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Wojtas A, Herian M, Maćkowiak M, Solarz A, Wawrzczak-Bargiela A, Bysiek A, Noworyta K, Gołembiowska K. Hallucinogenic activity, neurotransmitters release, anxiolytic and neurotoxic effects in Rat's brain following repeated administration of novel psychoactive compound 25B-NBOMe. Neuropharmacology 2023; 240:109713. [PMID: 37689261 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuropharm.2023.109713] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/21/2021] [Revised: 07/05/2023] [Accepted: 09/06/2023] [Indexed: 09/11/2023]
Abstract
2-(4-Bromo-2,5-dimethoxyphenyl)-N-(2-methoxybenzyl)etanoamine (25B-NBOMe) is a highly selective 5-HT2A receptor agonist, exhibiting a potent hallucinogenic activity. In the present study, we investigated the effect of a 7-day treatment with 25B-NBOMe in a dose of 0.3 mg/kg on the following: the neurotransmitter release in vivo using microdialysis in freely moving animals, hallucinogenic activity measured in the Wet Dog Shake (WDS) test, anxiety level as measured in the light/dark box (LDB) and locomotor activity in the open field (OF) test, DNA damage with the comet assay, and on a number of neuronal and glial cells with immunohistochemistry. Repeated administration of 25B-NBOMe decreased the response to a challenge dose (0.3 mg/kg) on DA, 5-HT and glutamatergic neurons in the rats' frontal cortex, striatum, and nucleus accumbens. The WDS response dropped drastically after the second day of treatment, suggesting a rapid development of tolerance. LDB and OF tests showed that the effect of 25B-NBOMe on anxiety depends on the treatment and environmental settings. Results obtained with the comet assay indicate a genotoxic properties in the frontal cortex and hippocampus. An increase in immunopositive glial but not neuronal cells was observed in the cortical regions but not in the hippocampus. In conclusion, our study showed that a chronic administration of 25B-NBOMe produces the development of tolerance observed in the neurotransmitters release and hallucinogenic activity. The oxidative damage of cortical and hippocampal DNA implies the generation of free radicals by the drug, resulting in genotoxicity but rather not in neurotoxic tissue damage. Behavioral tests show that 25B-NBOMe exerts anxiogenic effect after single and repeated treatment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Adam Wojtas
- Maj Institute of Pharmacology, Polish Academy of Sciences, Department of Pharmacology, 31-343, Kraków, 12 Smętna, Poland
| | - Monika Herian
- Maj Institute of Pharmacology, Polish Academy of Sciences, Department of Pharmacology, 31-343, Kraków, 12 Smętna, Poland
| | - Marzena Maćkowiak
- Maj Institute of Pharmacology, Polish Academy of Sciences, Department of Pharmacology, Laboratory of Pharmacology and Brain Biostructure, 31-343, Kraków, 12 Smętna, Poland
| | - Anna Solarz
- Maj Institute of Pharmacology, Polish Academy of Sciences, Department of Pharmacology, Laboratory of Pharmacology and Brain Biostructure, 31-343, Kraków, 12 Smętna, Poland
| | - Agnieszka Wawrzczak-Bargiela
- Maj Institute of Pharmacology, Polish Academy of Sciences, Department of Pharmacology, Laboratory of Pharmacology and Brain Biostructure, 31-343, Kraków, 12 Smętna, Poland
| | - Agnieszka Bysiek
- Maj Institute of Pharmacology, Polish Academy of Sciences, Department of Pharmacology, 31-343, Kraków, 12 Smętna, Poland
| | - Karolina Noworyta
- Maj Institute of Pharmacology, Polish Academy of Sciences, Department of Pharmacology, 31-343, Kraków, 12 Smętna, Poland
| | - Krystyna Gołembiowska
- Maj Institute of Pharmacology, Polish Academy of Sciences, Department of Pharmacology, 31-343, Kraków, 12 Smętna, Poland.
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2
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Cameron LP, Benetatos J, Lewis V, Bonniwell EM, Jaster AM, Moliner R, Castrén E, McCorvy JD, Palner M, Aguilar-Valles A. Beyond the 5-HT 2A Receptor: Classic and Nonclassic Targets in Psychedelic Drug Action. J Neurosci 2023; 43:7472-7482. [PMID: 37940583 PMCID: PMC10634557 DOI: 10.1523/jneurosci.1384-23.2023] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/20/2023] [Revised: 08/13/2023] [Accepted: 08/18/2023] [Indexed: 11/10/2023] Open
Abstract
Serotonergic psychedelics, such as psilocybin and LSD, have garnered significant attention in recent years for their potential therapeutic effects and unique mechanisms of action. These compounds exert their primary effects through activating serotonin 5-HT2A receptors, found predominantly in cortical regions. By interacting with these receptors, serotonergic psychedelics induce alterations in perception, cognition, and emotions, leading to the characteristic psychedelic experience. One of the most crucial aspects of serotonergic psychedelics is their ability to promote neuroplasticity, the formation of new neural connections, and rewire neuronal networks. This neuroplasticity is believed to underlie their therapeutic potential for various mental health conditions, including depression, anxiety, and substance use disorders. In this mini-review, we will discuss how the 5-HT2A receptor activation is just one facet of the complex mechanisms of action of serotonergic psychedelics. They also interact with other serotonin receptor subtypes, such as 5-HT1A and 5-HT2C receptors, and with neurotrophin receptors (e.g., tropomyosin receptor kinase B). These interactions contribute to the complexity of their effects on perception, mood, and cognition. Moreover, as psychedelic research advances, there is an increasing interest in developing nonhallucinogenic derivatives of these drugs to create safer and more targeted medications for psychiatric disorders by removing the hallucinogenic properties while retaining the potential therapeutic benefits. These nonhallucinogenic derivatives would offer patients therapeutic advantages without the intense psychedelic experience, potentially reducing the risks of adverse reactions. Finally, we discuss the potential of psychedelics as substrates for post-translational modification of proteins as part of their mechanism of action.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lindsay P Cameron
- Department of Psychiatry, Stanford University, Palo Alto 94305, California
| | - Joseph Benetatos
- Department of Neurosciences, University of California-San Diego, La Jolla 92093, California
| | - Vern Lewis
- Department of Neuroscience, Carleton University, Ottawa K1S 5B6, Ontario Canada
| | - Emma M Bonniwell
- Department of Cell Biology, Neurobiology, and Anatomy, Medical College of Wisconsin, Milwaukee 53226, Wisconsin
| | - Alaina M Jaster
- Pharmacology and Toxicology, Physiology and Biophysics, Virginia Commonwealth University, Richmond 23298, Virginia
| | - Rafael Moliner
- Neuroscience Center, HiLIFE and Department of Pharmacology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Helsinki, Helsinki 00014, Finland
| | - Eero Castrén
- Neuroscience Center, HiLIFE and Department of Pharmacology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Helsinki, Helsinki 00014, Finland
| | - John D McCorvy
- Department of Cell Biology, Neurobiology, and Anatomy, Medical College of Wisconsin, Milwaukee 53226, Wisconsin
| | - Mikael Palner
- Clinical Physiology and Nuclear Medicine, Department Clinical Research, University of Southern Denmark, Odense DK-2100, Denmark
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3
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Lewis V, Bonniwell EM, Lanham JK, Ghaffari A, Sheshbaradaran H, Cao AB, Calkins MM, Bautista-Carro MA, Arsenault E, Telfer A, Taghavi-Abkuh FF, Malcolm NJ, El Sayegh F, Abizaid A, Schmid Y, Morton K, Halberstadt AL, Aguilar-Valles A, McCorvy JD. A non-hallucinogenic LSD analog with therapeutic potential for mood disorders. Cell Rep 2023; 42:112203. [PMID: 36884348 PMCID: PMC10112881 DOI: 10.1016/j.celrep.2023.112203] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 19.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/31/2022] [Revised: 12/30/2022] [Accepted: 02/16/2023] [Indexed: 03/08/2023] Open
Abstract
Hallucinations limit widespread therapeutic use of psychedelics as rapidly acting antidepressants. Here we profiled the non-hallucinogenic lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD) analog 2-bromo-LSD (2-Br-LSD) at more than 33 aminergic G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs). 2-Br-LSD shows partial agonism at several aminergic GPCRs, including 5-HT2A, and does not induce the head-twitch response (HTR) in mice, supporting its classification as a non-hallucinogenic 5-HT2A partial agonist. Unlike LSD, 2-Br-LSD lacks 5-HT2B agonism, an effect linked to cardiac valvulopathy. Additionally, 2-Br-LSD produces weak 5-HT2A β-arrestin recruitment and internalization in vitro and does not induce tolerance in vivo after repeated administration. 2-Br-LSD induces dendritogenesis and spinogenesis in cultured rat cortical neurons and increases active coping behavior in mice, an effect blocked by the 5-HT2A-selective antagonist volinanserin (M100907). 2-Br-LSD also reverses the behavioral effects of chronic stress. Overall, 2-Br-LSD has an improved pharmacological profile compared with LSD and may have profound therapeutic value for mood disorders and other indications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vern Lewis
- Department of Neuroscience, Carleton University, Ottawa, ON K1S 5B6, Canada
| | - Emma M Bonniwell
- Department of Cell Biology, Neurobiology and Anatomy, Medical College of Wisconsin, Milwaukee, WI 53226, USA
| | - Janelle K Lanham
- Department of Cell Biology, Neurobiology and Anatomy, Medical College of Wisconsin, Milwaukee, WI 53226, USA
| | - Abdi Ghaffari
- BetterLife Pharma Inc., Vancouver, BC V6H 1A6, Canada
| | | | - Andrew B Cao
- Department of Cell Biology, Neurobiology and Anatomy, Medical College of Wisconsin, Milwaukee, WI 53226, USA
| | - Maggie M Calkins
- Department of Cell Biology, Neurobiology and Anatomy, Medical College of Wisconsin, Milwaukee, WI 53226, USA
| | | | - Emily Arsenault
- Department of Neuroscience, Carleton University, Ottawa, ON K1S 5B6, Canada
| | - Andre Telfer
- Department of Neuroscience, Carleton University, Ottawa, ON K1S 5B6, Canada
| | | | - Nicholas J Malcolm
- Department of Cell Biology, Neurobiology and Anatomy, Medical College of Wisconsin, Milwaukee, WI 53226, USA
| | - Fatema El Sayegh
- Department of Neuroscience, Carleton University, Ottawa, ON K1S 5B6, Canada
| | - Alfonso Abizaid
- Department of Neuroscience, Carleton University, Ottawa, ON K1S 5B6, Canada
| | - Yasmin Schmid
- Department of Psychiatry, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, CA 92093, USA
| | - Kathleen Morton
- Department of Psychiatry, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, CA 92093, USA
| | - Adam L Halberstadt
- Department of Psychiatry, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, CA 92093, USA.
| | | | - John D McCorvy
- Department of Cell Biology, Neurobiology and Anatomy, Medical College of Wisconsin, Milwaukee, WI 53226, USA.
