of Molecular Biology and Genetics, Aarhus University, Aarhus, Denmark
| | - Christian W Heegaard
- Protein Chemistry Laboratory, Department of Molecular Biology and Genetics, Aarhus University, Aarhus, Denmark
| | - Michael Rehling
- Institute of Clinical Medicine, Aarhus University, Aarhus, Denmark ; Department of Clinical Physiology and Nuclear Medicine, Aarhus University Hospital, Skejby, Denmark
| |
Collapse
|
11
|
O’Donnell MA, Hase H, Legarda D, Ting AT. NEMO inhibits programmed necrosis in an NFκB-independent manner by restraining RIP1. PLoS One 2012; 7:e41238. [PMID: 22848449 PMCID: PMC3406058 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0041238] [Citation(s) in RCA: 55] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/02/2010] [Accepted: 06/25/2012] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
TNF can trigger two opposing responses: cell survival and cell death. TNFR1 activates caspases that orchestrate apoptosis but some cell types switch to a necrotic death when treated with caspase inhibitors. Several genes that are required to orchestrate cell death by programmed necrosis have been identified, such as the kinase RIP1, but very little is known about the inhibitory signals that keep this necrotic cell death pathway in check. We demonstrate that T cells lacking the regulatory subunit of IKK, NFκB essential modifier (NEMO), are hypersensitive to programmed necrosis when stimulated with TNF in the presence of caspase inhibitors. Surprisingly, this pro-survival activity of NEMO is independent of NFκB-mediated gene transcription. Instead, NEMO inhibits necrosis by binding to ubiquitinated RIP1 to restrain RIP1 from engaging the necrotic death pathway. In the absence of NEMO, or if ubiquitination of RIP1 is blocked, necrosis ensues when caspases are blocked. These results indicate that recruitment of NEMO to ubiquitinated RIP1 is a key step in the TNFR1 signaling pathway that determines whether RIP1 triggers a necrotic death response.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Marie Anne O’Donnell
- Immunology Institute, Mount Sinai School of Medicine, New York, New York, United States of America
- * E-mail: (MAO); (ATT)
| | - Hidenori Hase
- Immunology Institute, Mount Sinai School of Medicine, New York, New York, United States of America
| | - Diana Legarda
- Immunology Institute, Mount Sinai School of Medicine, New York, New York, United States of America
| | - Adrian T. Ting
- Immunology Institute, Mount Sinai School of Medicine, New York, New York, United States of America
- * E-mail: (MAO); (ATT)
| |
Collapse
|
12
|
Abbott RD, Howe AK, Langevin HM, Iatridis JC. Live free or die: stretch-induced apoptosis occurs when adaptive reorientation of annulus fibrosus cells is restricted. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 2012; 421:361-6. [PMID: 22516752 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbrc.2012.04.018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/31/2012] [Accepted: 04/03/2012] [Indexed: 01/07/2023]
Abstract
High matrix strains in the intervertebral disc occur during physiological motions and are amplified around structural defects in the annulus fibrosus (AF). It remains unknown if large matrix strains in the human AF result in localized cell death. This study investigated strain amplitudes and substrate conditions where AF cells were vulnerable to stretch-induced apoptosis. Human degenerated AF cells were subjected to 1 Hz-cyclic tensile strains for 24h on uniformly collagen coated substrates and on substrates with 40 μm stripes of collagen that restricted cellular reorientation. AF cells were capable of responding to stretch (stress fibers and focal adhesions aligned perpendicular to the direction of stretch), but were vulnerable to stretch-induced apoptosis when cytoskeletal reorientation was restricted, as could occur in degenerated states due to fibrosis and crosslink accumulation and at areas where high strains occur (around structural defects, delaminations, and herniations).
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Rosalyn D Abbott
- School of Engineering, University of Vermont, Burlington, VT 05405, USA.
| | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
13
|
Caspase 8 inhibits programmed necrosis by processing CYLD. Nat Cell Biol 2011; 13:1437-42. [PMID: 22037414 PMCID: PMC3229661 DOI: 10.1038/ncb2362] [Citation(s) in RCA: 454] [Impact Index Per Article: 34.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/29/2011] [Accepted: 09/15/2011] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
CASPASE 8 initiates apoptosis downstream of TNF death receptors by undergoing autocleavage and processing the executioner CASPASE 31. However, the dominant function of CASPASE 8 is to transmit a pro-survival signal that suppresses programmed necrosis (or necroptosis) mediated by RIPK1 and RIPK32–6 during embryogenesis and hematopoiesis7–9. Suppression of necrotic cell death by CASPASE 8 requires its catalytic activity but not the autocleavage essential for apoptosis10, however, the key substrate processed by CASPASE 8 to block necrosis has been elusive. A key substrate must meet three criteria: (1) it must be essential for programmed necrosis; (2) it must be cleaved by CASPASE 8 in situations where CASPASE 8 is blocking necrosis; and (3) mutation of the CASPASE 8 processing site on the substrate should convert a pro-survival response to necrotic death without the need for CASPASE 8 inhibition. We now identify CYLD as a novel substrate for CASPASE 8 that satisfies these criteria. Upon TNF stimulation, CASPASE 8 cleaves CYLD to generate a survival signal. In contrast, loss of CASPASE 8 prevented CYLD degradation resulting in necrotic death. A CYLD substitution mutation at D215 that cannot be cleaved by CASPASE 8 switches cell survival to necrotic cell death in response to TNF.
