Antiproliferative Activity of Crocin Involves Targeting of Microtubules in Breast Cancer Cells

Saffron and its major constituents against neurodegenerative diseases: A mechanistic review

BACKGROUND

Neurodegeneration has been recognized as the main pathophysiological alteration in the majority of brain-related diseases. Despite contemporary attempts to provide acceptable medicinal therapies, the conclusion has not been much beneficial. Besides, the complex pathophysiological mechanisms behind neurodegenerative diseases (NDDs) urge the needs for finding novel multi-target agents. Accordingly, saffron with major active constituents and as multi-targeting agents have shown beneficial effects in modulating NDDs with higher efficacy and lower side effects.

PURPOSE

The present study provides a systematic and comprehensive review of the existing in vitro, in vivo, and clinical data on the effectiveness, and signaling pathways of saffron and its key phytochemical components in the management of NDDs. The need to develop novel saffron delivery systems is also considered.

METHODS

Studies were identified through a systematic and comprehensive search in Science Direct, PubMed, and Scopus databases through April 30, 2024. The whole saffron major constituents (e.g., saffron, crocin, crocetin, picrocrocin, and safranal) and NDDs (e.g., neuro*, spinal cord injury, multiple sclerosis, amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, Huntington*, Parkinson*, Alzheimer*, and brain) were selected as keywords to find related studies. In the systematic analysis, 64 articles were directly included in the current study. Additional reports were added within the comprehensive studies in the review.

RESULTS

Saffron and its active metabolites crocin, crocetin, safranal, and picrocrocin have shown acceptable efficacy in managing NDDs like Alzheimer's disease, Parkinson's disease, Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder, depression, and other NDDs via modulating apoptotic (e.g., caspases, Bax/Bcl-2, cytochrome c, and death receptors), inflammatory (e.g., NF-κB, IL-1β, IL-6, TNF-α, and COX-2), and oxidative strass (e.g., Nrf2, GSH, GPx, CAT, SOD, MDA, ROS, and nitrite) signaling pathways. The presented in vitro, in vivo, and clinical evidences showed us a better future of controlling NDDs with higher efficacy, while decreasing associated side effects with no significant toxicity. Additionally, employing novel delivery systems could increase the efficacy of saffron phytoconstituents to resolve the issues pharmacokinetic limitations.

CONCLUSION

Saffron and its major constituents employ anti-inflammatory, anti-apoptotic and antioxidant mechanisms in modulating several dysregulated-signaling pathways in NDDs. However, further research is necessary to elucidate the precise underlying mechanisms in exploring the feasibility of using saffron active compounds against NDDs. More studies should focus on dose-response relationships, long-term effects, highlighting key mechanisms, and designing more well-controlled clinical trials. Additionally, developing stable and cost-benefit novel delivery systems in future works helps to remove the pharmacokinetic limitations of saffron major constituents.

Potential of natural drug modulation of endoplasmic reticulum stress in the treatment of myocardial injury

Myocardial injury (MI) is a common occurrence in clinical practice caused by various factors such as ischemia, hypoxia, infection, metabolic abnormalities, and inflammation. Such damages are characterized by a reduction in myocardial function and cardiomyocyte death that can result in dangerous outcomes such as cardiac failure and arrhythmias. An endoplasmic reticulum stress (ERS)-induced unfolded protein response (UPR) is triggered by several stressors, and its intricate signaling networks are instrumental in both cell survival and death. Cardiac damage frequently triggers ERS in response to different types of injuries and stress. High levels of ERS can exacerbate myocardial damage by inducing necrosis and apoptosis. To target ERS in MI prevention and treatment, current medical research is focused on identifying effective therapy approaches. Traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) is frequently used because of its vast range of applications and low risk of adverse effects. Various studies have demonstrated that active components of Chinese medicines, including polyphenols, saponins, and alkaloids, can reduce myocardial cell death, inflammation, and modify the ERS pathway, thus preventing and mitigating cardiac injury. Thus, this paper aims to provide a new direction and scientific basis for targeting ERS in MI prevention and treatment. We specifically summarize recent research progress on the regulation mechanism of ERS in MI by active ingredients of TCM.

Potential therapeutic effects of crocin

Crocin, a natural bioactive compound derived from saffron (Crocus sativus) and other Crocus genera, has gained significant attention recently due to its potential therapeutic properties. The multifaceted nature of crocin's biological effects has piqued the interest of researchers and health enthusiasts, prompting further investigations into its mechanisms of action and therapeutic applications. This review article comprehensively explores the emerging evidence supporting crocin's role as a promising ally in protecting against metabolic disorders. The review covers the molecular mechanisms underlying crocin's beneficial effects and highlights its potential applications in preventing and treating diverse pathological conditions. Understanding the mechanisms through which crocin exerts its protective effects could advance scientific knowledge and offer potential avenues for developing novel therapeutic interventions. As we uncover the potential of crocin as a valuable ally in the fight against disorders, it becomes evident that nature's palette holds remarkable solutions for enhancing our health.

The effect of saffron and its extracts on the treatment of breast cancer: A narrative review

Breast cancer (BC) is the most prevalent malignancy in women and the second most common disease worldwide, affecting approximately one million individuals annually. Despite the efficacy of conventional chemotherapy, medication resistance and adverse effects limit its effectiveness, leading researchers to explore alternative treatments, including herbal remedies. Saffron, a well-known spice derived from the Crocus sativus L. plant, has shown potential as a BC treatment. The active components of saffron exhibit anti-cancer properties by inducing apoptosis, inhibiting cell division, and modulating signaling pathways implicated in cancer development, such as PI3K/AKT, NF-κB, and MAPK. Clinical findings suggest that saffron can alleviate chemotherapy-induced symptoms, reduce serum tumor marker levels, and enhance quality of life. Preliminary clinical trials are investigating the safety and efficacy of saffron in treating BC, with recent evidence indicating that recommended doses of saffron supplementation are well-tolerated and safe. This review provides an overview of the anti-tumor effects of saffron and its unique chemical composition in BC. However, further research and clinical studies are imperative to fully comprehend the potential of saffron in adjuvant therapy for BC patients.

Revealing the dynamics of saffron growth: Optimizing corm size and planting depth for increased yield synergies

Saffron, the "golden spice" derived from Crocus sativus L., is renowned for its richness in secondary metabolites such as crocin and safranal, contributing to its unique properties. Facing challenges like decreasing global production, optimizing cultivation techniques becomes imperative for enhanced yields. Although the impact of factors like planting density, planting depth, spacing, and corm size on saffron growth has been studied, the interaction between corm size and planting depth remains underexplored. This study systematically investigates the interactive effects of corm size and planting depth on saffron growth and yield, providing evidence-based guidelines for optimizing cultivation. A factorial experiment, employing a completely randomized design, was conducted to assess the influence of corm size (05-10g, 10.1-15g, 15.1-20g) and planting depth (10cm, 15cm, 20cm) on saffron yield. Uniform-sized corms were obtained, and a suitable soil mixture was prepared for cultivation. Morphological and agronomic parameters were measured, and statistical analyses were performed using ANOVA and Tukey's HSD test. The study revealed that planting depth significantly affected saffron emergence. The corms sown under 15cm depth showed 100% emergence regardless of corm size (either 05-10g, 10.1-15g, 15.1-20g) followed by 10cm depth corms. Corm dry weight exhibited a complex interaction, where larger corms benefited from deeper planting, while intermediate-sized corms thrived at shallower depths. Similar patterns were observed in shoot fresh weight and dry weight. Specifically, the largest corm size (t3, 15.1-20g) produced the greatest fresh-weight biomass at the deepest planting depth of 20cm (T3), while intermediate-sized corms (t2, 10.1-15g) were superior at the shallowest 10cm depth (T1). The total plant biomass demonstrated that larger corms excelled in deeper planting, while intermediate-sized corms were optimal at moderate depths. This research highlights the intricate interplay between corm size and planting depth in influencing saffron growth. Larger corms generally promote higher biomass, but the interaction with planting depth is crucial. Understanding these dynamics can aid farmers in tailoring cultivation practices for optimal saffron yields. The study emphasizes the need for a coordinated approach to corm selection and depth placement, providing valuable insights for sustainable saffron production and economic growth.

