Red blood cell membrane-coated upconversion nanoparticles for pretargeted multimodality imaging of triple-negative breast cancer

Superfluorescent upconversion nanoparticles as an emerging second generation quantum technology material

Superfluorescence (SF) in lanthanide doped upconversion nanoparticles (UCNPs) is a room-temperature quantum phenomenon, first discovered in 2022. In a SF process, the many emissive lanthanide ions within a single UCNP are coherently coupled by an ultra-short (ns or fs) high-power excitation laser pulse. This leads to a superposition of excited emissive states which decrease the emissive lifetime of the UCNP by a factor proportional to the square of the number of lanthanide ions which are coherently coupled. This results in a dramatic decrease in UCNP emission lifetime from the μs regime to the ns regime. Thus SF offers a tantalizing prospect to achieving superior upconversion photon flux in upconversion materials, with potential applications such as imaging and sensing. This perspective article contextualizes how SF-UCNPs can be regarded as a second generation quantum technology, and notes several challenges, opportunities, and open questions for the development of SF-UCNPs.

Advancements in Cell Membrane-Derived Biomimetic Nanotherapeutics for Breast Cancer

Breast cancer remains the leading cause of female mortality worldwide, necessitating innovative and multifaceted approaches to address its various subtypes. Nanotechnology has attracted considerable attention due to its nanoscale dimensions, diverse carrier types, suitability for hydrophobic drug delivery, and capacity for controlled and targeted administration. Nano-sized particles have become prevalent carriers for therapeutic agents targeting breast cancer, thanks to their reproducible synthesis and adjustable properties, including size, shape, and surface characteristics. In addition, certain nanoparticles can enhance therapeutic effects synergistically. However, the immune system often detects and removes these nanoparticles, limiting their efficacy. As a promising alternative, cell membrane-based delivery systems have gained attention due to their biocompatibility and targeting specificity. These membrane-coated drug delivery systems are derived from various cell sources, including blood cells, cancer cells, and stem cells. Leveraging the unique properties of these cell membranes enables precise targeting of breast cancer tumors and associated biomarkers. Inspired by natural structures, cell membranes disguise nanoparticles in the bloodstream, enhancing their retention time in vivo and improving tumor targeting. Consequently, cell membrane-derived nanoparticles (CMDNPs) have been investigated for their potential applications in breast cancer diagnostics, photothermal therapy (PTT), and vaccine development. This review comprehensively explores the potential and limitations of cell membrane-derived drug delivery systems in clinical applications against breast cancer.

Erythrocyte membrane vesicles as drug delivery systems: A systematic review of preclinical studies on biodistribution and pharmacokinetics

This systematic review aims to summarize the development of erythrocyte membrane vesicles (EMVs) as drug delivery carriers, with a focus on elucidating their fate in terms of biodistribution and pharmacokinetics in preclinical studies. The PubMed database was systematically reviewed to search for original peer-reviewed published studies on the use of EMVs for drug delivery to summarize the preclinical findings, following the PRISMA guidelines. A total of 142 articles matched the selection criteria and were included in the review. For each study, the following parameters were extracted: type of active pharmaceutical ingredient (API) encapsulated into EMVs, EMVs-API formulation method and final particle size, EMVs surface modifications for active targeting, cell lines and animal models used in the study, crucial treatment data, biodistribution data and finally, where applicable, data about the EMVs circulation time and blood half-life. EMVs size did not vary significantly among the different formulation methods. A complete list of cell lines and animal models used is provided. Circulation times and data for blood half-life were grouped per animal type. For the most commonly used animal type, BALB/c mice, the average half-life of EMV-API was calculated to be 10.4 h, and in all cases, up to a 10-fold increase was observed compared with that of free API. Surface modifications did not drastically change the circulation time but did improve target tissue accumulation. The most critical weaknesses in the analysed studies were identified. Key points for future studies are provided to fill the current knowledge gaps and improve the quality of publications.

Harnessing nanoparticles and bioorthogonal chemistries for improving precision of nuclear medicine

The convergence of nanotechnology, radiopharmaceutical development and molecular imaging has unveiled exciting opportunities for the progress of innovative diagnostic and therapeutic strategies, paving the way for significant advancements in biomedical research, especially in relation to cancer. For example, the use of highly sensitive and quantitative nuclear imaging techniques including PET and SPECT, together with nanoparticles for tumour imaging and therapy has recently expanded rapidly. While the long circulating properties of many nanomaterials are beneficial for prodrug chemotherapy formulations, due to the constant decay processes involved in nuclear medicines, directly labelled materials result in prolonged systemic radiation exposure and reduced therapeutic indices due to the unfavourable target-to-background ratios. This is due to the tendency for long circulating nanomaterials to distribute within the blood to other organs, such as the liver and spleen. The recent integration of bioorthogonal chemistry with nanotechnology and molecular imaging/radiotherapy has revolutionized the field by allowing the decoupling of the targeting molecule (i.e. nanomaterial with a bioorthogonal tag) and the imaging/therapeutic radioisotope. In this way, the detection/therapeutic element can be administered as a secondary "chase" molecule that contains the bioorthogonal partner, thereby creating an avenue to improve therapeutic index and provide imaging and treatments with reduced risk. This review will provide an overview of the progress made thus far in the field of nuclear imaging and radiotherapy for cancer using the combination of nanomaterials and bioorthogonal chemistry. We also provide a critical evaluation of the challenges and opportunities for using these approaches to better understand disease and treatment mechanisms, with the potential for downstream clinical translation.

Ecofriendly synthesis characterization and biological activities of Eruca sativa mediated silver oxide nanoparticles

One of the popular subjects of millennia is the synthesis of nanostructures, their applications in numerous fields, and their interaction with various biological systems, making them appealing for drug delivery systems, and diagnostic and therapeutic agents. In this study, silver oxide nanoparticles were synthesized using E. sativa (ES) aqueous extract. The biosynthesis was followed via UV-vis spectroscopy by analysis, FTIR, XRD, TEM, and Zeta potential to further analyze the synthesized nanoparticles. Furthermore, the biosynthesized silver oxide nanoparticles (Ag2ONPs) were checked through various biological activities. The antioxidative potential was assessed by performing a DPPH radical scavenging assay, total reducing power assay, and total antioxidant capacity assay. Antimicrobial potential was observed against various bacterial and fungal strains. Likewise, Artemia salina (brine shrimps) was used to study cytotoxicity, while VERO and HEK-293 cell lines were applied to check the biocompatibility of synthesized NPs. Anticancer potential was evaluated against the Hep-2 cells by utilizing an MTT assay. A mean crystallite ~ 50 nm size is evidenced by TEM analysis. Notable antimicrobial activity was detected with various bacterial and fungal strains with maximum ZOI by B. subtilis was 18.5 ± 2.36 mm at 1000 µg/mL and A. niger reveals a minimum ZOP of 16 ± 1.7 mm at 1000 µg/mL respectively. A dose-dependent response was observed in biological evaluation against A. salina (LC50: 12.21 µg/mL), DPPH (IC50: 62.36 µg/mL), VERO cell line (IC50: 43.11 µg/mL), HEK-293 cell line (IC50: 26.56 µg/mL), and Hep-2 cell line (IC50: 9.97 µg/mL). The multifaceted attributes of ES-Ag2ONPs encompassing antimicrobial, antioxidant, cytotoxic, and anticancer properties render them a versatile platform in drug delivery and biomedical horizons. However, detailed investigation and clinical trials will undoubtedly provide translational applications in diverse fields.