Collapse
|
14
|
Warnes G, Martins S. Real-time flow cytometry for the kinetic analysis of oncosis. Cytometry A 2011; 79:181-91. [PMID: 21254392 DOI: 10.1002/cyto.a.21022] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/21/2010] [Revised: 12/10/2010] [Accepted: 12/13/2010] [Indexed: 01/20/2023]
Abstract
The standard method of distinguishing apoptotic and oncotic cells has been by microscopic analysis of nuclei and cell membrane morphology. Thus a rapid test for analyzing large numbers of cells in the study of cell necrobiology has not been possible until the recent advent of the Amnis Image-stream and real-time Lab-on-a-Chip technologies. An interesting difference between apoptosis and oncosis is that they are ATP dependent and independent processes, respectively. Here we describe an assay measuring real-time kinetic changes in the potential differences of the inner mitochondrial membrane (mmp) and the plasma membrane (pmp) in cells immediately before and after the addition of the inducing agent. Live cells were loaded with carbocyanine dye DiIC(1) (5) and bis-oxonol (DiBAC(4) (5)) to measure mmp and pmp in conjunction with annexin V-FITC and DAPI labeling for gating out annexin V binding cells and dead cells respectively. Live cells gave specific membrane signatures in response to apoptotic or oncotic reagents in real-time. Apoptosis showed little change in mmp and pmp signals over the course of 25 min, the mitochondria only showed a slight hyperpolarization. In contrast chemical treatment with oxidative phosphorylation blocker, sodium azide (SA) caused an immediate hyperpolarization spike followed by a complete abrogation of mmp over a 25 min time course. Treatment with SA (1%) also caused plasma membrane depolarization. Likewise detergent (0.01% Triton X-100) treatments also caused abrogation of mmp and depolarization of pmp. Whereas heat shock (42°C) treatment showed only a slight mitochondrial membrane potential depolarization. These flow cytometric observations were confirmed by confocal microscopy. This novel real-time kinetic assay measuring mitochondrial and plasma membrane potential changes has important implications in the field of cell necrobiology in that it allows the researcher to differentiate apoptotic and oncotic processes in an immediate manner for the first time.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- G Warnes
- Flow Cytometry Core Facility, The Blizard Institute of Cell and Molecular Science, Barts and The Royal London School of Medicine and Dentistry, London University, London, United Kingdom.
| | | |
Collapse
|
15
|
Inhibition of Rho-ROCK signaling induces apoptotic and non-apoptotic PS exposure in cardiomyocytes via inhibition of flippase. J Mol Cell Cardiol 2010; 49:781-90. [PMID: 20691698 DOI: 10.1016/j.yjmcc.2010.07.017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/22/2009] [Revised: 07/12/2010] [Accepted: 07/28/2010] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
Subsequent to myocardial infarction, cardiomyocytes within the infarcted areas and border zones expose phosphatidylserine (PS) in the outer plasma membrane leaflet (flip-flop). We showed earlier that in addition to apoptosis, this flip-flop can be reversible in cardiomyocytes. We now investigated a possible role for Rho and downstream effector Rho-associated kinase (ROCK) in the process of (reversible) PS exposure and apoptosis in cardiomyocytes. In rat cardiomyoblasts (H9c2 cells) and isolated adult ventricular rat cardiomyocytes Clostridium difficile Toxin B (TcdB), a Rho GTPase family inhibitor, C3 transferase (C3), a Rho(A,B,C) inhibitor and the ROCK inhibitors Y27632 and H1152 were used to inhibit Rho-ROCK signaling. PS exposure was assessed via flow cytometry and fluorescent digital imaging microscopy using annexin V. Akt expression and phosphorylation were analyzed via Western blot, and Akt activity was inhibited by wortmannin. The cellular concentration activated caspase 3 was determined as a measure of apoptosis, and flippase activity was assessed via flow cytometry using NBD-labeled PS. TcdB, C3, Y27632 and H1152 all significantly increased PS exposure. TcdB, Y27632 and H1152 all significantly inhibited phosphorylation of the anti-apoptotic protein Akt and Akt inhibition by wortmannin lead to increased PS exposure. However, only TcdB and C3, but not ROCK- or Akt inhibition led to caspase 3 activation and thus apoptosis. Notably, pancaspase inhibitor zVAD only partially inhibited TcdB-induced PS exposure indicating the existence of apoptotic and non-apoptotic PS exposure. The induced PS exposure coincided with decreased flippase activity as measured with NBD-labeled PS flip-flop. In this study, we show a regulatory role for a novel signaling route, Rho-ROCK-flippase signaling, in maintaining asymmetrical membrane phospholipid distribution in cardiomyocytes.
Collapse
|
16
|
Aggregation of spectrin and PKCtheta is an early hallmark of fludarabine/mitoxantrone/dexamethasone-induced apoptosis in Jurkat T and HL60 cells. Mol Cell Biochem 2010; 339:63-77. [PMID: 20058056 DOI: 10.1007/s11010-009-0370-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/22/2009] [Accepted: 12/16/2009] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
It has been shown that changes in spectrin distribution in early apoptosis preceded changes in membrane asymmetry and phosphatidylserine (PS) exposure. PKCtheta was associated with spectrin during these changes, suggesting a possible role of spectrin/PKCtheta aggregation in regulation of early apoptotic events. Here we dissect this hypothesis using Jurkat T and HL60 cell lines as model systems. Immunofluorescent analysis of alphaIIbetaII spectrin arrangement in Jurkat T and HL60 cell lines revealed the redistribution of spectrin and PKCtheta into a polar aggregate in early apoptosis induced by fludarabine/mitoxantrone/dexamethasone (FND). The appearance of an alphaIIbetaII spectrin fraction that was insoluble in a non-ionic detergent (1% Triton X-100) was observed concomitantly with spectrin aggregation. The changes were observed within 2 h after cell exposure to FND, and preceded PS exposure. The changes seem to be restricted to spectrin and not to other cytoskeletal proteins such as actin or vimentin. In studies of the mechanism of these changes, we found that (i) neither changes in apoptosis regulatory genes (e.g., Bcl-2 family proteins) nor changes in cytoskeleton-associated proteins were detected in gene expression profiling of HL60 cells after the first hour of FND treatment, (ii) caspase-3, -7, -8, and -10 had minor involvement in the early apoptotic rearrangement of spectrin/PKCtheta, and (iii) spectrin aggregation was shown to be partially dependent on PKCtheta activity. Our results indicate that spectrin/PKCtheta aggregate formation is related to an early stage in drug-induced apoptosis and possibly may be regulated by PKCtheta activity. These findings indicate that spectrin/PKCtheta aggregation could be considered as a hallmark of early apoptosis and presents the potential to become a useful diagnostic tool for monitoring efficiency of chemotherapy as early as 24 h after treatment.