Crocin enhances the sensitivity to paclitaxel in human breast cancer cells by reducing BIRC5 expression

Paclitaxel (PTX) is one of the first-line chemotherapeutic agents for treating breast cancer. However, PTX resistance remains a major hurdle in breast cancer therapy. Crocin, the main chemical constituent of saffron, shows anti-cancer activity against various types of cancer. However, the effect of crocin on the resistance of PTX in breast cancer is still unknown. CCK-8 and TUNEL assays were employed to detect cell viability and apoptosis, respectively. The targets of crocin were predicted using HERB database and the targets associated with breast cancer were acquired using GEPIA database. The Venn diagram was utilized to identify the common targets between crocin and breast cancer. Baculoviral inhibitor of apoptosis repeat containing 5 (BIRC5) expression was detected by qRT-PCR and western blot analysis. The correlation between BIRC5 expression and survival was analyzed by Kaplan-Meier plotter and PrognoScan databases. Our data suggested that crocin aggravated PTX-induced decrease of viability and increase of apoptosis in MCF-7 and MCF-7/PTX cells. BIRC5 was identified as the target of crocin against breast cancer. Crocin inhibited BIRC5 expression in MCF-7 and MCF-7/PTX cells. BIRC5 is overexpressed in breast cancer tissues, as well as PTX-sensitive and PTX-resistant breast cancer cells. BIRC5 expression is related to the poor survival of patients with breast cancer. Depletion of BIRC5 strengthened PTX-induced viability reduction and promotion of apoptosis in MCF-7 and MCF-7/PTX cells. Moreover, BIRC5 overexpression reversed the inhibitory effect of crocin on PTX resistance in breast cancer cells. In conclusion, crocin enhanced the sensitivity of PTX in breast cancer cells partially through inhibiting BIRC5 expression.

Potential inhibitors of RPS6KB2 and NRF2 in head and neck squamous cell carcinoma

Among the major altered pathways in head and neck squamous cell carcinoma, AKT/mTORC1/S6K and NRF2/KEAP1 pathway are quite significant. The overexpression and overstimulation of proteins from both these pathways makes them the promising candidates in cancer therapeutics. Inhibiting mTOR has been in research from past several decades but the tumour heterogeneity, and upregulation of several compensatory feed-back mechanisms, encourages to explore other downstream targets for inhibiting the pathway. One such downstream effectors of mTOR is S6K2. It is reported to be overexpressed in cancers such as head and neck cancer, breast cancer and prostate cancer. In case of NRF2/KEAP1 pathway, nuclear factor erythroid 2-related factor 2 (NFE2L2 or NRF2) is overexpressed in ∼90% of head and neck squamous cell carcinoma (HNSCC) cases. It associates with poor survival rate and therapeutic resistance in HNSCC treatment. NRF2 pathway is the primary antioxidant pathway in the cell which also serves pro-tumorigenic functions, such as repression of apoptosis, cell proliferation support and chemoresistance. The aim of this work was to explore S6K2 and NRF2 and identify novel and potential inhibitors against them for treating head and neck squamous cell carcinoma. Since the crystal structure of S6K2 was not available at the time of this study, we modelled its structure using homology modelling and performed high throughput screening, molecular dynamics simulations, free energy calculations and protein-ligand interaction studies to identify the inhibitors. We identified natural compounds Crocin and Gypenoside XVII against S6K2 and Chebulinic acid and Sennoside A against NRF2. This study provides a significant in-depth understanding of the two studied pathways and therefore can be used in the development of potential therapeutics against HNSCC.Communicated by Ramaswamy H. Sarma.

Advances on the anti-tumor mechanisms of the carotenoid Crocin

Saffron is located in the upper part of the crocus stigma of iridaceae, which has a long history of medicinal use. Crocin (molecular formula C44H64O24) is a natural floral glycoside ester compound extracted from saffron, which is a type carotenoid. Modern pharmacological studies have shown that crocin has multiple therapeutic effects including anti-inflammatory, anti-oxidant, anti-hyperlipidemic and anti-stone effects. In recent years, crocin has been widely noticed due to its considerable anti-tumor effects manifested by the induction of tumor cell apoptosis, inhibition of tumor cell proliferation, inhibition of tumor cell invasion and metastasis, enhancement of chemotherapy sensitivity and improvement of immune status. The anti-tumor effects have been shown in various malignant tumors such as gastric cancer, liver cancer, cervical cancer, breast cancer and colorectal cancer. In this review, we compiled recent studies on the anti-tumor effects of crocin and summarized its anti-tumor mechanism for developing ideas of treating malignancies and exploring anti-tumor drugs.

Ethnomedicinal uses of Indian spices used for cancer treatment: A treatise on structure-activity relationship and signaling pathways

Cancer is among the major cause of demise worldwide. Though the array of anticancer chemical medications is available but unfortunately, they are also associated with negative health effects. The invaluable therapeutic potential of spices makes them an integral part of our daily diet. Therefore, the present work focuses on the traditional uses of 46 spices and the phytochemical analysis of 31 spices. Out of them, only 29 spices are explored for their cytotoxicity against different cancer cell lines. The pre-clinical and clinical anticancer studies of spices along with their toxicity, mechanism of actions like Wnt/β-catenin, phosphatidylinositol-3-kinase (PI3K)/Akt/mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR), JAK/STAT, mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK), Notch-mediated pathways and Quantitative structure-activity relationship (QSAR) studies were also focused. Curcumin was found as one of the most explored bioactive in every aspect such as in-vitro, in-vivo, clinical as well as SAR anticancer studies while some other bioactive such as 1,8-Cineole, trans-Anethole, Diosgenin, Trigonelline are either unexplored or least explored for their clinical and SAR studies. In fact, traditional medicinal uses of spices also provide solid shreds of evidence for the new leads towards the invention of novel anticancer agents. Therefore, further research can be designed for the anticancer marketed formulation from spices after having their placebo and related toxicological data.

Sodium alginate based drug delivery in management of breast cancer

Among women, breast cancer (B·C.) is a common form of cancer that can strike either developed or developing countries. In addition to pregnancy-related variables, hormone therapy lifestyle factors (e.g., physical inactivity, smoking, and alcohol use) may all influence the progression of B·C. The creation of anti-B·C. medication carriers with better stability, controlled and targeted administration, and the goal of minimizing unwanted effects has taken a lot of time and effort. Naturally generated biopolymers-based pharmaceutical delivery techniques have attracted attention for their potential use in treating B·C. It's been shown that natural polymers can deliver high medication concentrations to the desired place and provide prolonged release of pharmaceuticals useful in treating B.C. Alginate is one of the most commonly used drug carriers for delayed and targeted release. In present review will discuss the utilization of sodium alginate as an carrier of anticancer drug, such as paclitaxel, doxorubicin, tamoxifen, curcumin, and others.

Yellow pigment from gardenia fruit: structural identification and evaluation of cytotoxic activity in HepG2 cells by induction of apoptosis

The preparation process of yellow pigment (YP) from gardenia (Gardenia jasminoides) fruit was investigated, and the main components of YP were characterized by liquid chromatography-time of flight-mass spectrometer/mass spectrometer (LC-TOF-MS/MS). Furthermore, cytotoxic activity in HepG2 cells by induction of apoptosis was also evaluated. The preparation results indicated that the color value of YP was 498.34, which was 8.6 times higher than crude YP. Fifteen compounds in YP were identified, and crocins were the predominant compounds. The cell experiment results showed that YP inhibited the proliferation of HepG2 cells in a time- and dose-dependent manner. Moreover, YP also inhibited HepG2 cells in G2/M stage, increased the level of intracellular reactive oxygen species (ROS), and enhanced cell apoptosis. Real-time quantitative polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) analysis revealed the up-regulation of caspase-3, 8, 9, and bax and down-regulation of bcl-2 in HepG2 cells. Overall, these findings suggested that YP had potential cytotoxic activity in HepG2 cells by induction of apoptosis, which might be beneficial to human health.

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s10068-022-01133-9.