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4
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Heal DJ, Gosden J, Smith SL, Atterwill CK. Experimental strategies to discover and develop the next generation of psychedelics and entactogens as medicines. Neuropharmacology 2023; 225:109375. [PMID: 36529260 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuropharm.2022.109375] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/10/2022] [Revised: 11/18/2022] [Accepted: 12/08/2022] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
Abstract
Research on classical psychedelics (psilocybin, LSD and DMT) and entactogen, MDMA, has produced a renaissance in the search for more effective drugs to treat psychiatric, neurological and various peripheral disorders. Psychedelics and entactogens act though interaction with 5-HT2A and other serotonergic receptors and/or monoamine reuptake transporters. 5-HT, which serves as a neurotransmitter and hormone, is ubiquitously distributed in the brain and peripheral organs, tissues and cells where it has vasoconstrictor, pro-inflammatory and pro-nociceptive actions. Serotonergic psychedelics and entactogens have known safety and toxicity risks. For these drugs, the risks been extensively researched and empirically assessed through human experience. However, novel drug-candidates require thorough non-clinical testing not only to predict clinical efficacy, but also to address the risks they pose during clinical development and later after approval as prescription medicines. We have defined the challenges researchers will encounter when developing novel serotonergic psychedelics and entactogens. We describe screening techniques to predict clinical efficacy and address the safety/toxicity risks emerging from our knowledge of the existing drugs: 1) An early-stage, non-clinical screening cascade to pharmacologically characterise novel drug-candidates. 2) Models to detect hallucinogenic activity. 3) Models to differentiate hallucinogens from entactogens. 4) Non-clinical preclinical lead optimisation technology (PLOT) screening to select drug-candidates. 5) Modified animal models to evaluate the abuse and dependence risks of novel psychedelics in Safety Pharmacology testing. Our intention has been to design non-clinical screening strategies that will reset the balance between benefits and harms to deliver more effective and safer novel psychedelics for clinical use. This article is part of the Special Issue on 'National Institutes of Health Psilocybin Research Speaker Series'.
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Affiliation(s)
- D J Heal
- DevelRx Ltd, BioCity, Nottingham, NG1 1GF, UK; Department of Life Sciences, University of Bath, Bath, BA2 7AY, UK.
| | - J Gosden
- DevelRx Ltd, BioCity, Nottingham, NG1 1GF, UK.
| | - S L Smith
- DevelRx Ltd, BioCity, Nottingham, NG1 1GF, UK.
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5
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Urban MM, Stingl MR, Meinhardt MW. Mini-review: The neurobiology of treating substance use disorders with classical psychedelics. Front Neurosci 2023; 17:1156319. [PMID: 37139521 PMCID: PMC10149865 DOI: 10.3389/fnins.2023.1156319] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/01/2023] [Accepted: 03/23/2023] [Indexed: 05/05/2023] Open
Abstract
The potential of psychedelics to persistently treat substance use disorders is known since the 1960s. However, the biological mechanisms responsible for their therapeutic effects have not yet been fully elucidated. While it is known that serotonergic hallucinogens induce changes in gene expression and neuroplasticity, particularly in prefrontal regions, theories on how specifically this counteracts the alterations that occur in neuronal circuitry throughout the course of addiction are largely unknown. This narrative mini-review endeavors to synthesize well-established knowledge from addiction research with findings and theories regarding the neurobiological effects of psychedelics to give an overview of the potential mechanisms that underlie the treatment of substance use disorders with classical hallucinogenic compounds and point out gaps in the current understanding.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marvin M. Urban
- Interdisciplinary Center for Neurosciences, University of Heidelberg, Heidelberg, Germany
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Biology, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA, United States
- *Correspondence: Marvin M. Urban,
| | - Moritz R. Stingl
- Interdisciplinary Center for Neurosciences, University of Heidelberg, Heidelberg, Germany
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Biology, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA, United States
| | - Marcus W. Meinhardt
- Institute of Psychopharmacology, Central Institute of Mental Health, Medical Faculty Mannheim, University of Heidelberg, Mannheim, Germany
- Department of Molecular Neuroimaging, Central Institute of Mental Health, Medical Faculty Mannheim, University of Heidelberg, Mannheim, Germany
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6
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de la Fuente Revenga M, Jaster AM, McGinn J, Silva G, Saha S, González-Maeso J. Tolerance and Cross-Tolerance among Psychedelic and Nonpsychedelic 5-HT 2A Receptor Agonists in Mice. ACS Chem Neurosci 2022; 13:2436-2448. [PMID: 35900876 PMCID: PMC10411500 DOI: 10.1021/acschemneuro.2c00170] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Classical psychedelics represent a subgroup of serotonergic psychoactive substances characterized by their distinct subjective effects on the human psyche. Another unique attribute of this drug class is that such effects become less apparent after repeated exposure within a short time span. The classification of psychedelics as a subgroup within the serotonergic drug family and the tolerance to their effects are replicated by the murine head twitch response (HTR) behavioral paradigm. Here, we aimed to assess tolerance and cross-tolerance to HTR elicited by psychedelic and nonpsychedelic serotonin 2A receptor (5-HT2AR) agonists in mice. We show that repeated (4 days) administration of the psychedelic 1-(2,5-dimethoxy-4-iodophenyl)-2-aminopropane (DOI) induced a progressive decrease in HTR behavior. Tolerance to DOI-induced HTR was also observed 24 h after a single administration of this psychedelic. Pretreatment with the 5-HT2AR antagonist M100907 reduced not only the acute manifestation of DOI-induced HTR, but also the development of tolerance to HTR. Additionally, cross-tolerance became apparent between the psychedelics DOI and lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD), whereas repeated administration of the nonpsychedelic 5-HT2AR agonist lisuride did not affect the ability of these two psychedelics to induce HTR. At the molecular level, DOI administration led to down-regulation of 5-HT2AR density in mouse frontal cortex membrane preparations. However, development of tolerance to the effect of DOI on HTR remained unchanged in β-arrestin-2 knockout mice. Together, these data suggest that tolerance to HTR induced by psychedelics involves activation of the 5-HT2AR, is not observable upon repeated administration of nonpsychedelic 5-HT2AR agonists, and occurs via a signaling mechanism independent of β-arrestin-2.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mario de la Fuente Revenga
- Department of Physiology & Biophysics, Virginia Commonwealth University School of Medicine, Richmond, Virginia 23298, United States
- Virginia Institute of Psychiatric and Behavioral Genetics, Virginia Commonwealth University, Richmond, Virginia 23298, United States
| | - Alaina M Jaster
- Department of Physiology & Biophysics, Virginia Commonwealth University School of Medicine, Richmond, Virginia 23298, United States
- Department of Pharmacology & Toxicology, Virginia Commonwealth University School of Medicine, Richmond, Virginia 23298, United States
| | - John McGinn
- Department of Physiology & Biophysics, Virginia Commonwealth University School of Medicine, Richmond, Virginia 23298, United States
| | - Gabriella Silva
- Department of Physiology & Biophysics, Virginia Commonwealth University School of Medicine, Richmond, Virginia 23298, United States
| | - Somdatta Saha
- Department of Physiology & Biophysics, Virginia Commonwealth University School of Medicine, Richmond, Virginia 23298, United States
| | - Javier González-Maeso
- Department of Physiology & Biophysics, Virginia Commonwealth University School of Medicine, Richmond, Virginia 23298, United States
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7
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Smausz R, Neill J, Gigg J. Neural mechanisms underlying psilocybin's therapeutic potential - the need for preclinical in vivo electrophysiology. J Psychopharmacol 2022; 36:781-793. [PMID: 35638159 PMCID: PMC9247433 DOI: 10.1177/02698811221092508] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
Psilocybin is a naturally occurring psychedelic compound with profound perception-, emotion- and cognition-altering properties and great potential for treating brain disorders. However, the neural mechanisms mediating its effects require in-depth investigation as there is still much to learn about how psychedelic drugs produce their profound and long-lasting effects. In this review, we outline the current understanding of the neurophysiology of psilocybin's psychoactive properties, highlighting the need for additional preclinical studies to determine its effect on neural network dynamics. We first describe how psilocybin's effect on brain regions associated with the default-mode network (DMN), particularly the prefrontal cortex and hippocampus, likely plays a key role in mediating its consciousness-altering properties. We then outline the specific receptor and cell types involved and discuss contradictory evidence from neuroimaging studies regarding psilocybin's net effect on activity within these regions. We go on to argue that in vivo electrophysiology is ideally suited to provide a more holistic, neural network analysis approach to understand psilocybin's mode of action. Thus, we integrate information about the neural bases for oscillatory activity generation with the accumulating evidence about psychedelic drug effects on neural synchrony within DMN-associated areas. This approach will help to generate important questions for future preclinical and clinical studies. Answers to these questions are vital for determining the neural mechanisms mediating psilocybin's psychotherapeutic potential, which promises to improve outcomes for patients with severe depression and other difficulty to treat conditions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rebecca Smausz
- Division of Neuroscience and
Experimental Psychology, Faculty of Biology, Medicine and Health, The
University of Manchester, Manchester, UK
| | - Joanna Neill
- Division of Pharmacy and
Optometry, Faculty of Biology, Medicine and Health, The University of
Manchester, Manchester, UK,Medical Psychedelics Working
Group, Drug Science, UK
| | - John Gigg
- Division of Neuroscience and
Experimental Psychology, Faculty of Biology, Medicine and Health, The
University of Manchester, Manchester, UK,John Gigg, Division of Neuroscience
and Experimental Psychology, Faculty of Biology, Medicine and Health,
The University of Manchester, Manchester, M13 9PT, UK.