Collapse
|
17
|
Inhibition of Eyes Absent Homolog 4 expression induces malignant peripheral nerve sheath tumor necrosis. Oncogene 2009; 29:368-79. [PMID: 19901965 PMCID: PMC2809821 DOI: 10.1038/onc.2009.360] [Citation(s) in RCA: 61] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/05/2023]
Abstract
Malignant peripheral nerve sheath tumors (MPNSTs) are aggressive sarcomas without effective therapeutics. Bioinformatics was used to identify potential therapeutic targets. Paired Box (PAX), Eyes Absent (EYA), Dachsund (DACH), and Sine Oculis (SIX) genes, which form a regulatory interactive network in drosophila, were found to be dysregulated in human MPNST cell lines and solid tumors. We identified a decrease in DACH1 expression, and increases in expression of PAX6, EYA1, EYA2, EYA4, and SIX1- 4. Consistent with the observation that half of MPNSTs develop in neurofibromatosis type 1 patients, subsequent to NF1 mutation, we found that exogenous expression of the NF1-GAP related domain (GRD) normalized DACH1 expression. EYA4 mRNA was elevated more than 100-fold as estimated by quantitative real time PCR in most MPSNT cell lines. In vitro, suppression of EYA4 expression using shRNA reduced cell adhesion and migration and caused cellular necrosis without affecting cell proliferation or apoptotic cell death. MPNST cells expressing sh-EYA4 either failed to form tumors in nude mice or formed very small tumors, with extensive necrosis but similar levels of proliferation and apoptosis as control cells. Our findings identify a role for EYA4 and possibly interacting SIX and DACH proteins in MPNSTs and suggest the EYA4 pathway as a rational therapeutic target.
Collapse
|
18
|
Cadmium induces a heterogeneous and caspase-dependent apoptotic response in Saccharomyces cerevisiae. Apoptosis 2008; 13:811-21. [PMID: 18463984 DOI: 10.1007/s10495-008-0215-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/01/2023]
Abstract
The toxic metal cadmium is linked to a series of degenerative disorders in humans, in which Cd-induced programmed cell death (apoptosis) may play a role. The yeast, Saccharomyces cerevisiae, provides a valuable model for elucidating apoptosis mechanisms, and this study extends that capability to Cd-induced apoptosis. We demonstrate that S. cerevisiae undergoes a glucose-dependent, programmed cell death in response to low cadmium concentrations, which is initiated within the first hour of Cd exposure. The response was associated with induction of the yeast caspase, Yca1p, and was abolished in a yca1Delta mutant. Cadmium-dependent apoptosis was also suppressed in a gsh1Delta mutant, indicating a requirement for glutathione. Other apoptotic markers, including sub-G(1) DNA fragmentation and hyper-polarization of mitochondrial membranes, were also evident among Cd-exposed cells. These responses were not distributed uniformly throughout the cell population, but were restricted to a subset of cells. This apoptotic subpopulation also exhibited markedly elevated levels of intracellular reactive oxygen species (ROS). The heightened ROS levels alone were not sufficient to induce apoptosis. These findings highlight several new perspectives to the mechanism of Cd-dependent apoptosis and its phenotypic heterogeneity, while opening up future analyses to the power of the yeast model system.
Collapse
|
19
|
Analysis of apoptotic pathways by multiparametric flow cytometry: application to HIV infection. Methods Enzymol 2008; 442:51-82. [PMID: 18662564 DOI: 10.1016/s0076-6879(08)01403-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/25/2023]
Abstract
Flow cytometry analysis of apoptosis allows the detection, at the single cell level, of essential features of apoptotic cells. They include alterations in plasma membrane integrity, detected with the 7-aminoactinomycin D assay, translocation of phosphatidylserine from the inner to the outer layer of the plasma membrane analyzed with the annexin-V/PI assay, DNA strand breaks in apoptotic nuclei measured with the in situ nick translation and terminal deoxynucleotidyl transferase dUTP-mediated nick end labeling assays, and morphological modifications evidenced with FSC/SSC criteria. In addition, mitochondrial events such as the drop in transmembrane potential DeltaPsi(m) can be detected with the cationic lipophilic dye 3,3'-dihexyloxacarbocyanine iodide and downregulation of the Bcl-2 molecule by specific intracellular staining. Multiparametric flow cytometry combines all these approaches for a thorough sequential analysis of apoptosis, especially for heterogenous populations such as human peripheral mononuclear cells. Several examples of combined staining of apoptotic cells are shown on peripheral blood lymphocytes from chronically HIV-infected patients, prone to undergo premature apoptosis.
Collapse
|
20
|
Shynkar VV, Klymchenko AS, Kunzelmann C, Duportail G, Muller CD, Demchenko AP, Freyssinet JM, Mely Y. Fluorescent Biomembrane Probe for Ratiometric Detection of Apoptosis. J Am Chem Soc 2007; 129:2187-93. [PMID: 17256940 DOI: 10.1021/ja068008h] [Citation(s) in RCA: 235] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
Herein, we developed the first ratiometric fluorescent probe for apoptosis detection. This probe incorporates selectively into the outer leaflet of the cell plasma membrane and senses the loss of the plasma membrane asymmetry occurring during the early steps of apoptosis. The high specificity to the plasma membranes was achieved by introduction into the probe of a membrane anchor, composed of a zwitterionic group and a long (dodecyl) hydrophobic tail. The fluorescence reporter of this probe is 4'-(diethylamino)-3-hydroxyflavone, which exhibits excited-state intramolecular proton transfer (ESIPT), resulting in two-band emission highly sensitive to the lipid composition of the biomembranes. Fluorescence spectroscopy, flow cytometry, and microscopy measurements show that the ratio of the two emission bands of the probe changes dramatically in response to apoptosis. This response reflects the changes in the lipid composition of the outer leaflet of the cell plasma membrane because of the exposure of the anionic phospholipids from the inner leaflet at the early steps of apoptosis. Being ratiometric, the response of the new probe can be easily quantified on an absolute scale. This allows monitoring by laser scanning confocal microscopy the degree and spatial distribution of the apoptotic changes at the cell plasma membranes, a feature that can be hardly achieved with the commonly used fluorescently labeled annexin V assay.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Vasyl V Shynkar
- Photophysique des Interactions Moléculaires, UMR 7175 CNRS, Institut Gilbert Laustriat, Faculté de Pharmacie, Université Louis Pasteur, Strasbourg 1, 74 Route du Rhin, 67401 Illkirch Cedex, France
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
21
|