Cell membrane-camouflaged nanocarriers: A cutting-edge biomimetic technology to develop cancer immunotherapy

The development and growth of many diseases are significantly influenced by immune dysregulation. Similarly, uncontrolled tumor growth occurs in cancer because the immune system is unable to identify and eradicate cancer cells. Therefore, to address this issue, cancer immunotherapy plays a crucial role in detecting tumors and inhibiting their growth. This immune-oncotherapy has gained significant interest over the last decade because of its relevant success in biomedical applications. The fundamental goal of immunotherapy in the war against cancer is to develop potent immunotherapies that have minimal side effects and excellent tumor selectivity. To develop these characteristics, nanotechnology offered promising opportunities for cancer immunotherapy. Cell membrane-coated nanoparticles (CMNPs) have recently evolved, which has a tremendous advantage over other nanoparticles (NPs). The CMNPs can be formed by wrapping cell membranes, which can camouflage the specific cell type, allowing these NPs to survive like "self" during blood circulation and escape immune cell capture. These provide NPs with increased biocompatibility, minimal immunogenicity, longer circulation, and targeted tumor therapy. These advantages have made CMNPs a potential delivery vehicle for immunostimulatory drugs, which can induce immunological responses and lead to cancer immunotherapy. Surface modification of CMNPs using cutting-edge genetic engineering techniques revolutionizes cancer immunotherapy to produce new nano-formulations with greater effectiveness. In this review, we briefly discuss the relationship between cancer and the immune system, various techniques of CMNPs synthesis, and the use of naturally occurring and genetically modified CMNPs for cancer immunotherapy.

Scavenger receptor class B member 1 promotes lung cancer growth and metastasis through enhanced twist family BHLH transcription factor 1 signaling in vitro and in vivo: Exploration of RPPNs as a therapeutic Strategy

Objective

Lung cancer remains a leading cause of cancer-related mortality worldwide. Although scavenger receptor class B member 1 (SCARB1), a crucial cell surface receptor, plays a vital role in various cancers, its function in lung cancer remains incompletely elucidated. This study aims to investigate the role and molecular mechanisms of SCARB1 in lung cancer progression and develop a novel SCARB1-targeted nanoparticle drug delivery system.

Material and Methods

We analyzed SCARB1 expression levels in lung cancer tissues and their correlation with patient prognosis using the Cancer Genome Atlas database. In vitro experiments, including quantitative real-time polymerase chain reaction, Western blot, 5-ethynyl-2'-deoxyuridine, colony formation, and Transwell analyses, were conducted to study the effects of SCARB1 on lung cancer cell proliferation, invasion, and migration. A lung metastasis model was established through tail vein injection to evaluate the role of SCARB1 in promoting lung cancer metastasis in vivo. We also developed red blood cell membrane-coated poly (lactic-co-glycolic acid) nanocarriers loaded with paclitaxel (RPPNs) and assessed their effect on SCARB1 expression and lung cancer progression.

Results

SCARB1 was overexpressed in human lung cancer tissues and significantly associated with poor patient prognosis. In vitro experiments confirmed that silencing SCARB1 inhibited lung cancer cell growth, invasion, and migration. SCARB1 overexpression promoted lung cancer cell proliferation, migration, and epithelial-mesenchymal transition through twist family BHLH transcription factor 1 (Twist1) activation. In vivo experiments further validated the crucial role of SCARB1 in promoting lung cancer metastasis. The developed RPPNs effectively suppressed SCARB1 expression in lung cancer and demonstrated superior inhibitory effects compared with traditional RPPNs. However, SCARB1 overexpression partially antagonized the antimetastatic effects of RPPNs.

Conclusion

This work elucidates, for the 1st time, the molecular mechanism by which SCARB1 promotes lung cancer growth and metastasis through the activation of the Twist1 signaling pathway and develops a novel SCARB1-targeted nanoparticle drug delivery system, namely RPPNs. The findings of this work not only deepen our understanding of the molecular mechanisms underlying lung cancer progression but also provide new strategies for lung cancer diagnosis and treatment.

Molecular Imaging for Biomimetic Nanomedicine in Cancer Therapy: Current Insights and Challenges

Coating biological membranes onto biomimetic nanocarriers improves biocompatibility, prolongs circulation, and enhances targeted delivery for cancer precision medicine. To better understand the biodistribution profiles of these biomimetic nanosystems, molecular imaging techniques, including optical imaging, radionuclide imaging, magnetic resonance imaging, and ultrasound imaging, have been widely employed for in vivo tracking and dynamic imaging. Here in this review, we delve into the profound role of these imaging modalities in visualizing changes in the tumor microenvironment, particularly in monitoring oxygen consumption and immune response dynamics, highlighting their potential to improve cancer therapies. We also briefly discuss current applications of molecular imaging in synergistic cancer therapies and future perspectives. Finally, we offer insights into the potential of integrating biomimetic nanomedicine with molecular imaging for clinical translation.

Blood Cell Membrane-Coated Nanomaterials as a Versatile Biomimetic Nanoplatform for Antitumor Applications

The application of nanomaterials in tumor therapy is increasingly widespread, offering more possibilities for enhanced tumor therapy. However, the unclear biological distribution and metabolism of nanomaterials may lead to immune rejection or inflammatory reactions, posing numerous challenges to their clinical translation. The rich diversity and multifaceted functions of blood cells offer promising biological avenues for enhancing the application of nanoparticles in cancer therapy. Blood cell membranes, being made of naturally found components in the body, exhibit significant biocompatibility, which can reduce the body's immune rejection response, extend the drug's residence time in the bloodstream, and enhance its bioavailability. Integrating blood cell membranes with nanomaterials enhances tumor therapy by improving targeted delivery, prolonging circulation time, and evading immune responses. This review summarizes recent advancements in the application of blood cell membrane-coated nanomaterials for antitumor therapy, with a particular focus on their use in photodynamic and photothermal treatments. Additionally, it explores their potential for synergistic effects when combined with other therapeutic modalities.

Lanthanide-doped upconversion nanoparticles as nanoprobes for bioimaging

Upconversion nanoparticles (UCNPs) are a class of nanomaterials composed of lanthanide ions with great potential for paraclinical applications, especially in laboratory and imaging sciences. UCNPs have tunable optical properties and the ability to convert long-wavelength (low energy) excitation light into short-wavelength (high energy) emission in the ultraviolet (UV)-visible and near-infrared (NIR) spectral regions. The core-shell structure of UCNPs can be customized through chemical synthesis to meet the needs of different applications. The surface of UCNPs can also be tailored by conjugating small molecules and/or targeting ligands to achieve high specificity and selectivity, which are indispensable elements in biomedical applications. Specifically, coatings can enhance the water dispersion, biocompatibility, and efficiency of UCNPs, thereby optimizing their functionality and boosting their performance. In this context, multimodal imaging can provide more accurate in vivo information when combined with nuclear imaging. This article intends to provide a comprehensive review of the core structure, structure optimization, surface modification, and various recent applications of UCNPs in biomolecular detection, cell imaging, tumor diagnosis, and deep tissue imaging. We also present and discuss some of their critical challenges, limitations, and potential future directions.

From bench to bedside: Platelet biomimetic nanoparticles as a promising carriers for personalized drug delivery

In recent decades, there has been a burgeoning interest in cell membrane coating strategies as innovative approach for targeted delivery systems in biomedical applications. Platelet membrane-coated nanoparticles (PNPs), in particular, are gaining interest as a new route for targeted therapy due to their advantages over conventional drug therapies. Their stepwise approach blends the capabilities of the natural platelet membrane (PM) with the adaptable nature of manufactured nanomaterials, resulting in a synergistic combination that enhances drug delivery and enables the development of innovative therapeutics. In this context, we present an overview of the latest advancements in designing PNPs with various structures tailored for precise drug delivery. Initially, we describe the types, preparation methods, delivery mechanisms, and specific advantages of PNPs. Next, we focus on three critical applications of PNPs in diseases: vascular disease therapy, cancer treatment, and management of infectious diseases. This review presents our knowledge of PNPs, summarizes their advancements in targeted therapies and discusses the promising potential for clinical translation of PNPs.