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8
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Assessing the risk-benefit profile of classical psychedelics: a clinical review of second-wave psychedelic research. Psychopharmacology (Berl) 2022; 239:1907-1932. [PMID: 35022823 DOI: 10.1007/s00213-021-06049-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/11/2021] [Accepted: 12/20/2021] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
RATIONALE A broad reassessment of the potential benefits of psychedelic drugs has led to the initiation of multiple major clinical trials in an effort to advance their status to become FDA-approved medications, as well as local legislative efforts to legalize or decriminalize their use. OBJECTIVES To use recently published data to assess potential risks and benefits of psychedelic drugs as therapeutics, as well as to synthesize what is currently known in order to generate fruitful future research directions. METHODS A review of studies conducted since 1991 identified 14 clinical trials of classical psychedelics, including 11 of psilocybin (N = 257 participants), 1 of lysergic acid diethylamide (N = 12 participants), and 2 of ayahuasca (N = 46 participants). Other published studies (e.g., of healthy volunteers, survey studies, case reports, neuroimaging) were also considered for review. RESULTS Published studies since 1991 largely support the hypothesis that small numbers of treatments with psychedelic-assisted psychotherapy can offer significant and sustained alleviation to symptoms of multiple psychiatric conditions. No serious adverse events attributed to psychedelic therapy have been reported. Existing studies have several limitations, including small sample sizes, inherent difficulty in blinding, relatively limited follow-up, and highly screened treatment populations. CONCLUSIONS Substantial data have been gathered in the past 30 years suggesting that psychedelics are a potent treatment for a variety of common psychiatric conditions, though the ideal means of employing these substances to minimize adverse events and maximize therapeutic effects remains controversial. Unique factors related to study design are vital for clinical researchers in the field to address.
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9
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Svensson CK. Attenuation of Response to Repeated Drug Administration: A Proposal for Differentiating Tachyphylaxis and Tolerance. J Pharmacol Exp Ther 2022; 381:22-32. [PMID: 35042786 DOI: 10.1124/jpet.121.000978] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/18/2021] [Accepted: 01/06/2022] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Attenuation of drug response with repeated administration is referred to as tachyphylaxis or tolerance, though the distinction between these two is obscured through both their usage in the literature and imprecise definitions in common pharmacology texts. In this perspective, I propose that these terms be distinguished by the mechanisms underlying the attenuation of drug response. Specifically, tachyphylaxis should be reserved for attenuation that occurs in response to cellular depletion, while tolerance be used to describe those that arise from cellular adaptations. A framework for understanding behavioral tolerance, physiological tolerance, and dispositional tolerance as distinct phenomena is also discussed. Using this framework, a classification of drugs exhibiting attenuation of drug response with repeated administration is presented. Significance Statement Distinction between tachyphylaxis and tolerance is unclear in the literature. Nonetheless, a mechanistic basis for distinguishing these important terms has practical implications for managing or preventing attenuation of drug response with repeated administration.
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10
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Herian M, Skawski M, Wojtas A, Sobocińska MK, Noworyta K, Gołembiowska K. Tolerance to neurochemical and behavioral effects of the hallucinogen 25I-NBOMe. Psychopharmacology (Berl) 2021; 238:2349-2364. [PMID: 34032876 PMCID: PMC8292280 DOI: 10.1007/s00213-021-05860-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/02/2020] [Accepted: 04/22/2021] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
Abstract
RATIONALE 4-Iodo-2,5-dimethoxy-N-(2-methoxybenzyl)phenethylamine (25I-NBOMe) is a potent serotonin 5-HT2A/2C receptor agonist with hallucinogenic activity. There is no data on the 25I-NBOMe effect on brain neurotransmission and animal performance after chronic administration. OBJECTIVES We examined the effect of a 7-day treatment with 25I-NBOMe (0.3 mg/kg/day) on neurotransmitters' release and rats' behavior in comparison to acute dose. METHODS Changes in dopamine (DA), serotonin (5-HT), acetylcholine (ACh), and glutamate release were studied using microdialysis in freely moving rats. The hallucinogenic activity was measured in the wet dog shake (WDS) test. The animal locomotion was examined in the open field (OF) test, short-term memory in the novel object recognition (NOR) test. The anxiogenic/anxiolytic properties of the drug were tested using the light/dark box (LDB) test. RESULTS Repeated administration of 25I-NBOMe decreased the response to a challenge dose of DA, 5-HT, and glutamatergic neurons in the frontal cortex as well as weakened the hallucinogenic activity in comparison to acute dose. In contrast, striatal and accumbal DA and 5-HT release and accumbal but not striatal glutamate release in response to the challenge dose of 25I-NBOMe was increased in comparison to acute treatment. The ACh release was increased in all brain regions. Behavioral tests showed a motor activity reduction and memory deficiency in comparison to a single dose and induction of anxiety after the drug's chronic and acute administration. CONCLUSIONS Our findings suggest that multiple injections of 25I-NBOMe induce tolerance to hallucinogenic activity and produce alterations in neurotransmission. 25I-NBOMe effect on short-term memory, locomotor function, and anxiety seems to be the result of complex interactions between neurotransmitter pathways.
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Affiliation(s)
- Monika Herian
- Department of Pharmacology, Polish Academy of Sciences, Maj Institute of Pharmacology, 12 Smętna, 31-343, Kraków, Poland
| | - Mateusz Skawski
- Department of Pharmacology, Polish Academy of Sciences, Maj Institute of Pharmacology, 12 Smętna, 31-343, Kraków, Poland
| | - Adam Wojtas
- Department of Pharmacology, Polish Academy of Sciences, Maj Institute of Pharmacology, 12 Smętna, 31-343, Kraków, Poland
| | - Małgorzata K Sobocińska
- Department of Pharmacology, Polish Academy of Sciences, Maj Institute of Pharmacology, 12 Smętna, 31-343, Kraków, Poland
| | - Karolina Noworyta
- Department of Pharmacology, Polish Academy of Sciences, Maj Institute of Pharmacology, 12 Smętna, 31-343, Kraków, Poland
| | - Krystyna Gołembiowska
- Department of Pharmacology, Polish Academy of Sciences, Maj Institute of Pharmacology, 12 Smętna, 31-343, Kraków, Poland.
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11
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Dos Santos RG, Hallak JE, Baker G, Dursun S. Hallucinogenic/psychedelic 5HT2A receptor agonists as rapid antidepressant therapeutics: Evidence and mechanisms of action. J Psychopharmacol 2021; 35:453-458. [PMID: 33740877 DOI: 10.1177/0269881120986422] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
Abstract
Major depressive disorder (MDD) is among the most prevalent mental health disorders worldwide, and it is associated with a reduced quality of life and enormous costs to health care systems. Available drug treatments show low-to-moderate response in most patients, with almost a third of patients being non-responders (treatment-resistant). Furthermore, most currently available medications need several weeks to achieve therapeutic effects, and the long-term use of these drugs is often associated with significant unwanted side effects and resultant reductions in treatment compliance. Therefore, more effective, safer, and faster-acting antidepressants with enduring effects are needed. Together with ketamine, psychedelics (or classic or serotoninergic hallucinogens) such as lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD), psilocybin, and ayahuasca are among the few compounds with recent human evidence of fast-acting antidepressant effects. Several studies in the 1950s to 1970s reported antidepressive and anxiolytic effects of these drugs, which are being confirmed by modern trials (LSD, one trial; psilocybin, five trials; ayahuasca, two trials). The effects of these drugs appear to be produced primarily by their agonism at serotonin (5-hydroxytryptamine, 5-HT) receptors, especially the 5-HT2A receptor. Considering the overall burden of MDD and the necessity of new therapeutic options, the promising (but currently limited) evidence of safety and efficacy of psychedelics has encouraged the scientific community to explore more fully their beneficial effects in MDD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rafael Guimarães Dos Santos
- Department of Neurosciences and Behavior, Ribeirão Preto Medical School, University of São Paulo, SP, Brazil.,National Institute for Translational Medicine (INCT-TM), CNPq, Brazil
| | - Jaime Ec Hallak
- Department of Neurosciences and Behavior, Ribeirão Preto Medical School, University of São Paulo, SP, Brazil.,National Institute for Translational Medicine (INCT-TM), CNPq, Brazil.,Department of Psychiatry (Neurochemical Research Unit) and Neuroscience and Mental Health Institute, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Canada
| | - Glen Baker
- National Institute for Translational Medicine (INCT-TM), CNPq, Brazil.,Department of Psychiatry (Neurochemical Research Unit) and Neuroscience and Mental Health Institute, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Canada
| | - Serdar Dursun
- National Institute for Translational Medicine (INCT-TM), CNPq, Brazil.,Department of Psychiatry (Neurochemical Research Unit) and Neuroscience and Mental Health Institute, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Canada
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12
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De Gregorio D, Popic J, Enns JP, Inserra A, Skalecka A, Markopoulos A, Posa L, Lopez-Canul M, Qianzi H, Lafferty CK, Britt JP, Comai S, Aguilar-Valles A, Sonenberg N, Gobbi G. Lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD) promotes social behavior through mTORC1 in the excitatory neurotransmission. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2021; 118:e2020705118. [PMID: 33495318 PMCID: PMC7865169 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.2020705118] [Citation(s) in RCA: 51] [Impact Index Per Article: 17.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Clinical studies have reported that the psychedelic lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD) enhances empathy and social behavior (SB) in humans, but its mechanism of action remains elusive. Using a multidisciplinary approach including in vivo electrophysiology, optogenetics, behavioral paradigms, and molecular biology, the effects of LSD on SB and glutamatergic neurotransmission in the medial prefrontal cortex (mPFC) were studied in male mice. Acute LSD (30 μg/kg) injection failed to increase SB. However, repeated LSD (30 μg/kg, once a day, for 7 days) administration promotes SB, without eliciting antidepressant/anxiolytic-like effects. Optogenetic inhibition of mPFC excitatory neurons dramatically inhibits social interaction and nullifies the prosocial effect of LSD. LSD potentiates the α-amino-3-hydroxy-5-methyl-4-isoxazole propionate (AMPA) and 5-HT2A, but not N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA) and 5-HT1A, synaptic responses in the mPFC and increases the phosphorylation of the serine-threonine protein kinases Akt and mTOR. In conditional knockout mice lacking Raptor (one of the structural components of the mTORC1 complex) in excitatory glutamatergic neurons (Raptorf/f:Camk2alpha-Cre), the prosocial effects of LSD and the potentiation of 5-HT2A/AMPA synaptic responses were nullified, demonstrating that LSD requires the integrity of mTORC1 in excitatory neurons to promote SB. Conversely, in knockout mice lacking Raptor in GABAergic neurons of the mPFC (Raptorf/f:Gad2-Cre), LSD promotes SB. These results indicate that LSD selectively enhances SB by potentiating mPFC excitatory transmission through 5-HT2A/AMPA receptors and mTOR signaling. The activation of 5-HT2A/AMPA/mTORC1 in the mPFC by psychedelic drugs should be explored for the treatment of mental diseases with SB impairments such as autism spectrum disorder and social anxiety disorder.