Photocatalytic activity of green synthesized cadmium sulfide quantum dots on the removal of RhB dye and its cytotoxicity and antibacterial studies

Presence of inorganic pollutants in water reservoirs is the treating factor for human health and environment. Semiconductor quantum dots (QDs) has been regarded as one of the most efficient nanoparticles for their enhanced photocatalytic activity. Medicinal plants are the safe sources to provide green template for biosynthesis of inorganic nanoparticles such as quantum dots. In order to determine the photocatalytic and biological application of cadmium sulfide quantum dots (CdS QDs), a biosynthesis approach was employed using saffron (Crocus sativus L.) stigma extract as the green reaction substrate. The biosynthesis process was evaluated at different pH condition to obtain the most efficient CdS QDs. Characterization of prepared CdS QDs were determined through UV-vis and fluorescence spectroscopy, FTIR and TEM analysis. The obtained results showed well dsispersed and uniform QDs during green synthesis at the optimum condition. The absorption and electrical properties of green synthesized CdS QDs showed the lowest energy bandgap of 2.4 at pH 11. Photocatalytic activity of CdS QDs on Rhodamine B degradation showed 92% degradation after 80 min under UV light irradiation. The antibacterial and cell cytotoxicity of green synthesized CdS QDs were assayed by disk diffusion and MTT assays respectively. Obtained results showed significant antibacterial effect of CdS QDs against gram-positive and gram-negative bacteria includingB. subtilis(90%) andE. coli(96%) respectively. Moreover, cytotoxicity of prepared CdS Qds through MTT assay indicated 79% apoptosis induction on MCF-7 breast cancer cells.

An evaluation on potential anti-oxidant and anti-inflammatory effects of Crocin

Crocin, an active ingredient derived from saffron, is one of the herbal components that has recently been considered by researchers. Crocin has been shown to have many anti-inflammatory and antioxidant properties, and therefore can be used to treat various diseases. It has been shown that Crocin has a positive effect on the prevention and treatment of cardiovascular disease, cancer, diabetes, and kidney disease. In addition, the role of this substance in COVID-19 pandemic has been identified. In this review article, we tried to have a comprehensive review of the antioxidant and anti-inflammatory effects of Crocin in different diseases and different tissues. In conclusion, Crocin may be helpful in pathological conditions that are associated with inflammation and oxidative stress.

Insight into the Progress on Natural Dyes: Sources, Structural Features, Health Effects, Challenges, and Potential

(1) Background: Dyes play an important role in food, medicine, textile, and other industries, which make human life more colorful. With the increasing demand for food safety, the development of natural dyes becomes more and more attractive. (2) Methods: The literature was searched using the electronic databases PubMed, Web of Science, and SciFinder and this scoping review was carried out following Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA). (3) Results: 248 articles were included in this review. This review summarizes the research progress on natural dyes in the last ten years. According to structural features, natural dyes mainly include carotenoids, polyphenols, porphyrins, and alkaloids, and some of the newest dyes are summarized. Some pharmacological activities of carotenoids, anthocyanin, curcumin, and betalains in the last 10 years are summarized, and the biological effects of dyes regarding illumination conditions. The disadvantages of natural dyes, including sources, cost, stability, and poor bioavailability, limit their application. Here, some feasible strategies (potential resources, biotechnology, new extraction and separation strategies, strategies for improving stability) are described, which will contribute to the development and utilization of natural dyes. (4) Conclusion: Natural dyes show health benefits and potential in food additives. However, it is necessary for natural dyes to pass toxicity tests and quality tests and receive many regulatory approvals before their final entry into the market as food colorants or as drugs.

Crocin attenuates NF-κB-mediated inflammation and proliferation in breast cancer cells by down-regulating PRKCQ

Breast cancer (BC) is the most commonly diagnosed cancer confronting women worldwide. Crocin, a glycosylated carotenoid extracted from Crocus sativus L., possesses anti-cancer and anti-inflammatory activities. This study tried to explore the influences of crocin on proliferation and inflammation of BC cells, and to investigate the possible mechanism. The protein levels of protein kinase C theta (PRKCQ) and nuclear factor kappa B (NF-κB) p-p65 and p65 were examined using western blot analysis. The potential targets of crocin were predicted using the PharmMapper database. Cell viability and proliferation were determined utilizing CCK-8 and EdU incorporation assays, respectively. Inflammation was assessed by detecting the levels of tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α) and interleukin-1β (IL-1β) using RT-qPCR and ELISA. Results showed that crocin inhibited NF-κB activation and suppressed cell viability and proliferation in BC cells. Crocin caused a significant reduction of levels of TNF-α and IL-1β, suggesting that crocin suppressed inflammation in BC cells. NF-κB inhibition decreased proliferation and inflammation in BC cells. Additionally, PRKCQ was identified as a potential target of crocin according to PharmMapper database. Crocin treatment inhibited the activation of NF-κB in BC cells by reducing PRKCQ expression. Mechanistically, PRKCQ-dependent activation of NF-κB pathway reversed the effects of crocin on the proliferation and inflammation in BC cells. In conclusion, crocin inhibited NF-κB-mediated inflammation and proliferation in BC cells through reducing PRKCQ expression.

Cow and Ewe Cheeses Made with Saffron: Characterization of Bioactive Compounds and Their Antiproliferative Effect in Cervical Adenocarcinoma (HeLa) and Breast Cancer (MDA-MB-231) Cells

Saffron is a widespread consumed spice containing many phytochemicals. It is often used in dairy technologies to enhance color and flavor of cheeses, but it is also known for its several therapeutic effects, as well as its antiproliferative and anticancer properties. In this study High Performance Liquid Chromatography was used to characterize saffron bioactive compounds in cow and ewe cheeses made with saffron, and the antiproliferative effect of the crocin-rich extracts from cheeses was investigated on different cellular lines (CaCo2, MDA-MB-231 and HeLa) by MTT assay. Crocins were observed in all cheese samples, with the total content ranging between 0.54 and 30.57 mg trans-4-GG/100 g cheese, according to the different cheese making process. Picrocrocin was detected in no cheese (probably due to its degradation during cheese making), while safranal was detected only in one ewe cheese (mainly due to its high volatility). HeLa and MDA-MB-231 cells were sensitive to treatment with crocin-rich extracts from cheeses, while no effect was observed on CaCo2 cells. The chemical environment of the food matrix seems to have a great influence on the crocin antiproliferative effect: the crocin-rich extracts from cheese with both high residual N/protein and fat contents showed increased antiproliferative effect compared to pure crocin (trans-4-GG), but cheeses from different milk species (type of fats and proteins) could also play an important role in modulating crocin's antiproliferative effects.

Crocin exerts anti-proliferative and apoptotic effects on cutaneous squamous cell carcinoma via miR-320a/ATG2B

Cutaneous squamous cell carcinoma (cSCC) is a highly prevalent skin malignancy, and the effective therapy still remains a challenge. Crocin can be used for cSCC therapy. This study explored the effects of cSCC cells treatment with crocin in vitro and in vivo. The study used A431 and SCL-1 cells lines, cSCC human samples and BALB/C nude mice for investigations. Apoptosis was determined by MTT assays, while miR-320a and ATG2B expressions were validated through RT-qPCR. Interaction of miR-320a with ATG2B was examined via dual luciferase reporter assay. The autophagy and apoptosis proteins expressions were further confirmed through western blot and immunofluorescence staining assays. The results indicated a significantly upregulated miR-320a, but a down-regulated ATG2B expression in the cSCC clinical samples. Crocin significantly repressed cSCC cells growth, and induced apoptosis through autophagy. Furthermore, miR-320a expression was inhibited and ATG2B expression was increased. Dual luciferase reporter assay revealed that miR-320a regulated ATG2B expression directly. Additionally, the upregulation of ATG2B expression in cSCC cells inhibited cell proliferation and led to cell apoptosis. Crocin also reduced tumor growth and stimulated the apoptosis in vivo. In conclusion, miR-320a is upregulated and ATG2B is down-regulated in cSCC, Crocin suppresses the proliferation and induces apoptosis of cSCC cells. Further, Crocin increases autophagy while miR-320a hinders autophagy and the apoptotic effects of crocin on cSCC cells. MiR-320a binds ATG2B directly, and ATG2B expression is upregulated by crocin. Finally, Crocin triggers cSCC cells apoptosis in vivo. Crocin can target ATG2B/miR-320a and may be an effective alternative for cSCC treatment.