Recent advances in biomimetic cell membrane-camouflaged nanoparticles for cancer therapy

The emerging strategy of biomimetic nanoparticles (NPs) via cellular membrane camouflage holds great promise in cancer therapy. This scholarly review explores the utilization of cellular membranes derived from diverse cellular entities; blood cells, immune cells, cancer cells, stem cells, and bacterial cells as examples of NP coatings. The camouflaging strategy endows NPs with nuanced tumor-targeting abilities such as self-recognition, homotypic targeting, and long-lasting circulation, thus also improving tumor therapy efficacy overall. The comprehensive examination encompasses a variety of cell membrane camouflaged NPs (CMCNPs), elucidating their underlying targeted therapy mechanisms and delineating diverse strategies for anti-cancer applications. Furthermore, the review systematically presents the synthesis of source materials and methodologies employed in order to construct and characterize these CMCNPs, with a specific emphasis on their use in cancer treatment.

Tumor-derived nanovesicles enhance cancer synergistic chemo-immunotherapy by promoting cGAS/STING pathway activation and immunogenetic cell death

AIMS

Checkpoint blockade immunotherapy is a promising therapeutic modality that has revolutionized cancer treatment; however, the therapy is only effective on a fraction of patients due to the tumor environment. In tumor immunotherapy, the cGAS-STING pathway is a crucial intracellular immune response pathway. Therefore, this study aimed to develop an immunotherapy strategy based on the cGAS-STING pathway.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The physicochemical properties of the nanoparticles EM@REV@DOX were characterized by TEM, DLS, and WB. Subcutaneous LLC xenograft tumors were used to determine the biodistribution, antitumor efficacy, and immune response. Blood samples and tissues of interest were harvested for hematological analysis and H&E staining.

SIGNIFICANCE

Overall, our designed nanovesicles provide a new perspective on tumor immunotherapy by ICD and cGAS-STING pathway, promoting DCs maturation, macrophage polarization, and activating T cells, offering a meaningful strategy for accelerating the clinical development of immunotherapy.

KEY FINDINGS

EM@REV@DOX accumulated in the tumor site through EPR and homing targeting effect to release REV and DOX, resulting in DNA damage and finally activating the cGAS-STING pathway, thereby promoting DCs maturation, macrophage polarization, and activating T cells. Additionally, EM@REV@DOX increased the production of pro-inflammatory cytokines (e.g., TNF-α and IFN-β). As a result, EM@REV@DOX was effective in treating tumor-bearing mice and prolonged their lifespans. When combined with αPD-L1, EM@REV@DOX significantly inhibited distant tumor growth, extended the survival of mice, and prevented long-term postoperative tumor metastasis, exhibiting great potential in antitumor immunotherapy.

New insights into red blood cells in tumor precision diagnosis and treatment

Red blood cells (RBCs), which function as material transporters in organisms, are rich in materials that are exchanged with metabolically active tumor cells. Recent studies have demonstrated that tumor cells can regulate biological changes in RBCs, including influencing differentiation, maturation, and morphology. RBCs play an important role in tumor development and immune regulation. Notably, the novel scientific finding that RBCs absorb fragments of tumor-carrying DNA overturns the conventional wisdom that RBCs do not contain nucleic acids. RBC membranes are excellent biomimetic materials with significant advantages in terms of their biocompatibility, non-immunogenicity, non-specific adsorption resistance, and biodegradability. Therefore, RBCs provide a new research perspective for the development of tumor liquid biopsies, molecular imaging, drug delivery, and other tumor precision diagnosis and treatment technologies.

Nanoparticle-Mediated Immunotherapy in Triple-Negative Breast Cancer

Triple-negative breast cancer (TNBC) is an aggressive subtype with the worst prognosis and highest recurrence rates. The treatment choices are limited due to the scarcity of endocrine and HER2 targets, except for chemotherapy. However, the side effects of chemotherapy restrict its long-term usage. Immunotherapy shows potential as a promising therapeutic strategy, such as inducing immunogenic cell death, immune checkpoint therapy, and immune adjuvant therapy. Nanotechnology offers unique advantages in the field of immunotherapy, such as improved delivery and targeted release of immunotherapeutic agents and enhanced bioavailability of immunomodulators. As well as the potential for combination therapy synergistically enhanced by nanocarriers. Nanoparticles-based combined application of multiple immunotherapies is designed to take the tactics of enhancing immunogenicity and reversing immunosuppression. Moreover, the increasing abundance of biomedical materials holds more promise for the development of this field. This review summarizes the advances in the field of nanoparticle-mediated immunotherapy in terms of both immune strategies for treatment and the development of biomaterials and presents challenges and hopes for the future.

Self-Signal-Triggered Drug Delivery System for Tumor Therapy Using Cancer Cell Membrane-Coated Biocompatible Mn3O4 Nanocomposites

In anti-cancer metastasis treatment, precise drug delivery to cancer cells remains a challenge. Innovative nanocomposites are developed to tackle these issues effectively. The approach involves the creation of manganese oxide (Mn3O4) nanoparticles (NPs) and their functionalization using trisodium citrate to yield functionalized Mn3O4 NPs (F-Mn3O4 NPs), with enhanced water solubility, stability, and biocompatibility. Subsequently, the chemotherapeutic drug doxorubicin (DOX) is encapsulated with Mn3O4 NPs, resulting in DOX/Mn3O4 NPs. To achieve cell-specific targeting, These NPs are coated with HeLa cell membranes (HCM), forming HCM/DOX/Mn3O4. For further refinement, a transferrin (Tf) receptor is integrated with cracked HCM to create Tf-HCM/DOX/Mn3O4 nanocomposites (NC) with specific cell membrane targeting capabilities. The resulting Tf-HCM/DOX/Mn3O4 NC exhibits excellent drug encapsulation efficiency (97.5%) and displays triggered drug release when exposed to NIR laser irradiation in the tumor's environment (pH 5.0 and 6.5). Furthermore, these nanocomposites show resistance to macrophage uptake and demonstrate homotypic cancer cell targeting specificity, even in the presence of other tumor cells. In vitro toxicity tests show that Tf-HCM/DOX/Mn3O4 NC achieves significant anticancer activity against HeLa and BT20 cancer cells, with percentages of 76.46% and 71.36%, respectively. These results indicate the potential of Tf-HCM/DOX/Mn3O4 NC as an effective nanoplatform for chemo-photothermal therapy.

Cell-membrane engineering strategies for clinic-guided design of nanomedicine

Cells are the fundamental units of life. The cell membrane primarily composed of two layers of phospholipids (a bilayer) structurally defines the boundary of a cell, which can protect its interior from external disturbances and also selectively exchange substances and conduct signals from the extracellular environment. The complexity and particularity of transmembrane proteins provide the foundation for versatile cellular functions. Nanomedicine as an emerging therapeutic strategy holds tremendous potential in the healthcare field. However, it is susceptible to recognition and clearance by the immune system. To overcome this bottleneck, the technology of cell membrane coating has been extensively used in nanomedicines for their enhanced therapeutic efficacy, attributed to the favorable fluidity and biocompatibility of cell membranes with various membrane-anchored proteins. Meanwhile, some engineering strategies of cell membranes through various chemical, physical and biological ways have been progressively developed to enable their versatile therapeutic functions against complex diseases. In this review, we summarized the potential clinical applications of four typical cell membranes, elucidated their underlying therapeutic mechanisms, and outlined their current engineering approaches. In addition, we further discussed the limitation of this technology of cell membrane coating in clinical applications, and possible solutions to address these challenges.

Cell membrane coated nanoparticles as a biomimetic drug delivery platform for enhancing cancer immunotherapy

Cancer immunotherapy, a burgeoning modality for cancer treatment, operates by activating the autoimmune system to impede the growth of malignant cells. Although numerous immunotherapy strategies have been employed in clinical cancer therapy, the resistance of cancer cells to immunotherapeutic medications and other apprehensions impede the attainment of sustained advantages for most patients. Recent advancements in nanotechnology for drug delivery hold promise in augmenting the efficacy of immunotherapy. However, the efficacy is currently constrained by the inadequate specificity of delivery, low rate of response, and the intricate immunosuppressive tumor microenvironment. In this context, the investigation of cell membrane coated nanoparticles (CMNPs) has revealed their ability to perform targeted delivery, immune evasion, controlled release, and immunomodulation. By combining the advantageous features of natural cell membranes and nanoparticles, CMNPs have demonstrated their unique potential in the realm of cancer immunotherapy. This review aims to emphasize recent research progress and elucidate the underlying mechanisms of CMNPs as an innovative drug delivery platform for enhancing cancer immunotherapy. Additionally, it provides a comprehensive overview of the current immunotherapeutic strategies involving different cell membrane types of CMNPs, with the intention of further exploration and optimization.