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Affiliation(s)
- Danilo De Gregorio
- Neurobiological Psychiatry Unit, Department of Psychiatry, McGill University, Montreal, QC, Canada, H3A 1A1;
- Department of Biochemistry, McGill University, Montreal, QC, Canada, H3A 1A3
| | - Jelena Popic
- Department of Biochemistry, McGill University, Montreal, QC, Canada, H3A 1A3
| | - Justine P Enns
- Neurobiological Psychiatry Unit, Department of Psychiatry, McGill University, Montreal, QC, Canada, H3A 1A1
| | - Antonio Inserra
- Neurobiological Psychiatry Unit, Department of Psychiatry, McGill University, Montreal, QC, Canada, H3A 1A1
| | - Agnieszka Skalecka
- Department of Biochemistry, McGill University, Montreal, QC, Canada, H3A 1A3
| | - Athanasios Markopoulos
- Neurobiological Psychiatry Unit, Department of Psychiatry, McGill University, Montreal, QC, Canada, H3A 1A1
| | - Luca Posa
- Neurobiological Psychiatry Unit, Department of Psychiatry, McGill University, Montreal, QC, Canada, H3A 1A1
| | - Martha Lopez-Canul
- Neurobiological Psychiatry Unit, Department of Psychiatry, McGill University, Montreal, QC, Canada, H3A 1A1
| | - He Qianzi
- Neurobiological Psychiatry Unit, Department of Psychiatry, McGill University, Montreal, QC, Canada, H3A 1A1
| | | | - Jonathan P Britt
- Department of Psychology, McGill University, Montreal, QC, Canada, H3A 1B1
| | - Stefano Comai
- Neurobiological Psychiatry Unit, Department of Psychiatry, McGill University, Montreal, QC, Canada, H3A 1A1
- Division of Neuroscience, Vita Salute San Raffaele University, 20132 Milan, Italy
| | | | - Nahum Sonenberg
- Department of Biochemistry, McGill University, Montreal, QC, Canada, H3A 1A3;
| | - Gabriella Gobbi
- Neurobiological Psychiatry Unit, Department of Psychiatry, McGill University, Montreal, QC, Canada, H3A 1A1;
- Department of Neuroscience, Carleton University, Ottawa, ON, Canada, K1S 5B6
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13
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Eleftheriou ME, Thomas E. Examining the Potential Synergistic Effects Between Mindfulness Training and Psychedelic-Assisted Therapy. Front Psychiatry 2021; 12:707057. [PMID: 34456763 PMCID: PMC8386240 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyt.2021.707057] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/08/2021] [Accepted: 07/12/2021] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Mindfulness-based interventions and psychedelic-assisted therapy have been experimentally utilised in recent years as alternative treatments for various psychopathologies with moderate to great success. Both have also demonstrated significant post-acute and long-term decreases in clinical symptoms and enhancements in well-being in healthy participants. These two therapeutic interventions share various postulated salutogenic mechanisms, such as the ability to alter present-moment awareness and anti-depressive action, via corresponding neuromodulatory effects. Recent preliminary evidence has also demonstrated that psychedelic administration can enhance mindfulness capacities which has already been demonstrated robustly as a result of mindfulness-based interventions. These shared mechanisms between mindfulness-based interventions and psychedelic therapy have led to scientists theorising, and recently demonstrating, synergistic effects when both are used in combination, in the form of potentiated therapeutic benefit. These synergistic results hold great promise but require replication in bigger sample groups and better controlled methodologies, to fully delineate the effect of set and setting, before they can be extended onto clinical populations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maria Eleni Eleftheriou
- Department of Clinical Psychopharmacology, University College London, London, United Kingdom
| | - Emily Thomas
- Department of Clinical Psychopharmacology, University College London, London, United Kingdom
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14
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Inserra A, De Gregorio D, Gobbi G. Psychedelics in Psychiatry: Neuroplastic, Immunomodulatory, and Neurotransmitter Mechanisms. Pharmacol Rev 2020; 73:202-277. [PMID: 33328244 DOI: 10.1124/pharmrev.120.000056] [Citation(s) in RCA: 90] [Impact Index Per Article: 22.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Mounting evidence suggests safety and efficacy of psychedelic compounds as potential novel therapeutics in psychiatry. Ketamine has been approved by the Food and Drug Administration in a new class of antidepressants, and 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA) is undergoing phase III clinical trials for post-traumatic stress disorder. Psilocybin and lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD) are being investigated in several phase II and phase I clinical trials. Hence, the concept of psychedelics as therapeutics may be incorporated into modern society. Here, we discuss the main known neurobiological therapeutic mechanisms of psychedelics, which are thought to be mediated by the effects of these compounds on the serotonergic (via 5-HT2A and 5-HT1A receptors) and glutamatergic [via N-methyl-d-aspartate (NMDA) and α-amino-3-hydroxy-5-methyl-4-isoxazolepropionic acid (AMPA) receptors] systems. We focus on 1) neuroplasticity mediated by the modulation of mammalian target of rapamycin-, brain-derived neurotrophic factor-, and early growth response-related pathways; 2) immunomodulation via effects on the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis, nuclear factor ĸB, and cytokines such as tumor necrosis factor-α and interleukin 1, 6, and 10 production and release; and 3) modulation of serotonergic, dopaminergic, glutamatergic, GABAergic, and norepinephrinergic receptors, transporters, and turnover systems. We discuss arising concerns and ways to assess potential neurobiological changes, dependence, and immunosuppression. Although larger cohorts are required to corroborate preliminary findings, the results obtained so far are promising and represent a critical opportunity for improvement of pharmacotherapies in psychiatry, an area that has seen limited therapeutic advancement in the last 20 years. Studies are underway that are trying to decouple the psychedelic effects from the therapeutic effects of these compounds. SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT: Psychedelic compounds are emerging as potential novel therapeutics in psychiatry. However, understanding of molecular mechanisms mediating improvement remains limited. This paper reviews the available evidence concerning the effects of psychedelic compounds on pathways that modulate neuroplasticity, immunity, and neurotransmitter systems. This work aims to be a reference for psychiatrists who may soon be faced with the possibility of prescribing psychedelic compounds as medications, helping them assess which compound(s) and regimen could be most useful for decreasing specific psychiatric symptoms.