Synergistic effects of exosomal crocin or curcumin compounds and HPV L1-E7 polypeptide vaccine construct on tumor eradication in C57BL/6 mouse model

Cervical cancer is the most common malignant tumor in females worldwide. Human papillomavirus (HPV) infection is associated with the occurrence of cervical cancer. Thus, developing an effective and low-cost vaccine against HPV infection, especially in developing countries is an important issue. In this study, a novel HPV L1-E7 fusion multiepitope construct designed by immunoinformatics tools was expressed in bacterial system. HEK-293T cells-derived exosomes were generated and characterized to use as a carrier for crocin and curcumin compounds. The exosomes loaded with crocin and curcumin compounds as a chemotherapeutic agent (ExoCrocin and ExoCurcumin) were used along with the L1-E7 polypeptide for evaluation of immunological and anti-tumor effects in C57BL/6 mouse model. In vitro studies showed that ExoCrocin and ExoCurcumin were not cytotoxic at a certain dose, and they could enter tumor cells. In vivo studies indicated that combination of the L1-E7 polypeptide with ExoCrocin or ExoCurcumin could produce a significant level of immunity directed toward Th1 response and CTL activity. These regimens showed the protective and therapeutic effects against tumor cells (the percentage of tumor-free mice: ~100%). In addition, both ExoCrocin and ExoCurcumin represented similar immunological and anti-tumor effects. Generally, the use of exosomal crocin or curcumin forms along with the L1-E7 polypeptide could significantly induce T-cell immune responses and eradicate tumor cells.

Phytochemicals from Indian Ethnomedicines: Promising Prospects for the Management of Oxidative Stress and Cancer

Oxygen is indispensable for most organisms on the earth because of its role in respiration. However, it is also associated with several unwanted effects which may sometimes prove fatal in the long run. Such effects are more evident in cells exposed to strong oxidants containing reactive oxygen species (ROS). The adverse outcomes of oxidative metabolism are referred to as oxidative stress, which is a staple theme in contemporary medical research. Oxidative stress leads to plasma membrane disruption through lipid peroxidation and has several other deleterious effects. A large body of literature suggests the involvement of ROS in cancer, ageing, and several other health hazards of the modern world. Plant-based cures for these conditions are desperately sought after as supposedly safer alternatives to mainstream medicines. Phytochemicals, which constitute a diverse group of plant-based substances with varying roles in oxidative reactions of the body, are implicated in the treatment of cancer, aging, and all other ROS-induced anomalies. This review presents a summary of important phytochemicals extracted from medicinal plants which are a part of Indian ethnomedicine and Ayurveda and describes their possible therapeutic significance.

Crocin Promotes Apoptosis in Human EBV-Transformed B-Lymphocyte via Intrinsic Pathway

Background

As a major carotenoid in saffron, crocin demonstrates potent anti-cancer impacts. However, its anti-lymphoma effects remain vague, especially in the human EBV-associated B-cell lymphoproliferative disorders. This study examined crocin's apoptogenic potential and its underlying mechanism in CO 88BV59-1 cell line vs. normal human peripheral blood B cells.

Methods

CO 88BV59-1 cells were treated with crocin alone or in combination with vincristine for up to 72 h. The cell viability was examined using a resazurin assay. Flow cytometry using annexin V and propidium iodide labeling was performed to detect apoptotic cells. Also, the expression levels of genes and proteins involved in apoptosis (CASP3, CASP8, CASP9, P53, Bax, and Bcl-2) were respectively determined via real-time PCR and Western blot analysis.

Results

Crocin concentration-dependently reduced cell viability in CO 88BV59-1 cells with no significant toxicity toward normal B cells. Similar to vincristine, crocin significantly increased apoptosis in these cells during 72 h of incubation. Furthermore, the combination of crocin (80 μM) and vincristine (1 μM) enhanced apoptosis in CO 88BV59-1 cells. Therefore, this synergistic effect was detected in human EBV-transformed B-lymphocyte. CASP3, CASP9, P53, and Bax/Bcl-2 ratio expressions were significantly raised in CO 88BV59-1 cells, whereas CASP8 was unaltered. It was proposed that crocin promoted apoptosis in CO 88BV59-1 cells in a time- and concentration-dependent manner via the induction of the intrinsic pathway.

Conclusion

The results suggest that crocin may serve as a good alternative/coadjuvant to vincristine in EBV-associated B-cell lymphoproliferative disorders.

Amelioration of anxiety, depression, and chemotherapy related toxicity after crocin administration during chemotherapy of breast cancer: A double blind, randomized clinical trial

The effects of saffron (Crocus sativus L.) on mood disorders have already been established. More recently, its anti-neoplastic effects have provoked a great attention. This study aims to assess the effects of crocin administration during doxorubicin-based chemotherapy of breast cancer on anxiety, depression, and chemotherapy toxicity profile. Seventy-two patients with non-metastatic Her2/neu positive or triple negative breast cancer were enrolled and randomly assigned to receive either 30 mg/day of crocin or placebo during chemotherapy [2:2]. Beck's Depression and Anxiety Inventories were used at baseline and end of the trial. In addition, the ECOG Common Toxicity Criteria were applied to assess chemotherapy side-effects. After the intervention, the degree of anxiety and depression decreased significantly in the crocin group (p = .001 for both) and increased significantly in the placebo-group (p = .006 and p = .036, respectively). There were significantly higher grade II-IV leukopenia (47.2% vs. 19.4%, p = .012) in the crocin group, and grade II-IV hypersensitivity-reaction (30.6% vs. 5.6%, p = .006) in addition to neurological disorders (66.7% vs. 41.7%, p = .03) in the placebo-group. The results indicate that using crocin during chemotherapy in patients with breast cancer has ameliorated anxiety and depression. Moreover, leucopenia increased whereas hypersensitivity reaction and neurological disorders decreased in the crocin group. In addition, a trend toward survival improvement was observed, which is going to be investigated on longer follow up.

Crocetin and Its Glycoside Crocin, Two Bioactive Constituents From Crocus sativus L. (Saffron), Differentially Inhibit Angiogenesis by Inhibiting Endothelial Cytoskeleton Organization and Cell Migration Through VEGFR2/SRC/FAK and VEGFR2/MEK/ERK Signaling Pathways

Crocetin and crocin are two important carotenoids isolated from saffron (Crocus sativus L.), which have been used as natural biomedicines with beneficial effects for improving the suboptimal health status associated with abnormal angiogenesis. However, the anti-angiogenic effects and underlying mechanisms of the effects of crocetin and crocin have not been investigated and compared. The anti-angiogenic effects of crocetin and crocin were tested on human umbilical vein endothelial cells (HUVECs) in vitro, and in zebrafish in vivo. In vivo, crocetin (20 μM) and crocin (50 and 100 μM) significantly inhibited subintestinal vein vessels formation, and a conversion process between them existed in zebrafish, resulting in a difference in their effective concentrations. In the HUVEC model, crocetin (10, 20 and 40 μM) and crocin (100, 200 and 400 μM) inhibited cell migration and tube formation, and inhibited the phosphorylation of VEGFR2 and its downstream pathway molecules. In silico analysis further showed that crocetin had a higher ability to bind with VEGFR2 than crocin. These results suggested that crocetin was more effective than crocin in inhibiting angiogenesis through regulation of the VEGF/VEGFR2 signaling pathway. These compounds, especially crocetin, are potential candidate natural biomedicines for the management of diseases associated with abnormal blood vessel growth, such as age-related macular degeneration.