Synthesis and biological evaluation of folic acid-rotenol conjugate as a potent targeted anticancer prodrug

Rotenone, a plant-based agricultural insecticide, has been shown to have anti-tumor activity through targeting mitochondrial complex I in cancer cells. However, off-target toxic side effect on nervous systems have greatly restricted the application of rotenone as anticancer drugs. Here, a folic acid-rotenol (FA-rotenol) conjugate was prepared by covalent coupling of the tumor-targeting ligand folic acid with rotenone derivative-rotenol to enhance its accumulation at tumor site. FA-rotenol conjugates present high in vitro cytotoxicties against several cell lines by inducing mitochondrial membrane potential depolarization and increasing the level of intracellular reactive oxygen species (ROS) to activate the mitochondrial pathway of apoptosis and enhance the G2/M cell cycle arrest. Because of the high affinity with over-expressed folate receptors, FA-rotenol conjugate demonstrated more effective in vivo therapeutic outcomes in 4T1 tumor-bearing mice than rotenone and rotenol. In addition, FA-rotenol conjugate can markedly inhibit the cell migration and invasion of HepG-2 cells. These studies confirm the feasibility of tumor-targeted ligand conjugated rotenone derivatives for targeted antitumor therapy; likewise, they lay the foundations for the development of other rotenol-conjugates with antitumor potential.

Cell Membrane-Coated Biomimetic Nanoparticles in Cancer Treatment

Nanoparticle-based drug delivery systems hold promise for cancer treatment by enhancing the solubility and stability of anti-tumor drugs. Nonetheless, the challenges of inadequate targeting and limited biocompatibility persist. In recent years, cell membrane nano-biomimetic drug delivery systems have emerged as a focal point of research and development, due to their exceptional traits, including precise targeting, low toxicity, and good biocompatibility. This review outlines the categorization and advantages of cell membrane bionic nano-delivery systems, provides an introduction to preparation methods, and assesses their applications in cancer treatment, including chemotherapy, gene therapy, immunotherapy, photodynamic therapy, photothermal therapy, and combination therapy. Notably, the review delves into the challenges in the application of various cell membrane bionic nano-delivery systems and identifies opportunities for future advancement. Embracing cell membrane-coated biomimetic nanoparticles presents a novel and unparalleled avenue for personalized tumor therapy.

Artificial cells for in vivo biomedical applications through red blood cell biomimicry

Recent research in artificial cell production holds promise for the development of delivery agents with therapeutic effects akin to real cells. To succeed in these applications, these systems need to survive the circulatory conditions. In this review we present strategies that, inspired by the endurance of red blood cells, have enhanced the viability of large, cell-like vehicles for in vivo therapeutic use, particularly focusing on giant unilamellar vesicles. Insights from red blood cells can guide modifications that could transform these platforms into advanced drug delivery vehicles, showcasing biomimicry's potential in shaping the future of therapeutic applications.

A PEG-assisted membrane coating to prepare biomimetic mesoporous silicon for PET/CT imaging of triple-negative breast cancer

Triple-negative breast cancer (TNBC) diagnosis remains challenging without expressing critical receptors. Cancer cell membrane (CCm) coating has been extensively studied for targeted cancer diagnostics due to attractive features such as good biocompatibility and homotypic tumor-targeting. However, the present study found that widely used CCm coating approaches, such as extrusion, were not applicable for functionalizing irregularly shaped nanoparticles (NPs), such as porous silicon (PSi). To tackle this challenge, we proposed a novel approach that employs polyethylene glycol (PEG)-assisted membrane coating, wherein PEG and CCm are respectively functionalized on PSi NPs through chemical conjugation and physical absorption. Meanwhile, the PSi NPs were grafted with the bisphosphonate (BP) molecules for radiolabeling. Thanks to the good chelating ability of BP and homotypic tumor targeting of cancer CCm coating, a novel PSi-based contrast agent (CCm-PEG-89Zr-BP-PSi) was developed for targeted positron emission tomography (PET)/computed tomography (CT) imaging of TNBC. The novel imaging agent showed good radiochemical purity (∼99 %) and stability (∼95 % in PBS and ∼99 % in cell medium after 48 h). Furthermore, the CCm-PEG-89Zr-BP-PSi NPs had efficient homotypic targeting ability in vitro and in vivo for TNBC. These findings demonstrate a versatile biomimetic coating method to prepare novel NPs for tumor-targeted diagnosis.

Engineered Cell Membrane-Camouflaged Nanomaterials for Biomedical Applications

Recent strides in nanomaterials science have paved the way for the creation of reliable, effective, highly accurate, and user-friendly biomedical systems. Pioneering the integration of natural cell membranes into sophisticated nanocarrier architectures, cell membrane camouflage has emerged as a transformative approach for regulated drug delivery, offering the benefits of minimal immunogenicity coupled with active targeting capabilities. Nevertheless, the utility of nanomaterials with such camouflage is curtailed by challenges like suboptimal targeting precision and lackluster therapeutic efficacy. Tailored cell membrane engineering stands at the forefront of biomedicine, equipping nanoplatforms with the capacity to conduct more complex operations. This review commences with an examination of prevailing methodologies in cell membrane engineering, spotlighting strategies such as direct chemical modification, lipid insertion, membrane hybridization, metabolic glycan labeling, and genetic engineering. Following this, an evaluation of the unique attributes of various nanomaterials is presented, delivering an in-depth scrutiny of the substantial advancements and applications driven by cutting-edge engineered cell membrane camouflage. The discourse culminates by recapitulating the salient influence of engineered cell membrane camouflage within nanomaterial applications and prognosticates its seminal role in transformative healthcare technologies. It is envisaged that the insights offered herein will catalyze novel avenues for the innovation and refinement of engineered cell membrane camouflaged nanotechnologies.

Cell membrane-coated biomimetic nanomedicines: productive cancer theranostic tools

As the second-leading cause of human death, cancer has drawn attention in the area of biomedical research and therapy from all around the world. Certainly, the development of nanotechnology has made it possible for nanoparticles (NPs) to be used as a carrier for delivery systems in the treatment of tumors. This is a biomimetic approach established to craft remedial strategies comprising NPs cloaked with membrane obtained from various natural cells like blood cells, bacterial cells, cancer cells, etc. Here we conduct an in-depth exploration of cell membrane-coated NPs (CMNPs) and their extensive array of applications including drug delivery, vaccination, phototherapy, immunotherapy, MRI imaging, PET imaging, multimodal imaging, gene therapy and a combination of photothermal and chemotherapy. This review article provides a thorough summary of the most recent developments in the use of CMNPs for the diagnosis and treatment of cancer. It critically assesses the state of research while recognizing significant accomplishments and innovations. Additionally, it indicates ongoing problems in clinical translation and associated queries that warrant deeper research. By doing so, this study encourages creative thinking for future projects in the field of tumor therapy using CMNPs while also educating academics on the present status of CMNP research.