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Affiliation(s)
- Antonio Inserra
- Neurobiological Psychiatry Unit, Department of Psychiatry, McGill University, Montreal, Quebec, Canada
| | - Danilo De Gregorio
- Neurobiological Psychiatry Unit, Department of Psychiatry, McGill University, Montreal, Quebec, Canada
| | - Gabriella Gobbi
- Neurobiological Psychiatry Unit, Department of Psychiatry, McGill University, Montreal, Quebec, Canada
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15
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Gill H, Gill B, Chen-Li D, El-Halabi S, Rodrigues NB, Cha DS, Lipsitz O, Lee Y, Rosenblat JD, Majeed A, Mansur RB, Nasri F, Ho R, McIntyre RS. The emerging role of psilocybin and MDMA in the treatment of mental illness. Expert Rev Neurother 2020; 20:1263-1273. [DOI: 10.1080/14737175.2020.1826931] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/26/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Hartej Gill
- Mood Disorders Psychopharmacology Unit, University Health Network, Toronto, ON, Canada
- Institute of Medical Science, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON, Canada
| | - Barjot Gill
- Mood Disorders Psychopharmacology Unit, University Health Network, Toronto, ON, Canada
| | - David Chen-Li
- Mood Disorders Psychopharmacology Unit, University Health Network, Toronto, ON, Canada
| | - Sabine El-Halabi
- Mood Disorders Psychopharmacology Unit, University Health Network, Toronto, ON, Canada
| | - Nelson B. Rodrigues
- Mood Disorders Psychopharmacology Unit, University Health Network, Toronto, ON, Canada
| | - Danielle S. Cha
- Mood Disorders Psychopharmacology Unit, University Health Network, Toronto, ON, Canada
- School of Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, University of Queensland, Brisbane, Australia
| | - Orly Lipsitz
- Mood Disorders Psychopharmacology Unit, University Health Network, Toronto, ON, Canada
| | - Yena Lee
- Mood Disorders Psychopharmacology Unit, University Health Network, Toronto, ON, Canada
- Institute of Medical Science, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON, Canada
| | - Joshua Daniel Rosenblat
- Mood Disorders Psychopharmacology Unit, University Health Network, Toronto, ON, Canada
- Department of Psychiatry, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON, Canada
- Brain and Cognition Discovery Foundation, Toronto, ON, Canada
| | - Amna Majeed
- Mood Disorders Psychopharmacology Unit, University Health Network, Toronto, ON, Canada
| | - Rodrigo B. Mansur
- Mood Disorders Psychopharmacology Unit, University Health Network, Toronto, ON, Canada
- Department of Psychiatry, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON, Canada
| | - Flora Nasri
- Mood Disorders Psychopharmacology Unit, University Health Network, Toronto, ON, Canada
| | - Roger Ho
- Department of Psychological Medicine, Yong Loo Lin School of Medicine, National University of Singapore, Singapore
- Institute for Health Innovation and Technology (iHealthtech), National University of Singapore, Singapore
| | - Roger S. McIntyre
- Mood Disorders Psychopharmacology Unit, University Health Network, Toronto, ON, Canada
- Institute of Medical Science, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON, Canada
- Department of Psychiatry, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON, Canada
- Brain and Cognition Discovery Foundation, Toronto, ON, Canada
- Department of Pharmacology, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON, Canada
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16
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Müller TE, Fontana BD, Bertoncello KT, Franscescon F, Mezzomo NJ, Canzian J, Stefanello FV, Parker MO, Gerlai R, Rosemberg DB. Understanding the neurobiological effects of drug abuse: Lessons from zebrafish models. Prog Neuropsychopharmacol Biol Psychiatry 2020; 100:109873. [PMID: 31981718 DOI: 10.1016/j.pnpbp.2020.109873] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/09/2019] [Revised: 01/20/2020] [Accepted: 01/21/2020] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
Abstract
Drug abuse and brain disorders related to drug comsumption are public health problems with harmful individual and social consequences. The identification of therapeutic targets and precise pharmacological treatments to these neuropsychiatric conditions associated with drug abuse are urgently needed. Understanding the link between neurobiological mechanisms and behavior is a key aspect of elucidating drug abuse-related targets. Due to various molecular, biochemical, pharmacological, and physiological features, the zebrafish (Danio rerio) has been considered a suitable vertebrate for modeling complex processes involved in drug abuse responses. In this review, we discuss how the zebrafish has been successfully used for modeling neurobehavioral phenotypes related to drug abuse and review the effects of opioids, cannabinoids, alcohol, nicotine, and psychedelic drugs on the central nervous system (CNS). Moreover, we summarize recent advances in zebrafish-based studies and outline potential advantages and limitations of the existing zebrafish models to explore the neurochemical bases of drug abuse and addiction. Finally, we discuss how the use of zebrafish models may present fruitful approaches to provide valuable clinically translatable data.
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Affiliation(s)
- Talise E Müller
- Laboratory of Experimental Neuropsychobiology, Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Center of Natural and Exact Sciences, Federal University of Santa Maria, 1000 Roraima Avenue, Santa Maria, RS 97105-900, Brazil; Graduate Program in Biological Sciences: Toxicological Biochemistry, Federal University of Santa Maria, 1000 Roraima Avenue, Santa Maria, RS 97105-900, Brazil.
| | - Barbara D Fontana
- Brain and Behaviour Laboratory, School of Pharmacy and Biomedical Sciences, University of Portsmouth, Old St Michael's Building, Portsmouth PO1 2DT, UK
| | - Kanandra T Bertoncello
- Laboratory of Experimental Neuropsychobiology, Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Center of Natural and Exact Sciences, Federal University of Santa Maria, 1000 Roraima Avenue, Santa Maria, RS 97105-900, Brazil; Graduate Program in Biological Sciences: Toxicological Biochemistry, Federal University of Santa Maria, 1000 Roraima Avenue, Santa Maria, RS 97105-900, Brazil
| | - Francini Franscescon
- Laboratory of Experimental Neuropsychobiology, Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Center of Natural and Exact Sciences, Federal University of Santa Maria, 1000 Roraima Avenue, Santa Maria, RS 97105-900, Brazil; Graduate Program in Biological Sciences: Toxicological Biochemistry, Federal University of Santa Maria, 1000 Roraima Avenue, Santa Maria, RS 97105-900, Brazil
| | - Nathana J Mezzomo
- Laboratory of Experimental Neuropsychobiology, Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Center of Natural and Exact Sciences, Federal University of Santa Maria, 1000 Roraima Avenue, Santa Maria, RS 97105-900, Brazil; Graduate Program in Pharmacology, Federal University of Santa Maria, 1000 Roraima Avenue, Santa Maria, RS 97105-900, Brazil
| | - Julia Canzian
- Laboratory of Experimental Neuropsychobiology, Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Center of Natural and Exact Sciences, Federal University of Santa Maria, 1000 Roraima Avenue, Santa Maria, RS 97105-900, Brazil; Graduate Program in Biological Sciences: Toxicological Biochemistry, Federal University of Santa Maria, 1000 Roraima Avenue, Santa Maria, RS 97105-900, Brazil
| | - Flavia V Stefanello
- Laboratory of Experimental Neuropsychobiology, Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Center of Natural and Exact Sciences, Federal University of Santa Maria, 1000 Roraima Avenue, Santa Maria, RS 97105-900, Brazil; Graduate Program in Biological Sciences: Toxicological Biochemistry, Federal University of Santa Maria, 1000 Roraima Avenue, Santa Maria, RS 97105-900, Brazil
| | - Matthew O Parker
- Brain and Behaviour Laboratory, School of Pharmacy and Biomedical Sciences, University of Portsmouth, Old St Michael's Building, Portsmouth PO1 2DT, UK
| | - Robert Gerlai
- Department of Psychology, University of Toronto, Mississauga, Canada; Department of Cell and Systems Biology, University of Toronto, Canada
| | - Denis B Rosemberg
- Laboratory of Experimental Neuropsychobiology, Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Center of Natural and Exact Sciences, Federal University of Santa Maria, 1000 Roraima Avenue, Santa Maria, RS 97105-900, Brazil; Graduate Program in Biological Sciences: Toxicological Biochemistry, Federal University of Santa Maria, 1000 Roraima Avenue, Santa Maria, RS 97105-900, Brazil; The International Zebrafish Neuroscience Research Consortium (ZNRC), 309 Palmer Court, Slidell, LA 70458, USA.
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17
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Ho JT, Preller KH, Lenggenhager B. Neuropharmacological modulation of the aberrant bodily self through psychedelics. Neurosci Biobehav Rev 2020; 108:526-541. [DOI: 10.1016/j.neubiorev.2019.12.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/19/2019] [Revised: 11/18/2019] [Accepted: 12/04/2019] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
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18
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Kuypers KPC, Ng L, Erritzoe D, Knudsen GM, Nichols CD, Nichols DE, Pani L, Soula A, Nutt D. Microdosing psychedelics: More questions than answers? An overview and suggestions for future research. J Psychopharmacol 2019; 33:1039-1057. [PMID: 31303095 PMCID: PMC6732823 DOI: 10.1177/0269881119857204] [Citation(s) in RCA: 98] [Impact Index Per Article: 19.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/05/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND In the past few years, the issue of 'microdosing' psychedelics has been openly discussed in the public arena where claims have been made about their positive effect on mood state and cognitive processes such as concentration. However, there are very few scientific studies that have specifically addressed this issue, and there is no agreed scientific consensus on what microdosing is. AIM This critique paper is designed to address questions that need to be answered by future scientific studies and to offer guidelines for these studies. APPROACH Owing to its proximity for a possible approval in clinical use and short-lasting pharmacokinetics, our focus is predominantly on psilocybin. Psilocybin is allegedly, next to lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD), one of the two most frequently used psychedelics to microdose. Where relevant and available, data for other psychedelic drugs are also mentioned. CONCLUSION It is concluded that while most anecdotal reports focus on the positive experiences with microdosing, future research should also focus on potential risks of (multiple) administrations of a psychedelic in low doses. To that end, (pre)clinical studies including biological (e.g. heart rate, receptor turnover and occupancy) as well as cognitive (e.g. memory, attention) parameters have to be conducted and will shed light on the potential negative consequences microdosing could have.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kim PC Kuypers
- Department of Neuropsychology and
Psychopharmacology, Faculty of Psychology and Neuroscience, Maastricht University,
Maastricht, The Netherlands
| | - Livia Ng
- Department of Psychology, University
College London, London, UK
| | - David Erritzoe
- Department of Psychology,
Neuropsychopharmacology Unit, Imperial College London, London, UK
| | - Gitte M Knudsen
- Neurobiology Research Unit,
Rigshospitalet and University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Charles D Nichols
- Department of Pharmacology and
Experimental Therapeutics, Louisiana State University Health Sciences Center, New
Orleans, LA, USA
| | - David E Nichols
- Purdue University College of Pharmacy,
West Lafayette, LA, USA
| | - Luca Pani
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral
Sciences, Psychiatry University of Miami, Miami, FL, USA
- Department of Biomedical, Metabolic
& Neural Sciences, University of Modena, Modena, Italy
| | | | - David Nutt
- Neuropsychopharmacology, Imperial
College London, London, UK
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19
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Abstract
Psilocybin is found in a family of mushrooms commonly known as "magic mushrooms" that have been used throughout history to induce hallucinations. In the late 1950s Albert Hofmann, of Sandoz Laboratories, identified and synthesized the psychoactive compounds psilocybin and psilocin which are found in psilocybe mushrooms. Psilocybin was marketed by Sandoz as Indocybin for basic psychopharmacological and therapeutic clinical research. Psilocybin saw a rapid rise in popularity during the 1960s and was classed as a Schedule I drug in 1970. This led to a significant decrease in psilocybin research. Recently, however, preliminary studies with psilocybin have shown promise as potential for the treatment of obsessive compulsive disorder, alcohol addiction, tobacco addiction, and major depressive disorder, and the treatment of depression in terminally ill cancer patients. This review describes in detail the synthesis, metabolism, pharmacology, adverse drug reactions, and importance of psilocybin to neuroscience in the past and present.