Cytotoxic and osteogenic effects of crocin and bicarbonate from calcium phosphates for potential chemopreventative and anti-inflammatory applications in vitro and in vivo

Delayed healing and nonhealing of bone defects or resected bone sites remains an important clinical concern in the biomedical field. Osteosarcoma is one of the most common types of primary bone cancers. Among calcium phosphates, hydroxyapatite (HA) and tricalcium phosphate (TCP) are the most widely used in various biomedical applications for bone reconstruction and replacement. In this study, crocin, saffron's natural bioactive and anti-inflammatory molecule, and bicarbonate, a neutralizing agent, were directly loaded onto HA disks to evaluate their in vitro release and effect on human osteoblast and osteosarcoma cell lines. This was assessed through release, initial toxicity, drug optimization, final toxicity studies and in vivo anti-inflammatory assessment through H&E indexing. It is hypothesized that the release of crocin, bicarbonate, and the dual release of both agents will decrease osteosarcoma cellular viability with no effect on osteoblast cells. A plateaued release of crocin and bicarbonate was achieved over seven weeks in physiological and acidic environments, where bicarbonate was shown to modulate the release of crocin. Through morphological characterization and MTT assay analysis, bicarbonate showed no toxicity to human fetal osteoblast (hFOB) cells and crocin significantly enhanced osteoblast proliferation. Through drug concentration optimization, all drug loaded samples decreased human osteosarcoma (MG-63) viability by 50% compared to control samples by Day 11, with clear changes in cell spreading and morphology. Moreover, 3D printed TCP scaffolds loaded with crocin and bicarbonate were tested in vivo in order to assess their preliminary effects on inflammation in a rat distal femur model at 4 days. Lower inflammatory cellular recruitment was achieved in the presence of crocin and bicarbonate, compared to the control. These results suggest a pro-apoptotic mechanism against osteosarcoma as well as anti-inflammatory properties of crocin and bicarbonate, elucidating a potential application for osteosarcoma regulation and wound healing for bone tissue regeneration applications.

Saffron anti-metastatic properties, ancient spice novel application

Crocus sativus L. (saffron), was applied as a spice, food colorant and medicine since four millennia ago and has been used as a remedy for various maladies. In the last three decades, the anti-primary tumor properties of saffron and its main carotenoids, crocin and crocetin, have been well explored. Despite the fact that metastasis is the leading cause of death in cancer patients, the anti-metastatic potential of saffron and its carotenoids has been surveyed only this decade. This review aims to provide an unprecedented overview of the anti-metastatic effects of saffron, crocin and crocetin, and the mechanisms underlying these effects. Investigations on various cancers demonstrated the anti-migratory, anti-invasion, anti-angiogenic potentials of saffron and its carotenoids, as well as their effects suppressing cell-ECM adhesion and enhancing cell-cell attachment. Saffron and its carotenoids exert their impact through different mechanisms such as reduction of CD34 and suppression of Wnt/β-catenin, Ras/ERK, P38, DCLK1, EMT, matrix metalloproteinases and urokinases. Crocin displayed more effective anti-metastatic potency, in comparison with saffron extract and crocetin. The bioaccessibility/bioavailability, nontoxicity on normal cells, confirmed anti-tumor efficiency and the recent evidence on the anti-metastatic potential of saffron and its carotenoids, recommends them as a propitious multipotent dietary agent and herbal medicine.

Status and Challenges of Plant-Anticancer Compounds in Cancer Treatment

Nowadays, cancer is one of the deadliest diseases in the world, which has been estimated to cause 9.9 million deaths in 2020. Conventional treatments for cancer commonly involve mono-chemotherapy or a combination of radiotherapy and mono-chemotherapy. However, the negative side effects of these approaches have been extensively reported and have prompted the search of new therapeutic drugs. In this context, scientific community started to look for innovative sources of anticancer compounds in natural sources, including traditional plants. Currently, numerous studies have evaluated the anticancer properties of natural compounds derived from plants, both in vitro and in vivo. In pre-clinical stages, some promising compounds could be mentioned, such as the sulforaphane or different phenolic compounds. On the other hand, some phytochemicals obtained positive results in clinical stages and were further approved for cancer treatment, such as vinca alkaloids or the paclitaxel. Nevertheless, these compounds are not exempt of limitations, such as low solubility, restricted effect on their own, negative side-effects, etc. This review aims to compile the information about the current phytochemicals used for cancer treatment and also promising candidates, main action mechanisms and also reported limitations. In this sense, some strategies to face the limitations have been considered, such as nano-based formulations to improve solubility or chemical modification to reduce toxicity. In conclusion, although more research is still necessary to develop more efficient and safe phytochemical drugs, more of these compounds might be used in future cancer therapies.

Recent Advances on the Anticancer Properties of Saffron (Crocus sativus L.) and Its Major Constituents

Cancer is the second leading cause of death globally with an estimated 9.6 million deaths in 2018 and a sustained rise in its incidence in both developing and developed countries. According to the WHO, about 1 in 6 deaths is due to cancer. Despite the emergence of many pioneer therapeutic options for patients with cancer, their efficacy is still time-limited and noncurative. Thus, continuous intensive screening for superior and safer drugs is still ongoing and has resulted in the detection of the anticancer properties of several phytochemicals. Among the spices, Crocus sativus L. (saffron) and its main constituents, crocin, crocetin, and safranal, have attracted the interest of the scientific community. Pharmacological experiments have established numerous beneficial properties for this brilliant reddish-orange dye derived from the flowers of a humble crocus family species. Studies in cultured human malignant cell lines and animal models have demonstrated the cancer prevention and antitumor activities of saffron and its main ingredients. This review provides an insight into the advances in research on the anticancer properties of saffron and its components, discussing preclinical data, clinical trials, and patents aiming to improve the pharmacological properties of saffron and its major ingredients.

Is Crocin a Potential Anti-tumor Candidate Targeting Microtubules? Computational Insights From Molecular Docking and Dynamics Simulations

Although it is known crocin, a hydrophilic compound from the herbal plant Crocus sativus L., has promising antitumor activity, the detailed mechanism of its antitumor activity was not well understood. Recent experiments suggested tubulin as the primary target for the antitumor activity of crocin. However, due to a lack of crystal structure of tubulin bound with crocin, the exact binding mode and interaction between crocin and tubulin remains exclusive. In the present work, a computational study by integrating multiple conformation docking, molecular dynamics simulation as well as residue interaction network analysis was performed to investigate the molecular mechanism of crocin-tubulin interaction. By comparing the docking score, the most likely binding mode CRO_E1 were identified from 20 different binding modes of crocin in the vinca binding pockets. Further molecular dynamics simulation of CRO_E1 complex showed the binding of crocin is more stable than the inhibitor soblidotin and vinblastine. During the simulation course, an excessive number of hydrogen bonds were observed for the ligand crocin. The binding free energy of crocin-tubulin complex was calculated as -79.25 ± 7.24 kcal/mol, which is almost twice of the ligand soblidotin and vinblastine. By using energy decomposition, hot residues for CRO_E1 were identified as Gln¹¹, Gln¹⁵, Thr⁷², Ser⁷⁵, Pro¹⁷³-Lys¹⁷⁴-Val¹⁷⁵-Ser¹⁷⁶-Asp¹⁷⁷, Tyr²²², and Asn²²⁶ in the β-chain, and Asp²⁴⁵, Ala²⁴⁷-Leu²⁴⁸, Val²⁵⁰, Asn³²⁹, and Ile³³² in the α-chain. Residue interaction network analysis also showed the importance of these hot residues in the interaction network of crocin-tubulin complex. In addition, a common residue motif Val¹⁷⁵-Xxx¹⁷⁶-Asp¹⁷⁷ was discovered for all three bindings, suggesting its importance in future drug design. The study could provide valuable insights into the interaction between crocin and tubulin, and give suggestive clues for further experimental studies.