Cell Membrane-Coated Nanoparticles for Precision Medicine: A Comprehensive Review of Coating Techniques for Tissue-Specific Therapeutics

Nanoencapsulation has become a recent advancement in drug delivery, enhancing stability, bioavailability, and enabling controlled, targeted substance delivery to specific cells or tissues. However, traditional nanoparticle delivery faces challenges such as a short circulation time and immune recognition. To tackle these issues, cell membrane-coated nanoparticles have been suggested as a practical alternative. The production process involves three main stages: cell lysis and membrane fragmentation, membrane isolation, and nanoparticle coating. Cell membranes are typically fragmented using hypotonic lysis with homogenization or sonication. Subsequent membrane fragments are isolated through multiple centrifugation steps. Coating nanoparticles can be achieved through extrusion, sonication, or a combination of both methods. Notably, this analysis reveals the absence of a universally applicable method for nanoparticle coating, as the three stages differ significantly in their procedures. This review explores current developments and approaches to cell membrane-coated nanoparticles, highlighting their potential as an effective alternative for targeted drug delivery and various therapeutic applications.

Berberine mediated fluorescent gold nanoclusters in biomimetic erythrocyte ghosts as a nanocarrier for enhanced photodynamic treatment

Photodynamic therapy (PDT) is a well-established cancer treatment method that employs light to generate reactive oxygen species (ROS) causing oxidative damage to cancer cells. Nevertheless, PDT encounters challenges due to its oxygen-dependent nature, which makes it less effective in hypoxic tumor environments. To address this issue, we have developed a novel nanocomposite known as AuNC@BBR@Ghost. This nanocomposite combines the advantageous features of erythrocyte ghost membranes, the photoresponsive properties of gold nanoclusters (AuNC) and the anticancer characteristics of Berberine (BBR) for cancer treatment. Our synthesized AuNC efficiently produce ROS, with a 25% increase in efficiency when exposed to near-infrared (NIR) irradiation. By harnessing the oxygen-carrying capacity of erythrocyte ghost cells, AuNC@BBR@Ghost demonstrates a significant improvement in ROS generation, achieving an 80% efficiency. Furthermore, the AuNC exhibit tunable emission wavelengths due to their excellent fluorescent properties. In normoxic conditions, treatment of A549 lung carcinoma cells with AuNC@BBR@Ghost followed by exposure to 808 nm NIR irradiation results in a notable increase in intracellular ROS levels, accelerating cell death. In hypoxic conditions, when A549 cells were treated with AuNC@BBR@Ghost, the erythrocyte ghost acted as an oxygen supplement due to the residual hemoglobin, alleviating hypoxia and enhancing the nanocomposite's sensitivity to PDT treatment. Thus, the AuNC@BBR@Ghost nanocomposite achieves an improved effect by combining the advantageous properties of its individual components, resulting in enhanced ROS generation and adaptability to hypoxic conditions. This innovative approach successfully overcomes PDT's limitations, making AuNC@BBR@Ghost a promising nanotheranostic agent with significant potential for advanced cancer therapy.

Nanoghosts: Harnessing Mesenchymal Stem Cell Membrane for Construction of Drug Delivery Platforms Via Optimized Biomimetics

Mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) are becoming hotspots for application in disease therapies recently, combining with biomaterials and drug delivery system. A major advantage of MSCs applied in drug delivery system is that these cells enable specific targeting and releasing of cargos to the disease sites. However, the potential tumor tropic effects of MSCs raised concerns on biosafety. To solve this problem, there are emerging methods of isolating cell membranes and developing nanoformulations to perform drug delivery, which avoids concerns on biosafety without disturbing the membrane functions of specific polarizing and locating. These cargoes are so called "nanoghosts." This review article summarizes the current applications of nanoghosts, the promising potential of MSCs to be applied in membrane isolation and nanoghost construction, and possible approaches to develop better drug delivery system harnessing from MSC ghost cell membranes.

An erythrocyte membrane-camouflaged fluorescent covalent organic framework for starving/nitric oxide/immunotherapy of triple-negative breast cancer

It is a great challenge to effectively treat triple-negative breast cancer (TNBC) due to lack of therapeutic targets and drug resistance of systemic chemotherapy. Rational design of nanomedicine with good hemocompatibility is urgently desirable for combination therapy of TNBC. Herein, an erythrocyte membrane-camouflaged fluorescent covalent organic framework (COF) loaded with an NO donor (hydroxyurea, Hu), glucose oxidase (GOx) and cytosine-phosphate-guanine oligonucleotides (CPG) (COF@HGC) was developed for imaging-guided starving/nitric oxide (NO)/immunization synergistic treatment of TNBC. The substances of HGC are easily co-loaded onto the COF due to the ordered pore structure and large surface area. And a folic acid-modified erythrocyte membrane (FEM) is coated on the surface of COF@HGC to improve targeted therapy and haemocompatibility. When COF@HGC@FEM is internalized into tumor cells, hemoglobin (Hb) on FEM and GOx loaded on the COF can trigger cascade reactions to kill tumor cells due to the simultaneous production of NO and exhaustion of glucose. Meanwhile, the COF with excellent fluorescence properties can be used as a self-reporter for bioimaging. Furthermore, the CPG can reprogram tumor-associated macrophages from tumor-supportive phenotype to anti-tumor phenotype and enhance immunotherapy. Through the "three-in-one" strategy, the biomimetic nanoplatform can effectively inhibit tumor growth and reprogram the tumor immunosuppression microenvironment in the TNBC mouse model.

Multifunctional cell membranes-based nano-carriers for targeted therapies: a review of recent trends and future perspective

Nanotechnology has ignited a transformative revolution in disease detection, prevention, management, and treatment. Central to this paradigm shift is the innovative realm of cell membrane-based nanocarriers, a burgeoning class of biomimetic nanoparticles (NPs) that redefine the boundaries of biomedical applications. These remarkable nanocarriers, designed through a top-down approach, harness the intrinsic properties of cell-derived materials as their fundamental building blocks. Through shrouding themselves in natural cell membranes, these nanocarriers extend their circulation longevity and empower themselves to intricately navigate and modulate the multifaceted microenvironments associated with various diseases. This comprehensive review provides a panoramic view of recent breakthroughs in biomimetic nanomaterials, emphasizing their diverse applications in cancer treatment, cardiovascular therapy, viral infections, COVID-19 management, and autoimmune diseases. In this exposition, we deliver a concise yet illuminating overview of the distinctive properties underpinning biomimetic nanomaterials, elucidating their pivotal role in biomedical innovation. We subsequently delve into the exceptional advantages these nanomaterials offer, shedding light on the unique attributes that position them at the forefront of cutting-edge research. Moreover, we briefly explore the intricate synthesis processes employed in creating these biomimetic nanocarriers, shedding light on the methodologies that drive their development.

Advanced targeted drug delivery by bioengineered white blood cell-membrane camouflaged nanoparticulate delivery nanostructures

Targeted drug delivery has emerged as a pivotal approach within precision medicine, aiming to optimize therapeutic efficacy while minimizing systemic side effects. Leukocyte membrane coated nanoparticles (NPs) have attracted a lot of interest as an effective approach for delivering targeted drugs, capitalizing on the natural attributes of leukocytes to achieve site-specific accumulation, and heightened therapeutic outcomes. An overview of the present state of the targeted medication delivery research is given in this review. Notably, Leukocyte membrane-coated NPs offer inherent advantages such as immune evasion, extended circulation half-life, and precise homing to inflamed or diseased tissues through specific interactions with adhesion molecules. leukocyte membrane-coated NPs hold significant promise in advancing targeted drug delivery for precision medicine. As research progresses, they are anticipated to contribute to improved therapeutic outcomes, enabling personalized and effective treatments for a wide range of diseases and conditions. The review covers the method of preparation, characterization, and biological applications of leucocytic membrane coated NPs. Further, patents related factors, gap of translation from laboratory to clinic, and future prospective were discussed in detail. Overall, the review covers extensive literature to establish leucocytic membrane NPs for targeted drug delivery.

Red blood cells: a potential delivery system

Red blood cells (RBCs) are the most abundant cells in the body, possessing unique biological and physical properties. RBCs have demonstrated outstanding potential as delivery vehicles due to their low immunogenicity, long-circulating cycle, and immune characteristics, exhibiting delivery abilities. There have been several developments in understanding the delivery system of RBCs and their derivatives, and they have been applied in various aspects of biomedicine. This article compared the various physiological and physical characteristics of RBCs, analyzed their potential advantages in delivery systems, and summarized their existing practices in biomedicine.