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Affiliation(s)
- Haden A. Geiger
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Lipscomb University College of Pharmacy and Health Sciences, Nashville, Tennessee 37204, United States
| | - Madeline G. Wurst
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Lipscomb University College of Pharmacy and Health Sciences, Nashville, Tennessee 37204, United States
| | - R. Nathan Daniels
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Lipscomb University College of Pharmacy and Health Sciences, Nashville, Tennessee 37204, United States
- Department of Pharmacology, Vanderbilt University Medical Center, Nashville, Tennessee 37232-6600, United States
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20
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Dolder PC, Grünblatt E, Müller F, Borgwardt SJ, Liechti ME. A Single Dose of LSD Does Not Alter Gene Expression of the Serotonin 2A Receptor Gene ( HTR2A) or Early Growth Response Genes ( EGR1-3) in Healthy Subjects. Front Pharmacol 2017; 8:423. [PMID: 28701958 PMCID: PMC5487530 DOI: 10.3389/fphar.2017.00423] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/20/2017] [Accepted: 06/14/2017] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Rationale: Renewed interest has been seen in the use of lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD) in psychiatric research and practice. The repeated use of LSD leads to tolerance that is believed to result from serotonin (5-HT) 5-HT2A receptor downregulation. In rats, daily LSD administration for 4 days decreased frontal cortex 5-HT2A receptor binding. Additionally, a single dose of LSD acutely increased expression of the early growth response genes EGR1 and EGR2 in rat and mouse brains through 5-HT2A receptor stimulation. No human data on the effects of LSD on gene expression has been reported. Therefore, we investigated the effects of single-dose LSD administration on the expression of the 5-HT2A receptor gene (HTR2A) and EGR1-3 genes. Methods: mRNA expression levels were analyzed in whole blood as a peripheral biomarker in 15 healthy subjects before and 1.5 and 24 h after the administration of LSD (100 μg) and placebo in a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled, cross-over study. Results: LSD did not alter the expression of the HTR2A or EGR1-3 genes 1.5 and 24 h after administration compared with placebo. Conclusion: No changes were observed in the gene expression of LSD’s primary target receptor gene or genes that are implicated in its downstream effects. Remaining unclear is whether chronic LSD administration alters gene expression in humans.
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Affiliation(s)
- Patrick C Dolder
- Division of Clinical Pharmacology and Toxicology, Department of Biomedicine and Department of Clinical Research, University Hospital Basel and University of BaselBasel, Switzerland
| | - Edna Grünblatt
- Department of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, Psychiatric Hospital, University of ZurichZurich, Switzerland.,Neuroscience Center Zurich, University of Zurich and ETH ZurichZurich, Switzerland.,Zurich Center for Integrative Human Physiology, University of ZurichZurich, Switzerland
| | - Felix Müller
- Department of Psychiatry (Universitäre Psychiatrische Kliniken Basel), University of BaselBasel, Switzerland
| | - Stefan J Borgwardt
- Department of Psychiatry (Universitäre Psychiatrische Kliniken Basel), University of BaselBasel, Switzerland
| | - Matthias E Liechti
- Division of Clinical Pharmacology and Toxicology, Department of Biomedicine and Department of Clinical Research, University Hospital Basel and University of BaselBasel, Switzerland
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21
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Hassan Z, Bosch OG, Singh D, Narayanan S, Kasinather BV, Seifritz E, Kornhuber J, Quednow BB, Müller CP. Novel Psychoactive Substances-Recent Progress on Neuropharmacological Mechanisms of Action for Selected Drugs. Front Psychiatry 2017; 8:152. [PMID: 28868040 PMCID: PMC5563308 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyt.2017.00152] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/01/2017] [Accepted: 08/02/2017] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
A feature of human culture is that we can learn to consume chemical compounds, derived from natural plants or synthetic fabrication, for their psychoactive effects. These drugs change the mental state and/or the behavioral performance of an individual and can be instrumentalized for various purposes. After the emergence of a novel psychoactive substance (NPS) and a period of experimental consumption, personal and medical benefits and harm potential of the NPS can be estimated on evidence base. This may lead to a legal classification of the NPS, which may range from limited medical use, controlled availability up to a complete ban of the drug form publically accepted use. With these measures, however, a drug does not disappear, but frequently continues to be used, which eventually allows an even better estimate of the drug's properties. Thus, only in rare cases, there is a final verdict that is no more questioned. Instead, the view on a drug can change from tolerable to harmful but may also involve the new establishment of a desired medical application to a previously harmful drug. Here, we provide a summary review on a number of NPS for which the neuropharmacological evaluation has made important progress in recent years. They include mitragynine ("Kratom"), synthetic cannabinoids (e.g., "Spice"), dimethyltryptamine and novel serotonergic hallucinogens, the cathinones mephedrone and methylone, ketamine and novel dissociative drugs, γ-hydroxybutyrate, γ-butyrolactone, and 1,4-butanediol. This review shows not only emerging harm potentials but also some potential medical applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zurina Hassan
- Centre for Drug Research, Universiti Sains Malaysia, Minden, Malaysia
| | - Oliver G Bosch
- Department of Psychiatry, Psychotherapy and Psychosomatics, Psychiatric Hospital, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Darshan Singh
- Centre for Drug Research, Universiti Sains Malaysia, Minden, Malaysia
| | - Suresh Narayanan
- School of Social Sciences, Universiti Sains Malaysia, Minden, Malaysia
| | | | - Erich Seifritz
- Department of Psychiatry, Psychotherapy and Psychosomatics, Psychiatric Hospital, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Johannes Kornhuber
- Department of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, University Hospital, Friedrich-Alexander University Erlangen-Nuremberg, Erlangen, Germany
| | - Boris B Quednow
- Experimental and Clinical Pharmacopsychology, Department of Psychiatry, Psychotherapy and Psychosomatics, Psychiatric Hospital, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Christian P Müller
- Department of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, University Hospital, Friedrich-Alexander University Erlangen-Nuremberg, Erlangen, Germany
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Abstract
Psychedelics (serotonergic hallucinogens) are powerful psychoactive substances that alter perception and mood and affect numerous cognitive processes. They are generally considered physiologically safe and do not lead to dependence or addiction. Their origin predates written history, and they were employed by early cultures in many sociocultural and ritual contexts. After the virtually contemporaneous discovery of (5R,8R)-(+)-lysergic acid-N,N-diethylamide (LSD)-25 and the identification of serotonin in the brain, early research focused intensively on the possibility that LSD and other psychedelics had a serotonergic basis for their action. Today there is a consensus that psychedelics are agonists or partial agonists at brain serotonin 5-hydroxytryptamine 2A receptors, with particular importance on those expressed on apical dendrites of neocortical pyramidal cells in layer V. Several useful rodent models have been developed over the years to help unravel the neurochemical correlates of serotonin 5-hydroxytryptamine 2A receptor activation in the brain, and a variety of imaging techniques have been employed to identify key brain areas that are directly affected by psychedelics. Recent and exciting developments in the field have occurred in clinical research, where several double-blind placebo-controlled phase 2 studies of psilocybin-assisted psychotherapy in patients with cancer-related psychosocial distress have demonstrated unprecedented positive relief of anxiety and depression. Two small pilot studies of psilocybin-assisted psychotherapy also have shown positive benefit in treating both alcohol and nicotine addiction. Recently, blood oxygen level-dependent functional magnetic resonance imaging and magnetoencephalography have been employed for in vivo brain imaging in humans after administration of a psychedelic, and results indicate that intravenously administered psilocybin and LSD produce decreases in oscillatory power in areas of the brain's default mode network.
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Affiliation(s)
- David E Nichols
- Eschelman School of Pharmacy, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, North Carolina
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Bogenschutz MP, Johnson MW. Classic hallucinogens in the treatment of addictions. Prog Neuropsychopharmacol Biol Psychiatry 2016; 64:250-8. [PMID: 25784600 DOI: 10.1016/j.pnpbp.2015.03.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 134] [Impact Index Per Article: 16.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/23/2015] [Revised: 03/05/2015] [Accepted: 03/07/2015] [Indexed: 01/09/2023]
Abstract
Addictive disorders are very common and have devastating individual and social consequences. Currently available treatment is moderately effective at best. After many years of neglect, there is renewed interest in potential clinical uses for classic hallucinogens in the treatment of addictions and other behavioral health conditions. In this paper we provide a comprehensive review of both historical and recent clinical research on the use of classic hallucinogens in the treatment of addiction, selectively review other relevant research concerning hallucinogens, and suggest directions for future research. Clinical trial data are very limited except for the use of LSD in the treatment of alcoholism, where a meta-analysis of controlled trials has demonstrated a consistent and clinically significant beneficial effect of high-dose LSD. Recent pilot studies of psilocybin-assisted treatment of nicotine and alcohol dependence had strikingly positive outcomes, but controlled trials will be necessary to evaluate the efficacy of these treatments. Although plausible biological mechanisms have been proposed, currently the strongest evidence is for the role of mystical or other meaningful experiences as mediators of therapeutic effects. Classic hallucinogens have an excellent record of safety in the context of clinical research. Given our limited understanding of the clinically relevant effects of classic hallucinogens, there is a wealth of opportunities for research that could contribute important new knowledge and potentially lead to valuable new treatments for addiction.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michael P Bogenschutz
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, University of New Mexico Health Sciences Center, MSC11 6035, 1 University of New Mexico, Albuquerque, NM 87131-0001, USA.
| | - Matthew W Johnson
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Johns Hopkins University, School of Medicine, 5510 Nathan Shock Drive, Baltimore, MD, USA.