Festjens N, Vanden Berghe T, Vandenabeele P. Necrosis, a well-orchestrated form of cell demise: signalling cascades, important mediators and concomitant immune response. BIOCHIMICA ET BIOPHYSICA ACTA-BIOENERGETICS 2006; 1757:1371-87. [PMID: 16950166 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbabio.2006.06.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 461] [Impact Index Per Article: 25.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/28/2006] [Revised: 06/15/2006] [Accepted: 06/20/2006] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Necrosis has long been described as a consequence of physico-chemical stress and thus accidental and uncontrolled. Recently, it is becoming clear that necrotic cell death is as well controlled and programmed as caspase-dependent apoptosis, and that it may be an important cell death mode that is both pathologically and physiologically relevant. Necrotic cell death is not the result of one well-described signalling cascade but is the consequence of extensive crosstalk between several biochemical and molecular events at different cellular levels. Recent data indicate that serine/threonine kinase RIP1, which contains a death domain, may act as a central initiator. Calcium and reactive oxygen species (ROS) are main players during the propagation and execution phases of necrotic cell death, directly or indirectly provoking damage to proteins, lipids and DNA, which culminates in disruption of organelle and cell integrity. Necrotically dying cells initiate pro-inflammatory signalling cascades by actively releasing inflammatory cytokines and by spilling their contents when they lyse. Unravelling the signalling cascades contributing to necrotic cell death will permit us to develop tools to specifically interfere with necrosis at certain levels of signalling. Necrosis occurs in both physiological and pathophysiological processes, and is capable of killing tumour cells that have developed strategies to evade apoptosis. Thus detailed knowledge of necrosis may be exploited in therapeutic strategies.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Nele Festjens
- Molecular Signalling and Cell Death Unit, Department for Molecular Biomedical Research, VIB and Ghent University, Fiers-Schell-Van Montagu Building, Technologiepark 927, B-9052 Ghent, Belgium
| | | | | |
Collapse
|
22
|
Abstract
BACKGROUND Orderly cell death, termed apoptosis, features a morphology that is distinct from necrotic, or accidental, cell death. As the body of literature on apoptotic cell death grows, it is difficult for practicing surgeons to stay current with the involved mechanisms and their biologic significance. METHODS A MEDLINE/PubMed literature search was conducted, followed by manual crossreferencing, to identify relevant articles published in the English language between 1972 and 2004. RESULTS Apoptosis is now known to be involved in numerous disease states. Ischemia-reperfusion injury and acute pancreatitis are but two surgical entities in which the balance of apoptotic and necrotic cell death has a profound effect on clinical outcome. Similarly, the timing and extent of apoptosis in immune cells are important factors that determine the outcome of septic patients. CONCLUSIONS As already demonstrated in animal models, further research in this field will target opportunities for therapeutic intervention, making it increasingly important for clinicians to be familiar with apoptosis and necrosis, and their roles in normal and pathologic states.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Patrick McHugh
- Department of Surgery, the Price Institute of Surgical Research, University of Louisville School of Medicine, Louisville, Kentucky 40292, USA
| | | |
Collapse
|
23
|
Proskuryakov SY, Gabai VL, Konoplyannikov AG, Zamulaeva IA, Kolesnikova AI. Immunology of Apoptosis and Necrosis. BIOCHEMISTRY (MOSCOW) 2005; 70:1310-20. [PMID: 16417452 DOI: 10.1007/s10541-005-0263-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
Abstract
A complex of reactions regulating the number of cells in organs and tissues under normal and pathologic conditions is one of the most important systems of multicellular organisms. In this system, which controls both cell proliferation and clearance, clearance has been given special attention during the last three decades. Some stages of the clearance are known (the choice of "unwanted" cells, their destruction not affecting the surrounding tissue, and, finally, removal of the corpses), and undeniable progress has been achieved in the understanding of the second stage mechanisms, whereas mechanisms of elimination per se of cells or their fragments still continue to be terra incognita. The clearance of such cells is mainly determined by different components of natural and adaptive immunity: phagocytes, complement, opsonins, antigen-presenting cells, etc. Recently specific "danger signals", such as hydrolases, DNA, heat shock proteins, and other potential immunogens released by cells during their elimination have been discovered. Entering the extracellular space, these signals induce inflammation and injury of the surrounding tissues, i.e., autoimmune reactions. Heat shock proteins, in addition to chaperon activity, act as signaling, costimulating, and antigen-carrying molecules in the interactions of dying cells and the immune system.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- S Ya Proskuryakov
- Medical Radiological Research Center, Russian Academy of Medical Sciences, Obninsk, 249036, Russia.
| | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
24
|
Moghimi SM, Symonds P, Murray JC, Hunter AC, Debska G, Szewczyk A. A two-stage poly(ethylenimine)-mediated cytotoxicity: implications for gene transfer/therapy. Mol Ther 2005; 11:990-5. [PMID: 15922971 DOI: 10.1016/j.ymthe.2005.02.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 816] [Impact Index Per Article: 42.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/31/2004] [Revised: 02/02/2005] [Accepted: 02/05/2005] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Poly(ethylenimine) (PEI) is a cationic macromolecule commonly used in gene transfer/therapy protocols with high transfection efficiency both in vitro and in vivo. PEI is also cytotoxic, but the molecular basis of its cytotoxicity is poorly understood. Here, we have demonstrated that branched (25 kDa) and linear (750 kDa) PEI can both induce membrane damage and initiate apoptosis in three clinically relevant human cell lines (Jurkat T cells, umbilical vein endothelial cells, and THLE3 hepatocyte-like cells). We have defined Phase I toxicity as early necrotic-like changes (30 min) resulting from compromised membrane integrity, assessed by considerable lactate dehydrogenase release and phosphatidylserine translocation from the inner plasma membrane to the outer cell surface. Phase II cytotoxicity (24 h) was due to activation of a "mitochondrially mediated apoptotic program," resulting from PEI-induced channel formation in the outer mitochondrial membrane. This led to the release of proapoptotic cytochrome c, subsequent activation of caspase 3, and alteration in mitochondrial membrane potential as a result of caspase translocation into the mitochondria. The reported observations have important implications for the design and execution of gene therapy protocols as well for controlling intracellular distribution of drugs with cationic-based polymer-delivery systems.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- S Moein Moghimi
- Molecular Targeting and Polymer Toxicology Group, School of Pharmacy, University of Brighton, Brighton BN2 4GJ, UK.
| | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
25
|
Pardo J, Bosque A, Brehm R, Wallich R, Naval J, Müllbacher A, Anel A, Simon MM. Apoptotic pathways are selectively activated by granzyme A and/or granzyme B in CTL-mediated target cell lysis. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2004; 167:457-68. [PMID: 15534000 PMCID: PMC2172484 DOI: 10.1083/jcb.200406115] [Citation(s) in RCA: 105] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
Purified cytolytic T lymphocyte (CTL) proteases granzyme (gzm)A and gzmB with sublytic dose of perforin (perf) initiate distinct proapoptotic pathways. Their physiological relevance in CTL-mediated target cell apoptosis is elusive. Using ex vivo virus-immune CD8(+) T cells from mice deficient in perf, gzmA and/or gzmB, and the Fas-resistant EL4.F15 tumor target cell, we show that (a) CTL from gzmA(-/-) or gzmB(-/-) mice similarly induced early proapoptotic features, such as phosphatidyl serine (PS) exposure on plasma membrane, Delta Psi(m) loss, and reactive oxygen radical generation, though with distinct kinetics; (b) CTL from gzmA(-/-) but not from gzmB(-/-) mice activate caspase 3 and 9; (c) PS exposure induced by CTL from gzmA(-/-) or gzmB(-/-) mice is prevented, respectively, by caspase inhibitors or by reactive oxygen scavengers without interfering with target cell death; and (d) all gzm-induced apoptotic features analyzed depend critically on perf. Thus, perf is the principal regulator in CTL-mediated and gzm-facilitated intracellular processes. The ability of gzmA and gzmB to induce multiple independent cell death pathways may be the hosts response to circumvent evasion strategies of pathogens and tumors.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Julián Pardo
- Departmento de Bioquímica y Biología Molecular y Celular, Universidad de Zaragoza, E-50009 Zaragoza, Spain
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
26
|
Jones RA, Poniris MH, Wilson MR. pDMAEMA is internalised by endocytosis but does not physically disrupt endosomes. J Control Release 2004; 96:379-91. [PMID: 15120895 DOI: 10.1016/j.jconrel.2004.02.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 85] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/17/2003] [Accepted: 02/09/2004] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
Earlier workers proposed that poly(2-(dimethylamino)ethyl methacrylate) (pDMAEMA) facilitates cell transfection by being endocytosed, complexed with DNA, and subsequently acting as a "proton sponge" to burst endosomes/lysosomes and release DNA to the cytosol. It also seemed feasible that the cytotoxicity of pDMAEMA might result from lysosomal bursting, which can induce cell death. Experiments were performed to determine the extent of cytotoxicity of uncomplexed pDMAEMA, the mode of cell death it induces (i.e. apoptosis or necrosis), its mechanism of entry into cells, and its ability to disrupt endosomes/lysosomes and release molecules into the cell cytosol. The results indicate that (i). pDMAEMA is highly cytotoxic and induces rapid, primarily necrotic cell death, (ii). it is internalised into cells via fluid-phase endocytosis, and (iii). although pDMAEMA affected the morphology of late endosomes/lysosomes, it did not physically disrupt them to release their contents to the cytosol. The lack of endosomal disruptive activity suggests that this is not involved in the cytotoxicity of pDMAEMA or in its ability to transfect cells. Further work will be required to establish the molecular mechanism(s) by which pDMAEMA facilitates transfection.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Rachel A Jones
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Wollongong, Northfields Avenue, Wollongong, NSW 2522, Australia
| | | | | |
Collapse
|
27
|
Courageot MP, Lépine S, Hours M, Giraud F, Sulpice JC. Involvement of sodium in early phosphatidylserine exposure and phospholipid scrambling induced by P2X7 purinoceptor activation in thymocytes. J Biol Chem 2004; 279:21815-23. [PMID: 14996828 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.m401426200] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
Extracellular ATP (ATP(ec)), a possible effector in thymocyte selection, induces thymocyte death via purinoceptor activation. We show that ATP(ec) induced cell death by apoptosis, rather than lysis, and early phosphatidylserine (PS) exposure and phospholipid scrambling in a limited thymocyte population (35-40%). PS externalization resulted from the activation of the cationic channel P2X7 (formerly P2Z) receptor and was triggered in all thymocyte subsets although to different proportions in each one. Phospholipid movement was dependent on ATP(ec)-induced Ca(2+) and/or Na(+) influx. At physiological external Na(+) concentration, without external Ca(2+), PS was exposed in all ATP(ec)-responsive cells. In contrast, without external Na(+), physiological external Ca(2+) concentration promoted a submaximal response. Altogether these data show that Na(+) influx plays a major role in the rapid PS exposure induced by P2X7 receptor activation in thymocytes.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Marie-Pierre Courageot
- Laboratoire des Biomembranes et Messagers Cellulaires, CNRS UMR 8619 and Service de cytométrie, Institut Fédératif de Recherches 46, bât 440, Université Paris XI, 91405 Orsay Cedex, France
| | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
28
|
Affiliation(s)
- K Kühn
- Division of Arthritis Research, Department of Molecular and Experimental Medicine, The Scripps Research Institute, CA, La Jolla 92037, USA
| | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
29
|
Schellenberger EA, Bogdanov A, Petrovsky A, Ntziachristos V, Weissleder R, Josephson L. Optical imaging of apoptosis as a biomarker of tumor response to chemotherapy. Neoplasia 2003; 5:187-92. [PMID: 12869301 PMCID: PMC1502408 DOI: 10.1016/s1476-5586(03)80050-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 98] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
Abstract
A rapid and accurate assessment of the antitumor efficacy of new therapeutic drugs could speed up drug discovery and improve clinical decision making. Based on the hypothesis that most effective antitumor agents induce apoptosis, we developed a near-infrared fluorescent (NIRF) annexin V to be used for optical sensing of tumor environments. To demonstrate probe specificity, we developed both an active (i.e., apoptosis-recognizing) and an inactive form of annexin V with very similar properties (to account for nonspecific tumor accumulation), and tested the agents in nude mice each bearing a cyclophosphamide (CPA) chemosensitive (LLC) and a chemoresistant LLC (CR-LLC). After injection with active annexin V, the tumor-annexin V ratio (TAR; tumor NIRF/background NIRF) for untreated mice was 1.22+/-0.34 for LLC and 1.43+/-0.53 for CR-LLC (n=4). The LLC of CPA-treated mice had significant elevations of TAR (2.56+/-0.29, P=.001, n=4), but only a moderate increase was obtained for the CR-LLC (TAR=1.89+/-0.19, P=.183). The in vivo measurements correlated well with terminal deoxyribosyl transferase-mediated dUTP nick end labeling indexes. When inactive Cy-annexin V was used, with or without CPA treatment and in both CCL and CR-CCL tumors, tumor NIRF values ranged from 0.91 to 1.17 (i.e., tumor were equal to background). We conclude that active Cy-annexin V and surface reflectance fluorescence imaging provide a nonradioactive, semiquantitative method of determining chemosensitivity in LLC xenografts. The method maybe used to image pharmacologic responses in other animal models and, potentially, may permit the clinical imaging of apoptosis with noninvasive or minimally invasive instrumentation.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Eyk A Schellenberger
- Center for Molecular Imaging Research, Massachusetts General Hospital, Charlestown, MA 02129, USA
| | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
30
|
|
31
|
Hurne AM, Chai CLL, Moerman K, Waring P. Influx of calcium through a redox-sensitive plasma membrane channel in thymocytes causes early necrotic cell death induced by the epipolythiodioxopiperazine toxins. J Biol Chem 2002; 277:31631-8. [PMID: 12063251 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.m201699200] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