Cell membrane-based nanomaterials for theranostics of central nervous system diseases

Central nervous system (CNS) diseases have been widely acknowledged as one of the major healthy concerns globally, which lead to serious impacts on human health. There will be about 135 million CNS diseases cases worldwide by mid-century, and CNS diseases will become the second leading cause of death after the cardiovascular disease by 2040. Most CNS diseases lack of effective diagnostic and therapeutic strategies with one of the reasons that the biological barrier extremely hampers the delivery of theranostic agents. In recent years, nanotechnology-based drug delivery is a quite promising way for CNS diseases due to excellent properties. Among them, cell membrane-based nanomaterials with natural bio-surface, high biocompatibility and biosafety, are of great significance in both the diagnosis and treatment of different CNS diseases. In this review, the state of art of the fabrication of cell membranes-based nanomaterials is introduced. The characteristics of different CNS diseases, and the application of cell membranes-based nanomaterials in the theranostics are summarized. In addition, the future prospects and limitations of cell membrane nanotechnology are anticipated. Through summarizing the state of art of the fabrication, giving examples of CNS diseases, and highlighting the applications in theranostics, the current review provides designing methods and ideas for subsequent cell membrane nanomaterials.

"Bioinspired" Membrane-Coated Nanosystems in Cancer Theranostics: A Comprehensive Review

Achieving precise cancer theranostics necessitates the rational design of smart nanosystems that ensure high biological safety and minimize non-specific interactions with normal tissues. In this regard, "bioinspired" membrane-coated nanosystems have emerged as a promising approach, providing a versatile platform for the development of next-generation smart nanosystems. This review article presents an in-depth investigation into the potential of these nanosystems for targeted cancer theranostics, encompassing key aspects such as cell membrane sources, isolation techniques, nanoparticle core selection, approaches for coating nanoparticle cores with the cell membrane, and characterization methods. Moreover, this review underscores strategies employed to enhance the multi-functionality of these nanosystems, including lipid insertion, membrane hybridization, metabolic engineering, and genetic modification. Additionally, the applications of these bioinspired nanosystems in cancer diagnosis and therapeutics are discussed, along with the recent advances in this field. Through a comprehensive exploration of membrane-coated nanosystems, this review provides valuable insights into their potential for precise cancer theranostics.

Cell membrane-coated nanomaterials for cancer therapy

With the development of nanotechnology, nanoparticles have emerged as a delivery carrier for tumor drug therapy, which can improve the therapeutic effect by increasing the stability and solubility and prolonging the half-life of drugs. However, nanoparticles are foreign substances for humans, are easily cleared by the immune system, are less targeted to tumors, and may even be toxic to the body. As a natural biological material, cell membranes have unique biological properties, such as good biocompatibility, strong targeting ability, the ability to evade immune surveillance, and high drug-carrying capacity. In this article, we review cell membrane-coated nanoparticles (CMNPs) and their applications to tumor therapy. First, we briefly describe CMNP characteristics and applications. Second, we present the characteristics and advantages of different cell membranes as well as nanoparticles, provide a brief description of the process of CMNPs, discuss the current status of their application to tumor therapy, summarize their shortcomings for use in cancer therapy, and propose future research directions. This review summarizes the research progress on CMNPs in cancer therapy in recent years and assesses remaining problems, providing scholars with new ideas for future research on CMNPs in tumor therapy.

Erythrocyte-cancer hybrid membrane-coated reduction-sensitive nanoparticles for enhancing chemotherapy efficacy in breast cancer

Cell-membrane-coated biomimetic nanoparticles (NPs) have attracted great attention due to their prolonged circulation time, immune escape mechanisms and homotypic targeting properties. Biomimetic nanosystems from different types of cell -membranes (CMs) can perform increasingly complex tasks in dynamic biological environments thanks to specific proteins and other properties inherited from the source cells. Herein, we coated doxorubicin (DOX)-loaded reduction-sensitive chitosan (CS) NPs with 4T1 cancer cell -membranes (CCMs), red blood cell -membranes (RBCMs) and hybrid erythrocyte-cancer membranes (RBC-4T1CMs) to enhance the delivery of DOX to breast cancer cells. The physicochemical properties (size, zeta potential and morphology) of the resulting RBC@DOX/CS-NPs, 4T1@DOX/CS-NPs and RBC-4T1@DOX/CS-NPs, as well as their cytotoxic effect and cellular NP uptake in vitro were thoroughly characterized. The anti-cancer therapeutic efficacy of the NPs was evaluated using the orthotopic 4T1 breast cancer model in vivo. The experimental results showed that DOX/CS-NPs had a DOX-loading capacity of 71.76 ± 0.87 %, and that coating of DOX/CS-NPs with 4T1CM significantly increased the NP uptake and cytotoxic effect in breast cancer cells. Interestingly, by optimizing the ratio of RBCMs:4T1CMs, it was possible to increase the homotypic targeting properties towards breast cancer cells. Moreover, in vivo tumor studies showed that compared to control DOX/CS-NPs and free DOX, both 4T1@DOX/CS-NPs and RBC@DOX/CS-NPs significantly inhibited tumor growth and metastasis. However, the effect of 4T1@DOX/CS-NPs was more prominent. Moreover, CM-coating reduced the uptake of NPs by macrophages and led to rapid clearance from the liver and lungs in vivo, compared to control NPs. Our results suggest that specific self-recognition to source cells resulting in homotypic targeting increased the uptake and the cytotoxic capacity of 4T1@DOX/CS-NPs by breast cancer cells in vitro and in vivo. In conclusion, tumor-disguised CM-coated DOX/CS-NPs exhibited tumor homotypic targeting and anti-cancer properties, and were superior over targeting with RBC-CM or RBC-4T1 hybrid membranes, suggesting that the presence of 4T1-CM is critical for treatment outcome.

Versatile biomimetic nanomedicine for treating cancer and inflammation disease

Nanosized drug delivery systems (NDDSs) have emerged as a powerful tool to optimize drug delivery in complex diseases, including cancer and inflammation. However, the therapeutic effect of NDDSs is still far from satisfactory due to their poor circulation time, low delivery efficiency, and innate toxicity. Fortunately, biomimetic approaches offer new opportunities to develop nanomedicine, which is derived from a variety of native biomolecules including cells, exosomes, bacteria, and so on. Since inheriting the superior biocompatibility and versatile functions of natural materials, biomimetic nanomedicine can mimic biological processes, prolong blood circulation, and lower immunogenicity, serving as a desired platform for precise drug delivery for treating cancer and inflammatory disease. In this review, we outline recent advances in biomimetic NDDSs, which consist of two concepts: biomimetic exterior camouflage and bioidentical molecule construction. We summarize engineering strategies that further functionalized current biomimetic NDDSs. A series of functional biomimetic NDDSs created by our group are introduced. We conclude with an outlook on remaining challenges and possible directions for biomimetic NDDSs. We hope that better technologies can be inspired and invented to advance drug delivery systems for cancer and inflammation therapy.

Biomimetic cell membrane-coated poly(lactic-co-glycolic acid) nanoparticles for biomedical applications

Poly(lactic-co-glycolic acid) (PLGA) nanoparticles (NPs) are commonly used for drug delivery because of their favored biocompatibility and suitability for sustained and controlled drug release. To prolong NP circulation time, enable target-specific drug delivery and overcome physiological barriers, NPs camouflaged in cell membranes have been developed and evaluated to improve drug delivery. Here, we discuss recent advances in cell membrane-coated PLGA NPs, their preparation methods, and their application to cancer therapy, management of inflammation, treatment of cardiovascular disease and control of infection. We address the current challenges and highlight future research directions needed for effective use of cell membrane-camouflaged NPs.