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24
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Korpi ER, den Hollander B, Farooq U, Vashchinkina E, Rajkumar R, Nutt DJ, Hyytiä P, Dawe GS. Mechanisms of Action and Persistent Neuroplasticity by Drugs of Abuse. Pharmacol Rev 2015; 67:872-1004. [DOI: 10.1124/pr.115.010967] [Citation(s) in RCA: 101] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
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25
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Bogenschutz MP, Forcehimes AA, Pommy JA, Wilcox CE, Barbosa PCR, Strassman RJ. Psilocybin-assisted treatment for alcohol dependence: a proof-of-concept study. J Psychopharmacol 2015; 29:289-99. [PMID: 25586396 DOI: 10.1177/0269881114565144] [Citation(s) in RCA: 607] [Impact Index Per Article: 67.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
UNLABELLED Several lines of evidence suggest that classic (5HT2A agonist) hallucinogens have clinically relevant effects in alcohol and drug addiction. Although recent studies have investigated the effects of psilocybin in various populations, there have been no studies on the efficacy of psilocybin for alcohol dependence. We conducted a single-group proof-of-concept study to quantify acute effects of psilocybin in alcohol-dependent participants and to provide preliminary outcome and safety data. Ten volunteers with DSM-IV alcohol dependence received orally administered psilocybin in one or two supervised sessions in addition to Motivational Enhancement Therapy and therapy sessions devoted to preparation for and debriefing from the psilocybin sessions. Participants' responses to psilocybin were qualitatively similar to those described in other populations. Abstinence did not increase significantly in the first 4 weeks of treatment (when participants had not yet received psilocybin), but increased significantly following psilocybin administration (p < 0.05). Gains were largely maintained at follow-up to 36 weeks. The intensity of effects in the first psilocybin session (at week 4) strongly predicted change in drinking during weeks 5-8 (r = 0.76 to r = 0.89) and also predicted decreases in craving and increases in abstinence self-efficacy during week 5. There were no significant treatment-related adverse events. These preliminary findings provide a strong rationale for controlled trials with larger samples to investigate efficacy and mechanisms. TRIAL REGISTRATION NCT02061293.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michael P Bogenschutz
- Department of Psychiatry, University of New Mexico Health Sciences Center, Albuquerque, NM, USA
| | - Alyssa A Forcehimes
- Department of Psychiatry, University of New Mexico Health Sciences Center, Albuquerque, NM, USA
| | - Jessica A Pommy
- Department of Psychiatry, University of New Mexico Health Sciences Center, Albuquerque, NM, USA
| | - Claire E Wilcox
- Department of Psychiatry, University of New Mexico Health Sciences Center, Albuquerque, NM, USA
| | - P C R Barbosa
- Departamento de Filosofia e Ciencias Humanas Ilheus, Universidade Estadual de Santa Cruz, Bahia, Brazil
| | - Rick J Strassman
- Department of Psychiatry, University of New Mexico Health Sciences Center, Albuquerque, NM, USA
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26
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Halberstadt AL. Recent advances in the neuropsychopharmacology of serotonergic hallucinogens. Behav Brain Res 2015; 277:99-120. [PMID: 25036425 PMCID: PMC4642895 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbr.2014.07.016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 189] [Impact Index Per Article: 21.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/18/2014] [Revised: 07/07/2014] [Accepted: 07/08/2014] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Serotonergic hallucinogens, such as (+)-lysergic acid diethylamide, psilocybin, and mescaline, are somewhat enigmatic substances. Although these drugs are derived from multiple chemical families, they all produce remarkably similar effects in animals and humans, and they show cross-tolerance. This article reviews the evidence demonstrating the serotonin 5-HT2A receptor is the primary site of hallucinogen action. The 5-HT2A receptor is responsible for mediating the effects of hallucinogens in human subjects, as well as in animal behavioral paradigms such as drug discrimination, head twitch response, prepulse inhibition of startle, exploratory behavior, and interval timing. Many recent clinical trials have yielded important new findings regarding the psychopharmacology of these substances. Furthermore, the use of modern imaging and electrophysiological techniques is beginning to help unravel how hallucinogens work in the brain. Evidence is also emerging that hallucinogens may possess therapeutic efficacy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Adam L Halberstadt
- Department of Psychiatry, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, CA, United States.
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27
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Buchborn T, Schröder H, Höllt V, Grecksch G. Repeated lysergic acid diethylamide in an animal model of depression: Normalisation of learning behaviour and hippocampal serotonin 5-HT2 signalling. J Psychopharmacol 2014; 28:545-52. [PMID: 24785760 DOI: 10.1177/0269881114531666] [Citation(s) in RCA: 45] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
Abstract
A re-balance of postsynaptic serotonin (5-HT) receptor signalling, with an increase in 5-HT1A and a decrease in 5-HT2A signalling, is a final common pathway multiple antidepressants share. Given that the 5-HT1A/2A agonist lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD), when repeatedly applied, selectively downregulates 5-HT2A, but not 5-HT1A receptors, one might expect LSD to similarly re-balance the postsynaptic 5-HT signalling. Challenging this idea, we use an animal model of depression specifically responding to repeated antidepressant treatment (olfactory bulbectomy), and test the antidepressant-like properties of repeated LSD treatment (0.13 mg/kg/d, 11 d). In line with former findings, we observe that bulbectomised rats show marked deficits in active avoidance learning. These deficits, similarly as we earlier noted with imipramine, are largely reversed by repeated LSD administration. Additionally, bulbectomised rats exhibit distinct anomalies of monoamine receptor signalling in hippocampus and/or frontal cortex; from these, only the hippocampal decrease in 5-HT2 related [(35)S]-GTP-gamma-S binding is normalised by LSD. Importantly, the sham-operated rats do not profit from LSD, and exhibit reduced hippocampal 5-HT2 signalling. As behavioural deficits after bulbectomy respond to agents classified as antidepressants only, we conclude that the effect of LSD in this model can be considered antidepressant-like, and discuss it in terms of a re-balance of hippocampal 5-HT2/5-HT1A signalling.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tobias Buchborn
- Institute of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Otto-von-Guericke University, Magdeburg, Germany
| | - Helmut Schröder
- Institute of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Otto-von-Guericke University, Magdeburg, Germany
| | - Volker Höllt
- Institute of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Otto-von-Guericke University, Magdeburg, Germany
| | - Gisela Grecksch
- Institute of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Otto-von-Guericke University, Magdeburg, Germany
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28
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Bogenschutz MP, Pommy JM. Therapeutic mechanisms of classic hallucinogens in the treatment of addictions: from indirect evidence to testable hypotheses. Drug Test Anal 2012; 4:543-55. [PMID: 22761106 DOI: 10.1002/dta.1376] [Citation(s) in RCA: 70] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/01/2012] [Revised: 04/30/2012] [Accepted: 04/30/2012] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Alcohol and drug addiction are major public health problems, and existing treatments are only moderately effective. Although there has been interest for over half a century in the therapeutic use of classic hallucinogens to treat addictions, clinical research with these drugs was halted at an early stage in the early 1970s, leaving many fundamental questions unanswered. In the past two decades, clinical research on classic hallucinogens has resumed, although addiction treatment trials are only now beginning. The purpose of this paper is to provide a targeted review of the research most relevant to the therapeutic potential of hallucinogens, and to integrate this information with current thinking about addiction and recovery. On the basis of this information, we present a heuristic model which organizes a number of hypotheses that may be tested in future research. We conclude that existing evidence provides a convincing rationale for further research on the effects of classic hallucinogens in the treatment of addiction.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michael P Bogenschutz
- University of New Mexico Health Sciences Center, Department of Psychiatry Center for Psychiatric Research, University of New Mexico, Albuquerque, NM 87131-0001, USA.
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29
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Pharmacology of ayahuasca administered in two repeated doses. Psychopharmacology (Berl) 2012; 219:1039-53. [PMID: 21842159 DOI: 10.1007/s00213-011-2434-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 79] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/30/2011] [Accepted: 07/27/2011] [Indexed: 10/17/2022]
Abstract
RATIONALE Ayahuasca is an Amazonian tea containing the natural psychedelic 5-HT(2A/2C/1A) agonist N,N-dimethyltryptamine (DMT). It is used in ceremonial contexts for its visionary properties. The human pharmacology of ayahuasca has been well characterized following its administration in single doses. OBJECTIVES To evaluate the human pharmacology of ayahuasca in repeated doses and assess the potential occurrence of acute tolerance or sensitization. METHODS In a double-blind, crossover, placebo-controlled clinical trial, nine experienced psychedelic drug users received PO the two following treatment combinations at least 1 week apart: (a) a lactose placebo and then, 4 h later, an ayahuasca dose; and (b) two ayahuasca doses 4 h apart. All ayahuasca doses were freeze-dried Amazonian-sourced tea encapsulated to a standardized 0.75 mg DMT/kg bodyweight. Subjective, neurophysiological, cardiovascular, autonomic, neuroendocrine, and cell immunity measures were obtained before and at regular time intervals until 12 h after first dose administration. RESULTS DMT plasma concentrations, scores in subjective and neurophysiological variables, and serum prolactin and cortisol were significantly higher after two consecutive doses. When effects were standardized by plasma DMT concentrations, no differences were observed for subjective, neurophysiological, autonomic, or immunological effects. However, we observed a trend to reduced systolic blood pressure and heart rate, and a significant decrease for growth hormone (GH) after the second ayahuasca dose. CONCLUSIONS Whereas there was no clear-cut tolerance or sensitization in the psychological sphere or most physiological variables, a trend to lower cardiovascular activation was observed, together with significant tolerance to GH secretion.