Comparative assessment of immunomodulatory, proliferative, and antioxidant activities of crocin and crocetin on mesenchymal stem cells

Saffron (Crocus sativus L) is a well-known spice with active pharmacologic components including crocin, crocetin, safranal, and picrocrocin. Similar to crocin/crocetin, mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) have been shown to display immunomodulatory and antioxidant properties, which could be beneficial in treatment of various diseases. In the current study, we have evaluated the effects of crocin and crocetin on the functions of MSCs. We used the 3-(4,5-dimethyl-2-thiazolyl)-2,5-diphenyl-2H-tetrazolium bromide assay to evaluate MSCs proliferation, and flow cytometry assay to measure the percentage of apoptotic MSCs and Tregs populations. Furthermore, we used the real-time polymerase chain reaction method to quantify messenger RNA (mRNA) expression of inflammatory and anti-inflammatory cytokines. Antioxidant assay was employed to quantify antioxidant parameters including nitric oxide and malondialdehyde levels besides superoxide dismutase activity. Our findings indicated that both crocin and crocetin at low concentrations (2.5 and 5 µM) exhibited significant effects on increasing MSCs viability and on protecting them against apoptosis-induced death. Furthermore, crocin and crocetin at low concentrations (2.5 and 5 µM) displayed a better antioxidant function. Moreover, increased Treg population was observed at lower doses. In addition, crocin/crocetin at low concentrations caused an elevation in mRNA expression of anti-inflammatory cytokines (transforming growth factor-β, interleukin-10 [IL-10], and IL-4), while at higher doses (25 and 50 µM) they led to lowering inflammatory cytokines (IL-1β, IL-6, IL-17, and interferon gamma). Altogether, both crocin and crocetin at lower concentrations exhibited more efficacies on MSCs with a better effect toward crocin. It seems that crocin and crocetin may be considered as complementary treatments for the patients who undergo MSCs transplantation.

SIRT1 is a key regulatory target for the treatment of the endoplasmic reticulum stress-related organ damage

Endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress is an evolutionarily conserved adaptive response that contributes to deal with the misfolded or unfolded protein in the lumen of the ER and restore the ER homeostasis. However, excessive and prolonged ER stress can trigger the cell-death signaling pathway which causes cell death, usually in the form of apoptosis. It is generally accepted that inappropriate cellular apoptosis and a series of the subsequent inflammatory response and oxidative stress can cause disturbance of normal physiological functions and organ damage. A lot of evidence shows that the excessive activation of the ER stress contributes to the pathogenesis of many kinds of diseases and inhibiting the inappropriate stress is of great significance for maintaining the normal physiological function. In recent years, Sirtuin1 (SIRT1) has become a research hotspot on ER stress. As a master regulator of ER stress, increasing evidence suggests that SIRT1 plays a positive role in a variety of ER stress-induced organ damage via multiple mechanisms, including inhibiting cellular apoptosis and promoting autophagy. Furthermore, a lot of factors have shown effective regulation of SIRT1, which indicates the feasibility of treating SIRT1 as a target for the treatment of ER stress-related diseases. We summarize and reveal the molecular mechanisms underlying the protective effect of SIRT1 in multiple ER stress-mediated organ damage in this review. We also summed up the possible adjustment mechanism of SIRT1, which provides a theoretical basis for the treatment of ER stress-related diseases.

Crocin Increases Gastric Cancer Cells' Sensitivity to Doxorubicin

Background:

Crocin is one of the substantial constituents of saffron extract. It has multiple clinical effects including anti-cancer effects. The development of the multidrug resistance (MDR) phenotype is one of the principal causes of cancer chemotherapy failure. The multidrug resistance protein 1 (MDR1) is one of the MDR-related protein and is often overexpressed in different cancers. In the present study, we aimed to evaluate the influence of crocin on the expression and function of MDR1 protein in EPG85-257 and EPG85-257RDB gastric cancer cell lines.

Methods:

The cytotoxicity effect of crocin was evaluated by the MTT assay. The impacts of crocin on the expression and function of MDR1 were assessed by Real-time RT-PCR and MTT assay, respectively.

Results:

The results demonstrated that crocin decreased cell viability in a dose-dependent manner with higher intensity on the EPG85-257 than the EPG85-257RDB cells. Crocin did not make any significant changes in the MDR1 gene expression level in EPG85-257 and EPG85-257RDB cell lines. In contrast, crocin increased doxorubicin cytotoxicity in drug-resistant cells, which might be induced by reduced MDR1 activity.

Conclusion:

In summary, although crocin did not affect mRNA expression of MDR1, results of MTT assay suggest that it might inhibit the MDR1 function.

Tubulin-Binding 3,5-Bis(styryl)pyrazoles as Lead Compounds for the Treatment of Castration-Resistant Prostate Cancer

The microtubule-binding taxanes, docetaxel and cabazitaxel, are administered intravenously for the treatment of castration-resistant prostate cancer (CRPC) as the oral administration of these drugs is largely hampered by their low and highly variable bioavailabilities. Using a simple, rapid, and environmentally friendly microwave-assisted protocol, we have synthesized a number of 3,5-bis(styryl)pyrazoles 2a-l, thus allowing for their screening for antiproliferative activity in the androgen-independent PC3 prostate cancer cell line. Surprisingly, two of these structurally simple 3,5-bis(styryl)pyrazoles (2a and 2l) had concentrations which gave 50% of the maximal inhibition of cell proliferation (GI50) in the low micromolar range in the PC3 cell line and were thus selected for extensive further biologic evaluation (apoptosis and cell cycle analysis, and effects on tubulin and microtubules). Our findings from these studies show that 3,5-bis[(1E)-2(2,6-dichlorophenyl)ethenyl]-1H-pyrazole 2l 1) caused significant effects on the cell cycle in PC3 cells, with the vast majority of treated cells in the G2/M phase (89%); 2) induces cell death in PC3 cells even after the removal of the compound; 3) binds to tubulin [dissociation constant (Kd) 0.4 ± 0.1 μM] and inhibits tubulin polymerization in vitro; 4) had no effect upon the polymerization of the bacterial cell division protein FtsZ (a homolog of tubulin); 5) is competitive with paclitaxel for binding to tubulin but not with vinblastine, crocin, or colchicine; and 6) leads to microtubule depolymerization in PC3 cells. Taken together, these results suggest that 3,5-bis(styryl)pyrazoles warrant further investigation as lead compounds for the treatment of CRPC. SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT: The taxanes are important components of prostate cancer chemotherapy regimens, but their oral administration is hampered by very low and highly variable oral bioavailabilities resulting from their poor absorption, poor solubility, high first-pass metabolism, and efficient efflux by P-glycoprotein. New chemical entities for the treatment of prostate cancer are thus required, and we report here the synthesis and investigation of the mechanism of action of some bis(styryl)pyrazoles, demonstrating their potential as lead compounds for the treatment of prostate cancer.

Cytosolic and mitochondrial ROS production resulted in apoptosis induction in breast cancer cells treated with Crocin: The role of FOXO3a, PTEN and AKT signaling

Different groups have reported the Crocin anticancer activity. We previously showed Crocin-induced apoptosis in rat model of breast and gastric cancers, through the increased Bax/Bcl-2 ratio and caspases activity, as well as the cell cycle arrest in a p53-dependent manner. Since Crocin antioxidant activity has been shown under different conditions, it is interesting to elucidate its apoptotic mechanism. Here, we treated two breast cancer cell lines, MCF-7 and MDA-MB-231, with Crocin. MTT and ROS assays, cell cycle arrest, Bax/Bcl-2 ratio and caspase3 activity were determined. PARP cleavage and expression of some proteins were studied using Western blotting and immunofluorescence. The results indicated stepwise ROS generation in cytosol and mitochondria after Crocin treatment. Attenuating the early ROS level, using diphenyleneiodonium, diminished the sequent mitochondrial damage (decreasing Δψ) and downstream apoptotic signaling. Crocin induced ROS production, FOXO3a expression and nuclear translocation, and then, elevation of the expression of FOXO3a target genes (Bim and PTEN) and caspase-3 activation. Application of N-acetylcysteine blocked AKT/FOXO3a/Bim signaling. FOXO3a knockdown resulted in a decrease of Bim, PTEN and caspase 3, after Crocin treatment. PTEN knockdown caused a decrease in FOXO3a, Bim and caspase 3, in addition to an increase in p-AKT and p-FOXO3a, after Crocin treatment. In conclusion, Crocin induced apoptosis in MCF-7 and MDA-MB-231 human breast cancer cells. The ROS-activated FOXO3a cascade plays a central role in this process. FOXO3a-mediated upregulation of PTEN exerted a further inhibition of the AKT survival pathway. These data provide a new insight into applications of Crocin for cancer therapy.