Erythrocyte-Inspired Functional Materials for Biomedical Applications

Erythrocytes are the most abundant cells in the blood. As the results of long-term natural selection, their specific biconcave discoid morphology and cellular composition are responsible for gaining excellent biological performance. Inspired by the intrinsic features of erythrocytes, various artificial biomaterials emerge and find broad prospects in biomedical applications such as therapeutic delivery, bioimaging, and tissue engineering. Here, a comprehensive review from the fabrication to the applications of erythrocyte-inspired functional materials is given. After summarizing the biomaterials mimicking the biological functions of erythrocytes, the synthesis strategies of particles with erythrocyte-inspired morphologies are presented. The emphasis is on practical biomedical applications of these bioinspired functional materials. The perspectives for the future possibilities of the advanced erythrocyte-inspired biomaterials are also discussed. It is hoped that the summary of existing studies can inspire researchers to develop novel biomaterials; thus, accelerating the progress of these biomaterials toward clinical biomedical applications.

Innovative strategies for photodynamic therapy against hypoxic tumor

Photodynamic therapy (PDT) is applied as a robust therapeutic option for tumor, which exhibits some advantages of unique selectivity and irreversible damage to tumor cells. Among which, photosensitizer (PS), appropriate laser irradiation and oxygen (O₂) are three essential components for PDT, but the hypoxic tumor microenvironment (TME) restricts the O₂ supply in tumor tissues. Even worse, tumor metastasis and drug resistance frequently happen under hypoxic condition, which further deteriorate the antitumor effect of PDT. To enhance the PDT efficiency, critical attention has been received by relieving tumor hypoxia, and innovative strategies on this topic continue to emerge. Traditionally, the O₂ supplement strategy is considered as a direct and effective strategy to relieve TME, whereas it is confronted with great challenges for continuous O₂ supply. Recently, O₂-independent PDT provides a brand new strategy to enhance the antitumor efficiency, which can avoid the influence of TME. In addition, PDT can synergize with other antitumor strategies, such as chemotherapy, immunotherapy, photothermal therapy (PTT) and starvation therapy, to remedy the inadequate PDT effect under hypoxia conditions. In this paper, we summarized the latest progresses in the development of innovative strategies to improve PDT efficacy against hypoxic tumor, which were classified into O₂-dependent PDT, O₂-independent PDT and synergistic therapy. Furthermore, the advantages and deficiencies of various strategies were also discussed to envisage the prospects and challenges in future study.

Versatile Red Blood Cells for Triple-Negative Breast Cancer Treatment via Stepwise Photoactivations

Phototherapies have many advantages for triple-negative breast cancer (TNBC) treatment. However, their effects are often limited by short blood circulation time, poor tumor selectivity and weak penetration of phototherapeutic agents, and tumor hypoxia. For overcoming these limitations, a versatile biomimetic system is developed based on red blood cells (RBCs). Photothermal agent new indocyanine green (IR820) is conjugated with the cell/tissue-penetrating TAT peptide and further efficiently encapsulated into the intact RBCs by crossing cell membranes to realize the long blood circulation. Meanwhile, cyclic RGD peptide (cRGD) is linked to the surfaces of RBCs through phospholipid insertion to obtain tumor vessel-targeting ability. Photosensitizer temoporfin (mTHPC) is next loaded into the membranes of RBCs by spontaneous transferring. The acquired biomimetic system (cRGD-RBC@mTHPC/TAT-IR820) exhibits potent photodynamic performance upon 652 nm laser irradiation with the facilitation of oxyhemoglobin, which could not only trigger TAT-IR820 release but also destroy tumor vessels. TAT-IR820 penetrates deeply into tumor tissue via the mediation of TAT peptide, exerting greatly promoted photothermal ablation against TNBC upon 808 nm laser irradiation. In situ generated tumor antigens further induce robust immune responses to suppress TNBC recurrence and metastasis. In summary, this study provides a versatile biomimetic system for comprehensive TNBC treatment via stepwise photodynamic and photothermal activations.

Bioimaging with Upconversion Nanoparticles

Bioimaging enables the spatiotemporal visualization of biological processes at various scales empowered by a range of different imaging modalities and contrast agents. Upconversion nanoparticles (UCNPs) represent a distinct type of such contrast agents with the potential to transform bioimaging due to their unique optical properties and functional design flexibilities. This review explores and discusses the opportunities, challenges, and limitations that UCNPs exhibit as bioimaging probes and highlights applications with spatial dimensions ranging from the single nanoparticle level to cellular, tissue, and whole animal imaging. We further summarized recent advancements in bioimaging applications enabled by UCNPs, including super-resolution techniques and multimodal imaging methods, and provide a perspective on the future potential of UCNP-based technologies in bioimaging research and clinical translation. This review may provide a valuable resource for researchers interested in exploring and applying UCNP-based bioimaging technologies.

2D Hetero-Nanoconstructs of Black Phosphorus for Breast Cancer Theragnosis: Technological Advancements

As per global cancer statistics of 2020, female breast cancer is the most commonly diagnosed cancer and also the foremost cause of cancer death in women. Traditional treatments include a number of negative effects, making it necessary to investigate novel smart drug delivery methods and identify new therapeutic approaches. Efforts for developing novel strategies for breast cancer therapy are being devised worldwide by various research groups. Currently, two-dimensional black phosphorus nanosheets (BPNSs) have attracted considerable attention and are best suited for theranostic nanomedicine. Particularly, their characteristics, including drug loading efficacy, biocompatibility, optical, thermal, electrical, and phototherapeutic characteristics, support their growing demand as a potential substitute for graphene-based nanomaterials in biomedical applications. In this review, we have explained different platforms of BP nanomaterials for breast cancer management, their structures, functionalization approaches, and general methods of synthesis. Various characteristics of BP nanomaterials that make them suitable for cancer therapy and diagnosis, such as large surface area, nontoxicity, solubility, biodegradability, and excellent near-infrared (NIR) absorption capability, are discussed in the later sections. Next, we summarize targeting approaches using various strategies for effective therapy with BP nanoplatforms. Then, we describe applications of BP nanomaterials for breast cancer treatment, which include drug delivery, codelivery of drugs, photodynamic therapy, photothermal therapy, combined therapy, gene therapy, immunotherapy, and multidrug resistance reversal strategy. Finally, the present challenges and future aspects of BP nanomaterials are discussed.

Recent advances in biological membrane-based nanomaterials for cancer therapy

Nanomaterials have shown significant advantages in cancer theranostics, owing to their enhanced permeability and retention effect in tumors and multi-function integration capability. Biological membranes, which are collected from various cells and their secreted membrane structures, can further be applied to establish membrane-based nanomaterials with perfect biocompatibility, tumor-targeting capacity, immune-stimulatory activity and adjustable versatility for cancer therapy. In this review, according to their source, membranes are divided into four groups: (1) cell membranes; (2) secretory membranes; (3) engineered membranes; and (4) hybrid membranes. First, cell membranes can be extracted from natural cells of the body, tumor tissue cells, and bacteria. Furthermore, secretory membranes mainly refer to exosome, apoptotic body and bacterial outer membrane vesicle, and membranes with specific protein/peptide expression or therapeutic inclusions are obtained from engineered cells. Finally, a hybrid membrane will be constituted by two or more of the abovementioned membranes. These membranes can form drug-carrying nanoparticles themselves or coat multi-functional nanoparticles, further realizing efficient cancer therapy. We summarize the application of various biological membrane-based nanomaterials in cancer therapy and point out their advantages as well as the places that need to be further improved, providing systematic knowledge of this field and a strategy for further optimization.