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30
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Vollenweider FX, Kometer M. The neurobiology of psychedelic drugs: implications for the treatment of mood disorders. Nat Rev Neurosci 2010; 11:642-51. [DOI: 10.1038/nrn2884] [Citation(s) in RCA: 398] [Impact Index Per Article: 28.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
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Passie T, Halpern JH, Stichtenoth DO, Emrich HM, Hintzen A. The pharmacology of lysergic acid diethylamide: a review. CNS Neurosci Ther 2008; 14:295-314. [PMID: 19040555 PMCID: PMC6494066 DOI: 10.1111/j.1755-5949.2008.00059.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 237] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/27/2022] Open
Abstract
Lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD) was synthesized in 1938 and its psychoactive effects discovered in 1943. It was used during the 1950s and 1960s as an experimental drug in psychiatric research for producing so-called "experimental psychosis" by altering neurotransmitter system and in psychotherapeutic procedures ("psycholytic" and "psychedelic" therapy). From the mid 1960s, it became an illegal drug of abuse with widespread use that continues today. With the entry of new methods of research and better study oversight, scientific interest in LSD has resumed for brain research and experimental treatments. Due to the lack of any comprehensive review since the 1950s and the widely dispersed experimental literature, the present review focuses on all aspects of the pharmacology and psychopharmacology of LSD. A thorough search of the experimental literature regarding the pharmacology of LSD was performed and the extracted results are given in this review. (Psycho-) pharmacological research on LSD was extensive and produced nearly 10,000 scientific papers. The pharmacology of LSD is complex and its mechanisms of action are still not completely understood. LSD is physiologically well tolerated and psychological reactions can be controlled in a medically supervised setting, but complications may easily result from uncontrolled use by layman. Actually there is new interest in LSD as an experimental tool for elucidating neural mechanisms of (states of) consciousness and there are recently discovered treatment options with LSD in cluster headache and with the terminally ill.
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Affiliation(s)
- Torsten Passie
- Department of Clinical Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, Hannover Medical School, Hannover, Germany.
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32
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Mato S, Aso E, Castro E, Martín M, Valverde O, Maldonado R, Pazos A. CB1 knockout mice display impaired functionality of 5-HT1A and 5-HT2A/C receptors. J Neurochem 2007; 103:2111-20. [PMID: 17944876 DOI: 10.1111/j.1471-4159.2007.04961.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 60] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Interaction between brain endocannabinoid (EC) and serotonin (5-HT) systems was investigated by examining 5-HT-dependent behavioral and biochemical responses in CB(1) receptor knockout mice. CB(1) knockout animals exhibited a significant reduction in the induction of head twitches and paw tremor by the 5-HT(2A/C) receptor selective agonist (+/-) DOI, as well as a reduced hypothermic response following administration of the 5-HT(1A) receptor agonist (+/-)-8-OH-DPAT. Additionally, exposure to the tail suspension test induced enhanced despair responses in CB(1) knockout mice. However, the tricyclic antidepressant imipramine and the 5-HT selective reuptake inhibitor fluoxetine induced similar decreases in the time of immobility in the tail suspension test in CB(1) receptor knockout and wild-type mice. No differences were found between both genotypes with regard to 5-HT(2A) receptor and 5-HT(1A) receptors levels, measured by autoradiography in different brain areas. However, a significant decrease in the ability of both, the 5-HT(1A) receptor agonist (+/-)-8-OH-DPAT and the 5-HT(2A/C) receptor agonist (-)DOI, to stimulate [(35)S]GTPgammaS binding was detected in the hippocampal CA(1) area and fronto-parietal cortex of CB(1) receptor knockout mice, respectively. This study provides evidence that CB(1) receptors are involved in the regulation of serotonergic responses mediated by 5-HT(2A/C) and 5-HT(1A) receptors, and suggests that a reduced coupling of 5-HT(1A) and 5-HT(2A) receptors to G proteins might be involved in these effects.
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Affiliation(s)
- Susana Mato
- Department of Physiology and Pharmacology, University of Cantabria, Cantabria, Spain
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Dalley JW, Lääne K, Theobald DEH, Peña Y, Bruce CC, Huszar AC, Wojcieszek M, Everitt BJ, Robbins TW. Enduring deficits in sustained visual attention during withdrawal of intravenous methylenedioxymethamphetamine self-administration in rats: results from a comparative study with d-amphetamine and methamphetamine. Neuropsychopharmacology 2007; 32:1195-206. [PMID: 17035931 DOI: 10.1038/sj.npp.1301220] [Citation(s) in RCA: 74] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
Although amphetamine-derived stimulants are widely associated with neurotoxicity, it is poorly understood whether extended exposure to such drugs produces lasting effects on neurocognitive function. This study investigates whether chronically self-administered d-amphetamine, methamphetamine (MA), or methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA) leads to residual deficits in a rodent test of sustained visual attention and impulsivity. Rats were trained on a five-choice serial reaction time task and subsequently trained to self-administer d-amphetamine, MA, or MDMA (all 50 microg/infusion), intravenously, for 3 weeks. Effects on performance were evaluated 24 h after drug discontinuation and for several weeks thereafter, including various challenge sessions to increase the attentional demands of the task. The results indicate divergent patterns of self-administration among the three drugs tested with increasing rates of intake evident in rats self-administering amphetamine, but not MA, and widely fluctuating rates in the MDMA group. Withdrawal of MA resulted in severe behavioral disturbances, with significant effects on accuracy, omissions, response latency, and impulsivity that lasted up to 2 weeks in some cases. Amphetamine and MDMA withdrawal were associated with similar, but shorter-lasting effects on performance. However, when challenged with a high event rate session 6 weeks after drug discontinuation, rats previously exposed to MDMA continued to show deficits in the accuracy and speed of responding. These findings show that amphetamine-derived stimulants have both short- and long-term consequences for psychomotor functioning. The demonstration of residual deficits in rats chronically exposed to MDMA raises some concern about the potential harm caused by this drug in human ecstasy users.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jeffrey W Dalley
- Department of Experimental Psychology and Behavioral and Clinical Neuroscience Institute, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK.
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Goudie AJ, Cole JC, Sumnall HR. Olanzapine and JL13 induce cross-tolerance to the clozapine discriminative stimulus in rats. Behav Pharmacol 2007; 18:9-17. [PMID: 17218793 DOI: 10.1097/fbp.0b013e328014138d] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
We have previously shown that chronic treatment with clozapine induces tolerance to the clozapine discriminative stimulus in rats. The studies reported here extended this work to assess whether chronic treatment with the clozapine-like antipsychotics olanzapine and 5-(4-methylpiperazin-1-yl)-8-chloro-pyrido[2,3-b][1,5] benzoxazepine fumarate (JL13) induced cross-tolerance to clozapine. Two groups of rats were trained to discriminate clozapine (5 mg/kg, intraperitoneal). Training was suspended and the rats were treated with either olanzapine or JL13 at high doses (5 and 20 mg/kg, respectively). These doses were administered twice daily. The clozapine generalization curve was computed three times - before chronic drug treatment, after 10 days of chronic treatment, and after 16 drug-free days. Both olanzapine and JL13 induced cross-tolerance to the clozapine stimulus, shown by significant 3.4 and 3.9 fold parallel shifts to the right in the clozapine generalization curves. Cross-tolerance was lost spontaneously during the drug-free days after treatment as clozapine sensitivity returned to baseline. We interpret these findings as indicative of the development of pharmacodynamic cross-tolerance to clozapine. Possible neuroadaptive mechanisms involved in such cross-tolerance are discussed. The paradigm outlined here allows refinement of antipsychotic drug discrimination assays to identify common chronic effects of such drugs.
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Gresch PJ, Barrett RJ, Sanders-Bush E, Smith RL. 5-Hydroxytryptamine (serotonin)2A receptors in rat anterior cingulate cortex mediate the discriminative stimulus properties of d-lysergic acid diethylamide. J Pharmacol Exp Ther 2006; 320:662-9. [PMID: 17077317 DOI: 10.1124/jpet.106.112946] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
d-Lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD), an indoleamine hallucinogen, produces profound alterations in mood, thought, and perception in humans. The brain site(s) that mediates the effects of LSD is currently unknown. In this study, we combine the drug discrimination paradigm with intracerebral microinjections to investigate the anatomical localization of the discriminative stimulus of LSD in rats. Based on our previous findings, we targeted the anterior cingulate cortex (ACC) to test its involvement in mediating the discriminative stimulus properties of LSD. Rats were trained to discriminate systemically administered LSD (0.085 mg/kg s.c.) from saline. Following acquisition of the discrimination, bilateral cannulae were implanted into the ACC (AP, +1.2 mm; ML, +/-1.0 mm; DV, -2.0 mm relative to bregma). Rats were tested for their ability to discriminate varying doses of locally infused LSD (0.1875, 0.375, and 0.75 microg/side) or artificial cerebrospinal fluid (n = 3-7). LSD locally infused into ACC dose-dependently substituted for systemically administered LSD, with 0.75 microg/side LSD substituting completely (89% correct). Systemic administration of the selective 5-hydroxytryptamine (serotonin) (5-HT)(2A) receptor antagonist R-(+)-alpha-(2,3-dimethoxyphenyl)-1-[2-(4-fluorophenylethyl)]-4-piperidine-methanol (M100907; 0.4 mg/kg) blocked the discriminative cue of LSD (0.375 microg/side) infused into ACC (from 68 to 16% drug lever responding). Furthermore, M100907 (0.5 microg/microl/side) locally infused into ACC completely blocked the stimulus effects of systemic LSD (0.04 mg/kg; from 80 to 12% on the LSD lever). Taken together, these data indicate that 5-HT(2A) receptors in the ACC are a primary target mediating the discriminative stimulus properties of LSD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Paul J Gresch
- Department of Pharmacology, Vanderbilt University School of Medicine, Nashville, TN 37232, USA
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