Gliotoxin, a member of the epipolythiodioxopiperazine (ETP) class of toxins, induces both apoptotic and necrotic cell death in a concentration-dependent manner. Whereas the specific trigger for apoptotic death caused by these toxins is unclear, the reactive disulfide bond in the ETP toxins is required for biological activity. Thus it is likely that it is the interaction of this disulfide moiety with macromolecules in cells that was responsible for activity of ETP toxins. Here we present evidence that necrosis induced by gliotoxin and a simple synthetic ETP toxin is largely because of an influx of extracellular calcium through a redox-sensitive calcium channel in the plasma membrane of murine thymocytes. The calcium rises are strongly dependent on the pH of the external medium and the presence of external calcium and are abrogated and/or reversed by the presence of dithiothreitol, cell impermeant glutathione, and the calcium channel blocker Ni(2+). Comparisons with thapsigargin, which indirectly causes release of calcium from internal stores, indicates that ETP toxins do not provoke calcium rises by store depletion. A mechanism of oxidation by ETP toxins of cell surface thiol groups resulting in direct entry of calcium through a redox active channel in the plasma membrane is proposed. Necrotic but not apoptotic cell death was abrogated by inhibition of calcium entry.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Alanna M Hurne
- Division of Immunology and Cell Biology, John Curtin School of Medical Research, Australian National University, Canberra 0200, Australian Capital Territory, Australia
| | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
32
|
Lecoeur H, de Oliveira-Pinto LM, Gougeon ML. Multiparametric flow cytometric analysis of biochemical and functional events associated with apoptosis and oncosis using the 7-aminoactinomycin D assay. J Immunol Methods 2002; 265:81-96. [PMID: 12072180 DOI: 10.1016/s0022-1759(02)00072-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 69] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
Apoptosis and primary necrosis are the two modes of cell death induced by a lethal injury. The majority of structural and biochemical events occurring during cell death can be analysed by flow cytometry. The 7-aminoactinomycin D (7-AAD) assay can be used to detect the loss of membrane integrity during apoptosis of murine thymocytes and human peripheral lymphocytes. We describe here new applications of the 7-AAD assay. It can be applied to a variety of cell lines of different origins, including adherent cell lines, and it allows the co-detection of lipidic antigens such as phosphatidylserine (PS) residues, and biochemical processes linked to apoptosis, such as the loss of mitochondrial transmembrane potential, cardiolipin peroxidation, the expression of the 7A6 mitochondrial antigen and DNA fragmentation. Thus, this assay is a noninvasive method particularly adapted to the analysis of biochemical events associated with cell death. Finally, we show that this assay is not specific for apoptosis since it detects oncosis, the early stage of primary necrosis.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Hervé Lecoeur
- Département de Médecine Moléculaire, Institut Pasteur, 28 Rue du Dr. Roux, 75724 Paris Cedex 15, France
| | | | | |
Collapse
|
33
|
Biros E, Kohút A, Biros I, Kalina I, Bogyiová E, Stubna J. A link between the p53 germ line polymorphisms and white blood cells apoptosis in lung cancer patients. Lung Cancer 2002; 35:231-5. [PMID: 11844595 DOI: 10.1016/s0169-5002(01)00446-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Abstract
The p53 protein acts as a checkpoint in the cell cycle, either preventing or initiating apoptosis. Since cancer is the unchecked proliferation of cells, p53s role is critical. Thus, we have sought a link between the p53 polymorphisms and apoptosis. Wild-type p53 tumor suppressor gene exhibits several common single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNP) both in coding and non-coding regions. We focused on two of them, the p53 BstUI SNP on the fourth exon, and the p53 MspI SNP on the sixth intron. We investigated a presence of these two polymorphisms in relation to apoptosis of white blood cells in lung cancer patients and healthy controls. We found that both the p53 BstUI and the p53 MspI homozygous genotypes A2/A2 were associated with significantly higher content of apoptotic white blood cells in comparison to relevant A2/A1 heterozygous genotypes (P<0.001,0.05) in lung cancer patients. These observations suggest that the p53 BstUI and the p53 MspI SNPs may play a certain role in p53 dependent apoptotic pathway.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Erik Biros
- Department of Medical Biology, School of Medicine, P.J. Safárik University, Tr. SNP 1, 040 66 Kosice, Slovakia.
| | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
34
|
Span L, Pennings A, Vierwinden G, Boezeman J, Raymakers R, de Witte T. The dynamic process of apoptosis analyzed by flow cytometry using Annexin-V/propidium iodide and a modified in situ end labeling technique. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2001. [DOI: 10.1002/cyto.10028] [Citation(s) in RCA: 63] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/05/2022]
|
35
|
Abstract
Apoptosis is a complex process that removes aging or injured cells from the body and occurs in a wide variety of organisms. Cell death has always been an integral aspect of the study of pathology, but only over the last 30 years or so has the interest in apoptosis gained appreciation in this field. This review analyzes pertinent aspects of apoptosis, from Virchow's initial descriptions of necrobiosis to more modern research, and reviews some of the key events and molecules involved in the process. Finally, the role of apoptosis in certain diseases and its importance in the clinical setting is addressed.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- F J Geske
- Department of Pediatrics, National Jewish Medical and Research Center, Denver, CO 80206, USA
| | | |
Collapse
|
36
|
Lai JH, Ho LJ, Lu KC, Chang DM, Shaio MF, Han SH. Western and Chinese antirheumatic drug-induced T cell apoptotic DNA damage uses different caspase cascades and is independent of Fas/Fas ligand interaction. JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY (BALTIMORE, MD. : 1950) 2001; 166:6914-24. [PMID: 11359853 DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.166.11.6914] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
Spontaneous or therapeutic induction of T cell apoptosis plays a critical role in establishing transplantation tolerance and maintaining remission of autoimmune diseases. We investigated the mechanisms of apoptosis induced by Chinese and Western antirheumatic drugs (ARDs) in human T cells. We found that hydroxychloroquine, Tripterygium wilfordii hook F, and tetrandrine (Tet), but not methotrexate, at therapeutic concentrations can cause T cell death. In addition, Tet selectively killed T cells, especially activated T cells. Although ARD-induced cytotoxicity was mediated through apoptotic mechanisms, Fas/Fas ligand interaction was not required. We further demonstrated that the processes of phosphatidylserine externalization and DNA damage along the ARD-induced T cell apoptotic pathway could operate independently, and that selective inhibition of DNA damage by caspase inhibitors did not prevent T cells from undergoing cell death. Moreover, we found that Tet- and Tripterygium wilfordii hook F-induced T cell DNA damage required caspase-3 activity, and hydroxychloroquine-induced T cell DNA damage was mediated through a caspase-3- and caspase-8-independent, but Z-Asp-Glu-Val-Asp-fluomethyl ketone-sensitive, signaling pathway. Finally, the observation that ARD-induced activation of caspase-3 in both Fas-sensitive and Fas-resistant Jurkat T cells indicates that Fas/Fas ligand interaction plays no role in ARD-induced T cell apoptosis. Our observations provide new information about the complex apoptotic mechanisms of ARDs, and have implications for combining Western and Chinese ARDs that have different immunomodulatory mechanisms in the therapy of autoimmune diseases and transplantation rejection.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- J H Lai
- Rheumatology/Immunology and Allergy, Department of Medicine, Tri-Service General Hospital, National Defense Medical Center, No. 325, Section 2, Cheng-Kung Road, Neihu 114, Taipei, Taiwan, Republic of China.
| | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
37
|
Lecoeur H, Prévost MC, Gougeon ML. Oncosis is associated with exposure of phosphatidylserine residues on the outside layer of the plasma membrane: a reconsideration of the specificity of the annexin V/propidium iodide assay. CYTOMETRY 2001; 44:65-72. [PMID: 11309810 DOI: 10.1002/1097-0320(20010501)44:1<65::aid-cyto1083>3.0.co;2-q] [Citation(s) in RCA: 97] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/03/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Following a lethal injury, two modes of cell death can be distinguished, apoptosis and primary necrosis. Cells pass through a prelethal stage characterized by a preservation of membrane integrity, in which they shrink (apoptosis) or swell (oncosis, the early phase of primary necrosis). During apoptosis, a loss of phospholipid asymmetry leads to exposure of phosphatidylserine (PS) residues on the outer leaflet of the plasma membrane. We examined whether the external PS exposure, initially supposed to be specific for apoptosis, was also observed in oncotic cells. METHODS Human peripheral lymphocytes, Jurkat T cells, U937 cells, or HeLa cells were submitted to either apoptotic or oncotic stimuli. PS external exposure was assessed after binding of FITC-conjugated annexin V as was the loss of membrane integrity after propidium iodide (PI) uptake. Morphological examination was performed by optical or electron microscopy. RESULTS Similarly to apoptotic cells, oncotic cells expose external PS residues while preserving membrane integrity. Consequently, oncotic cells exhibit the annexin V+ PI- phenotype, previously considered to be specific for apoptotic cells. CONCLUSIONS This study concludes that the annexin V/PI assay does not discriminate between apoptosis and oncosis and that it can be a useful tool to study oncosis by flow cytometry.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- H Lecoeur
- Unité d'Oncologie Virale, Département SIDA et Rétrovirus, Institut Pasteur, Paris, France
| | | | | |
Collapse
|
38
|
Geske FJ, Lieberman R, Strange R, Gerschenson LE. Early stages of p53-induced apoptosis are reversible. Cell Death Differ 2001; 8:182-91. [PMID: 11313720 DOI: 10.1038/sj.cdd.4400786] [Citation(s) in RCA: 108] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/18/2000] [Revised: 09/26/2000] [Accepted: 10/03/2000] [Indexed: 11/09/2022] Open
Abstract
Apoptosis is a type of physiological cell death that occurs during development, normal tissue homeostasis, or as a result of different cellular insults. The phenotype of an apoptotic cell is relatively consistent in most cases of apoptosis and involves at least changes in the cell membrane, proteolysis of cytoplasmic and nuclear proteins, and eventual destruction of nuclear DNA. Our laboratory is interested in the reversibility of apoptosis. We have initial evidence that DNA repair is activated early in p53-induced apoptosis and may be involved in its reversibility. The present work further strengthens our proposition that p53-induced apoptosis is reversible. We show that p53 activation induces phosphatidylserine (PS) externalization early in apoptosis, and that these early apoptotic cells with externalized PS can be rescued and proliferate if the apoptotic stimulus is removed. In addition, we show that unscheduled DNA synthesis occurs in early apoptotic cells, and that if DNA repair is inhibited by aphidicolin, apoptosis is accelerated. These results confirm that early p53-induced apoptotic cells can be rescued from the apoptotic program, and that DNA repair can modulate that cell death process.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- F J Geske
- Department of Pathology, University of Colorado Health Sciences Center, Denver 80262, USA
| | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
39
|
Rasola A, Gramaglia D, Boccaccio C, Comoglio PM. Apoptosis enhancement by the HIV-1 Nef protein. JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY (BALTIMORE, MD. : 1950) 2001; 166:81-8. [PMID: 11123279 DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.166.1.81] [Citation(s) in RCA: 79] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
The HIV-1 nef gene, essential for AIDS pathogenesis, encodes a 27-kDa protein (Nef) whose biochemical and biological functions are unclear. It has been suggested that Nef expression contributes to the T cell depletion observed during the disease by promoting their apoptosis. We report that in CD4(+) human lymphoblastoid cell lines transfected with the nef cDNA obtained from three different HIV-1 strains, expression of the Nef protein enhances and accelerates the response to four unrelated apoptotic agents (staurosporine, anisomycin, camptothecin, and etoposide) but not to an anti-Fas agonist Ab. Nef reduces the expression of the anti-apoptotic proteins Bcl-2 and Bcl-X(L) and induces a striking enhancement of apoptotic hallmarks, including mitochondrial depolarization, exposure of phosphatidylserine on the cell surface, activation of caspase-3, and cleavage of the caspase target poly(ADP-ribose) polymerase. Interestingly, the peptide Z-Val-Ala-DL-Asp-fluoromethylketone (a broad-spectrum caspase inhibitor) reduces, but does not abolish, phosphatidylserine exposure, suggesting that Nef also activates a caspase-independent apoptotic pathway. Surprisingly, Nef expression increases DNA degradation but without causing oligonucleosomal fragmentation. An increased apoptotic response and down-modulation of Bcl-2/Bcl-X(L) following Nef expression are observed also in NIH-3T3 fibroblasts. These data show that Nef enhances programmed cell death in different cell types by affecting multiple critical components of the apoptotic machinery independently from the Fas pathway.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- A Rasola
- Division of Molecular Oncology, Institute for Cancer Research, University of Torino Medical School, Candiolo, Italy.
| | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
40
|
Bonneau MJ, Poulin R. Spermine oxidation leads to necrosis with plasma membrane phosphatidylserine redistribution in mouse leukemia cells. Exp Cell Res 2000; 259:23-34. [PMID: 10942576 DOI: 10.1006/excr.2000.4974] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/02/2023]
Abstract
Oxidation by copper/quinone-containing serum amine oxidases (SAO) is a well-known cause of polyamine cytotoxicity. Spermine oxidation exerts potent immunosuppressive effects in animal cells, but the cell death mechanism involved remains unclear. We compared biochemical and morphological parameters of SAO-mediated cell death in L1210 mouse leukemia cells with normal or amplified ornithine decarboxylase gene expression with those observed during apoptosis induced by deregulated polyamine uptake or by okadaic acid. None of the characteristic features of apoptotic cell death (e.g., chromatin condensation, nuclear fragmentation, internucleosomal DNA cleavage, poly(ADP-ribose) polymerase cleavage) were observed during spermine oxidation-mediated cell death, which was clearly necrotic by morphological criteria. Inhibition of a wide spectrum of caspases did not prevent SAO-dependent cell death, whereas N-acetylcysteine completely abolished the cytotoxic effects of spermine oxidation. Catalase only delayed spermine oxidation-induced cell death without affecting its modality or preventing depletion of intracellular glutathione, suggesting that both H(2)O(2) and aminoaldehydes generated by SAO-mediated spermine oxidation contribute to SAO-induced necrosis. Interestingly, redistribution of phosphatidylserine to the outer leaflet of the plasma membrane, usually a diagnostic feature of apoptosis, preceded necrotic cytolysis triggered by spermine oxidation. Thus, L1210 cell death caused by SAO-mediated spermine oxidation has all the attributes of primary necrosis, but is also accompanied by loss of phospholipid asymmetry, indicating that the latter phenomenon may not be unique to apoptosis. Phosphatidylserine exposure, a potent engulfment signal for phagocytes, might contribute to the immunosuppressive effects of plasma polyamines through a controlled and rapid necrotic process involving SAO.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- M J Bonneau
- Laboratory of Oncology and Molecular Endocrinology, Department of Anatomy and Physiology, CHUQ Research Center, CHUL Building, 2705 Laurier Boulevard, Ste. Foy, Quebec, G1V 4G2, Canada
| | | |
Collapse
|
41
|
Hirt UA, Gantner F, Leist M. Phagocytosis of nonapoptotic cells dying by caspase-independent mechanisms. JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY (BALTIMORE, MD. : 1950) 2000; 164:6520-9. [PMID: 10843710 DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.164.12.6520] [Citation(s) in RCA: 67] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/04/2023]
Abstract
Caspase activation, exposure of phosphatidylserine (PS) on the outer surface of the plasma membrane, and rapid phagocytic removal of dying cells are key features of apoptosis. Nonapoptotic/necrotic modes of death occur independent of caspase activation, but the role of phagocytosis is largely unknown. To address this issue, we studied phagocytosis by human monocyte-derived macrophages (HMDM) and rat microglial cells. Target cells (Jurkat) were stimulated by several different methods that all caused caspase-independent death. First, we induced necrosis by combining toxins with ATP-depleting agents. Under these conditions, neither PS was exposed nor were such cells phagocytosed before their death. However, once the plasma membrane integrity was lost, the dead cells were rapidly and efficiently engulfed by HMDM. Next, we triggered Jurkat cell death with staurosporine in the presence of the pan-caspase inhibitor zVAD-fmk. Under these conditions, death occurred by delayed necrosis and without exposure of PS. Nevertheless, such lethally challenged cells were phagocytosed before the loss of membrane integrity. Finally, we triggered Ca2+ influx in Jurkat cells with an ionophore, or in neurons by glutamate receptor stimulation, respectively. In both models, PS was exposed on the cell surface. Ca2+-stressed cells were phagocytosed starting at 30 min after stimulation. Protein kinase C inhibitors prevented Ca2+-mediated PS exposure and phagocytosis. Essentially, similar phagocytosis data were obtained for all models with HMDM and microglia. We conclude that also cells dying nonapoptotically and independent of caspase activation may be recognized and removed before, or very quickly after, membrane lysis.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- U A Hirt
- Faculty of Biology, University of Konstanz, Germany
| | | | | |
Collapse
|
42
|
Fadeel B, Gleiss B, Högstrand K, Chandra J, Wiedmer T, Sims PJ, Henter JI, Orrenius S, Samali A. Phosphatidylserine exposure during apoptosis is a cell-type-specific event and does not correlate with plasma membrane phospholipid scramblase expression. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 1999; 266:504-11. [PMID: 10600532 DOI: 10.1006/bbrc.1999.1820] [Citation(s) in RCA: 103] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/04/2023]
Abstract
Phosphatidylserine (PS) exposure on the surface of cells has been considered a characteristic feature of apoptosis. However, we demonstrate herein that externalization of PS occurs in a cell-type-specific, albeit caspase-dependent, manner. Moreover, we could find no correlation in six different cell lines between the level of expression of the phospholipid (PL) scramblase and the capacity of these cells to externalize PS during apoptosis. Overexpression of PL scramblase in Raji cells, which exhibit low constitutive expression of this enzyme, by retroviral transduction of PL scramblase or treatment of the cells with interferon-alpha, failed to confer the capacity to expose PS in response to apoptotic stimuli. However, the lack of PS exposure in some cell types was not due to their inability to translocate PS molecules to the cell surface, since incubation with thiol reactive agents, such as N-ethylmaleimide, disulfiram and diamide, yielded rapid and pronounced PS exposure in all cell lines. These data suggest that plasma membrane PS exposure is not an obligatory component of the apoptotic phenotype, and that PL scramblase is not the sole determinant of PS externalization in apoptotic cells when this occurs.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- B Fadeel
- Division of Toxicology, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, 171 77, Sweden
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|