Nanotechnological Approaches for the Treatment of Triple-Negative Breast Cancer: A Comprehensive Review

Breast cancer is the most prevalent cancer in women around the world, having a sudden spread nowadays because of the poor sedentary lifestyle of people. Comprising several subtypes, one of the most dangerous and aggressive ones is triple-negative breast cancer or TNBC. Even though conventional surgical approaches like single and double mastectomy and preventive chemotherapeutic approaches are available, they are not selective to cancer cells and are only for symptomatic treatment. A new branch called nanotechnology has emerged in the last few decades that offers various novel characteristics, such as size in nanometric scale, enhanced adherence to multiple targeting moieties, active and passive targeting, controlled release, and site-specific targeting. Among various nanotherapeutic approaches like dendrimers, lipid-structured nanocarriers, carbon nanotubes, etc., nanoparticle targeted therapeutics can be termed the best among all for their specific cytotoxicity to cancer cells and increased bioavailability to a target site. This review focuses on the types and molecular pathways involving TNBC, existing treatment strategies, various nanotechnological approaches like exosomes, carbon nanotubes, dendrimers, lipid, and carbon-based nanocarriers, and especially various nanoparticles (NPs) like polymeric, photodynamic, peptide conjugated, antibody-conjugated, metallic, inorganic, natural product capped, and CRISPR based nanoparticles already approved for treatment or are under clinical and pre-clinical trials for TNBC.

Engineered exosome-mediated delivery of circDIDO1 inhibits gastric cancer progression via regulation of MiR-1307-3p/SOCS2 Axis

Background

Our previous study has identified a novel circRNA (circDIDO1) that is down-regulated in gastric cancer (GC) and significantly inhibits GC progression. The purpose of this study is to identify the molecular mechanism for circDIDO1 and to evaluate the therapeutic effect of circDIDO1 in GC.

Methods

By combining bioinformatic analysis with RNA sequencing data, we predicted the potential target of circDIDO1 and further validated the regulatory mechanisms for its tumor suppressor function in GC. RIP assay, luciferase reporter assay and in vitro cell function assays were performed to analyze circDIDO1-regulated downstream target genes. For the therapeutic study, circDIDO1-loaded, RGD-modified exosomes (RGD-Exo-circDIDO1) were constructed and its anti-tumor efficacy and biological safety were evaluated in vitro and in vivo.

Results

CircDIDO1 inhibited GC progression by regulating the expression of the signal transducer inhibitor SOSC2 through sponging miR-1307-3p. Overexpression of circDIDO1 or SOSC2 antagonized the oncogenic role of miR-1307-3p. RGD-Exo-circDIDO1 could efficiently deliver circDIDO1 to increase SOCS2 expression in GC cells. Compared with PBS and RGD-Exo-vector treatment, RGD-Exo-circDIDO1 treatment significantly inhibited the proliferation, migration and invasion of GC cells while promoted cell apoptosis. The therapeutic efficacy of RGD-Exo-circDIDO1 was further confirmed in a mouse xenograft tumor model. In addition, major tissues including the heart, liver, spleen, lungs and kidneys showed no obvious histopathological abnormalities or lesions in the RGD-Exo-circDIDO1 treated group.

Conclusion

Our findings revealed that circDIDO1 suppressed the progression of GC via modulating the miR-1307-3p/SOSC2 axis. Systemic administration of RGD modified, circDIDO1 loaded exosomes repressed the tumorigenicity and aggressiveness of GC both in vitro and in vivo, suggesting that RGD-Exo-circDIDO1 could be used as a feasible nanomedicine for GC therapy.

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1186/s12967-022-03527-z.

Safe magnetic resonance imaging on biocompatible nanoformulations

Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) holds promise for the early clinical diagnosis of various diseases, but most clinical MR techniques require the use of a contrast medium. Several nanomaterial (NM) mediated contrast agents (CAs) are widely used as T1- and T2-based MR contrast agents for clinical and non-clinical applications. Unfortunately, most NM-based CAs are toxic or non-biocompatible, restricting their practical/clinical applications. Therefore, the development of nontoxic and biocompatible CAs for clinical MRI diagnosis is highly desired. To this end, several biocompatible and biomimetic strategies have been developed to offer long blood circulation time, significant biocompatibility, in vivo biodistribution and high contrast ability for efficient imaging. However, detailed review reports on biocompatible NMs, specifically for MR imaging have not yet been summarized. Thus, in the present review we summarize  various surface coating strategies (such as polymers, proteins, cell membranes, etc.) to achieve biocompatible NPs, providing a detailed discussion of advances and future prospects for safe MRI imaging.

Red Blood Cell Inspired Strategies for Drug Delivery: Emerging Concepts and New Advances

In the past five decades, red blood cells (RBCs) have been extensively explored as drug delivery systems due to their distinguishing potential in modulating the pharmacokinetic, pharmacodynamics, and biological activity of carried payloads. The extensive interests in RBC-mediated drug delivery technologies are in part derived from RBCs' unique biological features such as long circulation time, wide access to many tissues in the body, and low immunogenicity. Owing to these outstanding properties, a large body of efforts have led to the development of various RBC-inspired strategies to enable precise drug delivery with enhanced therapeutic efficacy and reduced off-target toxicity. In this review, we discuss emerging concepts and new advances in such RBC-inspired strategies, including native RBCs, ghost RBCs, RBC-mimetic nanoparticles, and RBC-derived extracellular vesicles, for drug delivery.

Biomimetic Nanotherapeutics: Employing Nanoghosts to fight Melanoma

Melanoma is a cancer of melanocytes present at the basal layer of the skin. Nanomedicine has armed us with competent platform to manage such fatal neoplastic diseases. Nevertheless, it suffers from numerous pitfalls such as rapid clearance and opsonization of surface-functionalized carriers, biocompatibility and idiopathic reactions which could be difficult to predict in the patient. Biomimetic approach, a novel step towards personalized medicine bridges these drawbacks by employing endogenous cell membranes to traverse physiological barriers. Camouflaged carriers coated with natural cell membranes possess unique characteristics such as high circulatory periods, and the absence of allogenic and xenogenic responses. Proteins residing on the cell membranes render a diverse range of utilities to the coated nanoparticles including natural efficiency to identify cellular targets, homologous targeting, reticuloendothelial system evasion, biocompatibility and reduced adverse and idiopathic effects. In the present article, we have focused on cell membrane camouflaged nanocarriers for melanoma management. We have discussed various types of biomimetic systems, their processing and coating approaches, and their characterization. We have also enumerated novel avenues in melanoma treatment and the combination of biomimetic systems with smart nanoparticulate systems with the potential to bring breakthroughs in the near future. Additionally, immunotherapy-based biomimetic systems to combat melanoma have been highlighted. Hurdles towards clinical translation and ways to overcome them have been explained in detail.

Red Blood Cell Membrane-Coated Ultrasmall NaGdF4 Nanoprobes for High-Resolution 3D Magnetic Resonance Angiography

Enhanced angiography based on magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) has emerged as a noninvasive, robust, and high-resolution imaging technique for the clinical evaluation of vascular diseases. However, the effects of clinical Gd-chelating contrast agents are unsatisfactory for MRI contrast enhancement owing to their short blood half-life caused by rapid vascular extravasation, especially in microvessels. To address these issues, nanoprobes based on red blood cell membrane-coated ultrasmall NaGdF4 nanoparticles that exhibit much higher longitudinal molar relaxivity (r1) than the clinically used contrast agent gadolinium diethylenetriaminepentaacetic acid have been developed. Furthermore, the appropriate hydrodynamic diameter and stealth nature aid the nanoprobes to reside longer within the blood vessels without extravasation, thereby increasing the contrast between the blood vessels and surrounding tissues. Through probe-enhanced three-dimensional (3D) dynamic contrast-enhanced MR angiography, the main arteries and veins of the mouse were readily discernible, and even tiny vessels with sub-millimeter diameters could be clearly depicted. With this level of outstanding MR angiography performance, the embolization and recanalization processes of the carotid artery can be serially monitored with high imaging resolution using only a single injection. Additionally, the results of clearance studies and the toxicity tests further highlight the safety features of the nanoprobe. To summarize, the nanoprobes used in this study exhibit less extravascular leakage and a longer blood half-life, thus successfully overcoming the defects of the conventional low-molecular-weight Gd-based contrast agents and demonstrating their potential usefulness in enhanced MR angiography.