The Influence of Anionic, Cationic Surfactant and AOT/Water/Heptane Reverse Micelle on Photophysical Properties of Crocin: Compare with RPMI Effect

Encapsulation of crocin (CN), having large nonlinear optical (NLO) properties, can be utilized in studies of photodynamic therapy (PDT). For this purpose, photo-physical and NLO properties of CN encapsulation with and without cell culture medium (CCM) were investigated. As well, nonlinear absorption (NLA) coefficient and nonlinear refractive (NLR) indices were found to be 10^-7 (cm W^-1) and 10^-12 (cm² W^-1); respectively. The results revealed that NLO properties of CN had changed through its dipole moment. Reflecting on the theory of Bilot and Kawski, it was evidenced that the dipole moment of CN could change with a nano-droplet size. Furthermore, it was demonstrated that RPMI-1640 as a growth medium had failed to change NLO properties of CN encapsulated in nano-droplet. Accordingly, the encapsulated CN in nano-droplet in the form of a photosensitizer (PS) was suggested as a good candidate to examine PDT under in-vitro conditions.

Anti-metastatic properties of a potent herbal combination in cell and mice models of triple negative breast cancer

AIM

To determine the anti-metastatic potential of combinations of two bioactive carotenoids of saffron, crocin and crocetin, on 4T1 breast cancer and on a mice model of TNBC, and assess the effect of the most potent combination on the Wnt/β-catenin pathway.

MAIN METHODS

The effects of the carotenoid combinations on the viability of 4T1 cells were determined by MTT assay. The effects of the nontoxic doses on migration, mobility, invasion and adhesion to ECM were examined by scratch assay, Transwell/Matrigel-coated Transwell chamber and adhesion assay respectively. Tumors were inoculated by injecting mice with 4T1 cells. The weights and survival rates of the mice and tumor sizes were monitored. Histological analysis of the tissues was conducted. The expression levels of Wnt/β-catenin pathway genes were measured by Real-time PCR and western blotting.

KEY FINDINGS

Treatment of 4T1 cells with combination doses inhibited viability in a dose-dependent manner. The nontoxic combinations significantly inhibited migration, cell mobility and invasion, also attenuating adhesion to ECM. The combination therapy mice possessed more weight, higher survival rates and smaller tumors. Histological examination detected remarkably fewer metastatic foci in their livers and lungs. It was also demonstrated that the combinations exerted anti-metastatic effects by disturbing the Wnt/β-catenin target genes in the liver and tumors.

SIGNIFICANCE

Our findings propose a carotenoid combination as an alternative potent herbal treatment for TNBC, which lacks the adverse effects associated with either chemotherapeutic agents or herb-chemotherapeutic drugs.

Isolation, purification and characterization of naturally derived Crocetin beta-d-glucosyl ester from Crocus sativus L. against breast cancer and its binding chemistry with ER-alpha/HDAC2

Saffron plant (Crocus sativus L.) is being used as a source of saffron spice and medicine to cure or prevent different types of diseases including cancers. We report the isolation, characterization of bioactive small molecule ([crocetin (β-d-glucosyl) ester] from the leaf biowastes of saffron plant of Kashmir, India. MTTC assay and Bio-autography aided approach were used to assess anti-oxidant activity and anti-cancer properties of crocin (s) against DPPH free radical and breast cancer cell line respectively. Crocetin beta-d-glucosyl ester restrained proliferation of human breast adeno-carcinoma cell model (MCF-7) without significantly affecting normal cell line (L-6). Further studies involving molecular mechanics generalized born surface area and molecular docking showed that crocetin beta-d-glucosyl ester exhibits strong affinity for estrogen receptor alpha and histone deacetylase 2 (crucial receptors involved in breast cancer signalling) as evidenced by the negative docking score and binding free energy (BFE) values. Therefore, crocetin beta-d-glucosyl ester from Crocus sativus biowastes showed antiproliferative effect possibly by inhibiting estrogen receptor alpha and HDAC2 mediated signalling cascade.

Antioxidant Properties of Crocus Sativus L. and Its Constituents and Relevance to Neurodegenerative Diseases; Focus on Alzheimer's and Parkinson's Disease

BACKGROUND

Reactive oxygen species and reactive nitrogen species, which are collectively called reactive oxygen-nitrogen species, are the inevitable by-products of cellular metabolic redox reactions, such as oxidative phosphorylation in the mitochondrial respiratory chain, phagocytosis, reactions of biotransformation of exogenous and endogenous substrata in endoplasmic reticulum, eicosanoid synthesis, and redox reactions in the presence of metal with variable valence. Among medicinal plants, there is growing interest in Crocus Sativus L. It is a perennial, stemless herb, belonging to Iridaceae family, cultivated in various countries such as Greece, Italy, Spain, Israel, Morocco, Turkey, Iran, India, China, Egypt and Mexico.

OBJECTIVE

The present study aims to address the protective role of Crocus Sativus L. in neurodegeneration with an emphasis in Parkinson's and Alzheimer's disease.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

An electronic literature search was conducted by two of the authors from 1993 to August 2017. Original articles and systematic reviews (with or without meta-analysis), as well as case reports were selected. Titles and abstracts of papers were screened by a third reviewer to determine whether they met the eligibility criteria, and full texts of the selected articles were retrieved.

RESULTS

Hence, the authors focused on the literature concerning the role of Crocus Sativus L. on its anti-oxidant and neuroprotective properties.

CONCLUSION

Literature findings represented in current review herald promising results for using Crocus Sativus L. and/or its active constituents as antioxidants, anti-inflammatory, and neuroprotective agents.

The Mediterranean Diet as source of bioactive compounds with multi-targeting anti-cancer profile

Many bioactive agents have been extracted from plants or belong to functional foods and have been considered in the treatment of serious and multifactorial diseases, such as cancer. In particular, this review is focused on the anti-cancer properties owned by several natural products typically from the Mediterranean area. In some regions of the South of Italy, a lower cancer incidence has been observed. There is increasing evidence that adherence to a Mediterranean dietary pattern correlates with reduced risk of several cancer types. This could be mainly attributed to the typical lifestyle aspects of the Mediterranean diet, such as high consumption of fruit and vegetables. In this review, the main natural products of the Mediterranean area are discussed, with particular attention on their anti-cancer properties endowed with multi-target profiles.

Methyl-β-cyclodextrin, an actin depolymerizer augments the antiproliferative potential of microtubule-targeting agents

Methyl-β-cyclodextrin (MCD), an established pharmacological excipient, depolymerizes the actin cytoskeleton. In this work, we investigated the effect of MCD-mediated actin depolymerization on various cellular phenotypes including traction force, cell stiffness, focal adhesions, and intracellular drug accumulation. In addition to a reduction in the contractile cellular traction, MCD acutely inhibits the maturation of focal adhesions. Alteration of contractile forces and focal adhesions affects the trypsin-mediated detachment kinetics of cells. Moreover, MCD-mediated actin depolymerization increases the intracellular accumulation of microtubule-targeting agents (MTAs) by ~50% with respect to the untreated cells. As MCD treatment enhances the intracellular concentration of drugs, we hypothesized that the MCD-sensitized cancer cells could be effectively killed by low doses of MTAs. Our results in cervical, breast, hepatocellular, prostate cancer and multidrug-resistant breast cancer cells confirmed the above hypothesis. Further, the combined use of MCD and MTAs synergistically inhibits the proliferation of tumor cells. These results indicate the potential use of MCD in combination with MTAs for cancer chemotherapy and suggest that targeting both actin and microtubules simultaneously may be useful for cancer therapy. Importantly, the results provide significant insight into the crosstalk between actin and microtubules in regulating the traction force and dynamics of cell deadhesion.

Crocin inhibits the migration, invasion, and epithelial-mesenchymal transition of gastric cancer cells via miR-320/KLF5/HIF-1α signaling

The biological activities of crocin, one of the main bioactive compounds of saffron, include anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, antidepressant, and anticancer effects. Crocin has been shown to trigger the apoptosis of gastric cancer cells, but its effect on the metastasis of gastric cancer cells remains unclear. Krüppel-like factor 5 (KLF5) and hypoxia-inducible factor-1α (HIF-1α) are important transcription factors in the development of gastric cancer. KLF5 and HIF-1α expression were analyzed in gastric cancer tissues and cells. Following exposure to crocin, AGS and HGC-27 gastric cancer cells were assessed with regard to migration, invasion, and epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT) as well as the expression of KLF5, HIF-1α, and microRNA-320 (miR-320). The miR-320/KLF5/HIF-1α signaling pathway became the focus for further investigation of the mechanism of crocin in gastric cancer cell migration, invasion, and EMT. KLF5 and HIF-1α expression were elevated in gastric cancer tissues and cells, and KLF5 expression was positively correlated with the HIF-1α level in gastric cancer tissues. Crocin was associated with reduced expression of KLF5 and HIF-1α, whereas miR-320 expression was increased. Crocin also inhibited the migration, invasion, and EMT of gastric cancer cells. Upregulation of KLF5 attenuated crocin's function and elevated HIF-1α expression. Dual-luciferase reporter assay demonstrated that KLF5 was a target gene of miR-320. Crocin modulated KLF5 expression via elevation of miR-320 expression. In conclusion, crocin inhibits the EMT, migration, and invasion of gastric cancer cells, and this activity is mediated through miR-320/KLF5/HIF-1α signaling.

Crocin, a carotenoid, suppresses spindle microtubule dynamics and activates the mitotic checkpoint by binding to tubulin

Crocin, a constituent of the saffron spice, exhibits promising antitumor activity in animal models and also inhibits the proliferation of several types of cancer cells in culture. Recently, we have shown that crocin binds to purified tubulin at the vinblastine site, depolymerizes microtubules and induces a mitotic block in cultured cells. Here, we extend our previous suggestion and explore the cellular effects of crocin to further understand its mechanism of action. In a kinetic study, we observed that the crocin-induced depolymerization of microtubules preceded both DNA damage and reactive oxygen species generation indicating that depolymerizing microtubules is the primary action of crocin. Crocin also inhibited the growth of cold-depolymerized microtubules in HeLa cells indicating that it can inhibit microtubule dynamics. Using fluorescence recovery after photobleaching, crocin was found to suppress the spindle microtubule dynamics in live HeLa cells. Further, crocin treatment resulted in activation of spindle assembly checkpoint proteins, BubR1 and Mad2. Similar to other microtubule-targeting agents, crocin also perturbed the localization of end-binding protein EB1 from the growing microtubule ends and enhanced the acetylation of remaining microtubules. Further, crocin was found to bind to purified tubulin with a dissociation constant of 12 ± 1.5 μM. The results suggested that crocin exerted its antiproliferative effect primarily by inhibiting the assembly and dynamics of microtubules. Importantly, the combination of crocin with known anticancer agents like combretastatin A-4, cisplatin, doxorubicin or sorafenib, exerted a strong synergistic cytotoxic effect in HeLa cells indicating that crocin may enhance the effectiveness of other anticancer agents.

Crocin inhibits proliferation and induces apoptosis through suppressing MYCN expression in retinoblastoma

The pathogenetic mechanisms of retinoblastoma are still not yet fully elucidated, putting limits to efficacious treatment. Crocin is the main component of saffron, which exhibits significant antitumorigenic properties. The aim of this paper is to investigate the effect of crocin on retinoblastoma. The effects of crocin on the proliferation of human retinoblastoma cells were determined by the 3-(4,5-dimethylthiazol-2-yl)-2,5-diphenyltetrazolium bromide assay, cell number assay, and colony formation assay. Cell apoptosis induced by crocin was measured by flow cytometry analysis. Cleaved poly(ADP-ribose) polymerase and cleaved caspase-3 were tested by western blot analysis. The expression levels of MYCN were assessed by western blot and quantitative polymerase chain reaction and the stability of MYCN messenger RNA was determined by in vitro RNA degradation assays. We found that crocin significantly inhibited the cell proliferation and clonogenicity and induced cell apoptosis in Y79 and WERI-RB-1 cells. In addition, crocin treatment significantly reduced the expression and the stability of MYCN. Besides, overexpression of MYCN rescued the inhibitory effect of crocin in Y79 cells. Our findings suggest that crocin exhibits antitumorigenic effects in human retinoblastoma cell lines through a MYCN-dependent manner, which may provide guidance to logical therapeutic designs in prevention and treatment of retinoblastoma.

Microtubules: From understanding their dynamics to using them as potential therapeutic targets

Microtubules (MT) and actin microfilaments are dynamic cytoskeleton components involved in a range of intracellular processes. MTs play a role in cell division, beating of cilia and flagella, and intracellular transport. Over the past decades, much knowledge has been gained regarding MT function and structure, and its role in underlying disease progression. This makes MT potential therapeutic targets for various disorders. Disturbances in MT and their associated proteins are the underlying cause of diseases such as Alzheimer's disease, cancer, and several genetic diseases. Some of the advances in the field of MT research, as well as the potenti G beta gamma, is needed al uses of MT-targeting agents in various conditions have been reviewed here.

Indirubin, a bis-indole alkaloid binds to tubulin and exhibits antimitotic activity against HeLa cells in synergism with vinblastine

Indirubin, a bis-indole alkaloid used in traditional Chinese medicine has shown remarkable anticancer activity against chronic myelocytic leukemia. The present work was aimed to decipher the underlying molecular mechanisms responsible for its anticancer attributes. Our findings suggest that indirubin inhibited the proliferation of HeLa cells with an IC₅₀ of 40 μM and induced a mitotic block. At concentrations higher than its IC₅₀, indirubin exerted a moderate depolymerizing effect on the interphase microtubular network and spindle microtubules in HeLa cells. Studies with goat brain tubulin indicated that indirubin bound to tubulin at a single site with a dissociation constant of 26 ± 3 μM and inhibited the in vitro polymerization of tubulin into microtubules in the presence of glutamate as well as microtubule-associated proteins. Molecular docking analysis and molecular dynamics simulation studies indicate that indirubin stably binds to tubulin at the interface of the α-β tubulin heterodimer. Further, indirubin stabilized the binding of colchicine on tubulin and promoted the cysteine residue modification by 5,5'-dithiobis-2-nitrobenzoic acid, indicating towards alteration of tubulin conformation upon binding. In addition, we found that indirubin synergistically enhanced the anti-mitotic and anti-proliferative activity of vinblastine, a known microtubule-targeted agent. Collectively our studies indicate that perturbation of microtubule polymerization dynamics could be one of the possible mechanisms behind the anti-cancer activities of indirubin.

Drug-Clinical Agent Molecular Hybrid: Synthesis of Diaryl(trifluoromethyl)pyrazoles as Tubulin Targeting Anticancer Agents

Twenty-three combretastatin A-4 (CA-4) analogues were synthesized by judiciously incorporating a functional N-heterocyclic motif present in Celecoxib (a marketed drug) while retaining essential pharmacophoric features of CA-4. Combretastatin-(trifluoromethyl)pyrazole hybrid analogues, i.e., 5-trimethoxyphenyl-3-(trifluoromethyl)pyrazoles with a variety of relevantly substituted aryls and heteroaryls at 1-position were considered as potential tubulin polymerization inhibitors. The cytotoxicity of the compounds was evaluated using MCF-7 cells. Analog 23 (C-23) was found to be the most active among the tested compounds. It showed pronounced cytotoxicity against HeLa, B16F10, and multidrug-resistant mammary tumor cells EMT6/AR1. Interestingly, C-23 displayed significantly lower toxicity toward noncancerous cells, MCF10A and L929, than their cancerous counterparts, MCF-7 and B16F10, respectively. C-23 depolymerized interphase microtubules, disrupted mitotic spindle formation, and arrested MCF-7 cells at mitosis, leading to cell death. C-23 inhibited the assembly of tubulin in vitro. C-23 bound to tubulin at the colchicine binding site and altered the secondary structures of tubulin. The data revealed the importance of (trimethoxyphenyl)(trifluoromethyl)pyrazole as a cis-restricted double bond-alternative bridging motif, and carboxymethyl-substituted phenyl as ring B for activities and interaction with tubulin. The results indicated that the combretastatin-(trifluoromethyl)pyrazole hybrid class of analogues has the potential for further development as anticancer agents.