Ca(2+)-mediated prostaglandin E2 induction reduces haematoporphyrin-derivative-induced cytotoxicity of T24 human bladder transitional carcinoma cells in vitro

Decreased phototoxicity of photodynamic therapy by Cx32/Cx26-composed GJIC: A "Good Samaritan" effect

BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVE

Photodynamic therapy (PDT) has been widely used to treat malignant tumors. Our previous studies indicated that connexin (Cx) 32- and Cx26-composed gap junctional intercellular communication (GJIC) could improve the phototoxicity of PDT. However, the role of heterotypic Cx32/Cx26-formed GJIC in PDT phototoxicity is still unknown. Thus, the present study was aimed to investigate the effect of Cx32/Cx26-formed GJIC on PDT efficacy.

METHODS

CCK8 assay was used to detect cell survival after PDT. Western blot assay was utilized to detect Cx32/Cx26 expression. "Parachute" dye-coupling assay was performed to measure the function of GJ channels. The intracellular Ca2+ concentrations were determined using flow cytometer. ELISA assay was performed to detect the intracellular levels of PGE2 and cAMP.

RESULTS

The present study demonstrates there is a Cx32/Cx26-formed GJIC-dependent reduction of phototoxicity when cells were exposure to low concentration of Photofrin. Such a protective action is missing at low cell density due to the lack of GJ coupling. Under high-cell density condition, where there is opportunity for the cells to contact each other and form GJ, suppressing Cx32/Cx26-formed GJIC by either inhibiting the expression of Cx32/Cx26 or pretreating with GJ channel inhibitor augments PDT phototoxicity after cells were treated with at 2.5 µg/ml Photofrin. The above results suggest that at low Photofrin concentration, the presence of Cx32/Cx26-formed GJIC may decrease the phototoxicity of PDT, leading to the insensitivity of malignant cells to PDT treatment. The GJIC-mediated PDT insensitivity was associated with Ca2+ and prostaglandin E2 (PGE2 ) signaling pathways.

CONCLUSION

The present study provides a cautionary note that for tumors expressing Cx32/Cx26, the presence of Cx32/Cx26-composed GJIC may cause the resistance of tumor cells to PDT. Oppositely, treatment strategies designed to downregulate the expression of Cx32/Cx26 or restrain the function of Cx32/Cx26-mediated GJIC may increase the sensitivity of malignant cell to PDT. Lasers Surg. Med. 51:301-308, 2019. © 2019 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.

Repurposing Drugs in Oncology (ReDO)-diclofenac as an anti-cancer agent

Diclofenac (DCF) is a well-known and widely used non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drug (NSAID), with a range of actions which are of interest in an oncological context. While there has long been an interest in the use of NSAIDs in chemoprevention, there is now emerging evidence that such drugs may have activity in a treatment setting. DCF, which is a potent inhibitor of COX-2 and prostaglandin E2 synthesis, displays a range of effects on the immune system, the angiogenic cascade, chemo- and radio-sensitivity and tumour metabolism. Both pre-clinical and clinical evidence of these effects, in multiple cancer types, is assessed and summarised and relevant mechanisms of action outlined. Based on this evidence the case is made for further clinical investigation of the anticancer effects of DCF, particularly in combination with other agents - with a range of possible multi-drug and multi-modality combinations outlined in the supplementary materials accompanying the main paper.

Mechanisms in photodynamic therapy: part two-cellular signaling, cell metabolism and modes of cell death

Photodynamic therapy (PDT) has been known for over a hundred years, but is only now becoming widely used. Originally developed as a tumor therapy, some of its most successful applications are for non-malignant disease. In the second of a series of three reviews, we will discuss the mechanisms that operate in PDT on a cellular level. In Part I [Castano AP, Demidova TN, Hamblin MR. Mechanism in photodynamic therapy: part one-photosensitizers, photochemistry and cellular localization. Photodiagn Photodyn Ther 2004;1:279-93] it was shown that one of the most important factors governing the outcome of PDT, is how the photosensitizer (PS) interacts with cells in the target tissue or tumor, and the key aspect of this interaction is the subcellular localization of the PS. PS can localize in mitochondria, lysosomes, endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi apparatus and plasma membranes. An explosion of investigation and explorations in the field of cell biology have elucidated many of the pathways that mammalian cells undergo when PS are delivered in tissue culture and subsequently illuminated. There is an acute stress response leading to changes in calcium and lipid metabolism and production of cytokines and stress proteins. Enzymes particularly, protein kinases, are activated and transcription factors are expressed. Many of the cellular responses are centered on mitochondria. These effects frequently lead to induction of apoptosis either by the mitochondrial pathway involving caspases and release of cytochrome c, or by pathways involving ceramide or death receptors. However, under certain circumstances cells subjected to PDT die by necrosis. Although there have been many reports of DNA damage caused by PDT, this is not thought to be an important cell-death pathway. This mechanistic research is expected to lead to optimization of PDT as a tumor treatment, and to rational selection of combination therapies that include PDT as a component.

Deciphering PDT-induced inflammatory responses using real-time FDG-PET in a mouse tumour model

Dynamic positron emission tomography (PET), combined with constant infusion of 2-deoxy-2-[¹⁸F]fluoro-d-glucose (FDG), enables real-time monitoring of transient metabolic changesin vivo, which can serve to understand the underlying physiology.

Mechanisms of resistance to photodynamic therapy

Photodynamic therapy (PDT) involves the administration of a photosensitizer (PS) followed by illumination with visible light, leading to generation of reactive oxygen species. The mechanisms of resistance to PDT ascribed to the PS may be shared with the general mechanisms of drug resistance, and are related to altered drug uptake and efflux rates or altered intracellular trafficking. As a second step, an increased inactivation of oxygen reactive species is also associated to PDT resistance via antioxidant detoxifying enzymes and activation of heat shock proteins. Induction of stress response genes also occurs after PDT, resulting in modulation of proliferation, cell detachment and inducing survival pathways among other multiple extracellular signalling events. In addition, an increased repair of induced damage to proteins, membranes and occasionally to DNA may happen. PDT-induced tissue hypoxia as a result of vascular damage and photochemical oxygen consumption may also contribute to the appearance of resistant cells. The structure of the PS is believed to be a key point in the development of resistance, being probably related to its particular subcellular localization. Although most of the features have already been described for chemoresistance, in many cases, no cross-resistance between PDT and chemotherapy has been reported. These findings are in line with the enhancement of PDT efficacy by combination with chemotherapy. The study of cross resistance in cells with developed resistance against a particular PS challenged against other PS is also highly complex and comprises different mechanisms. In this review we will classify the different features observed in PDT resistance, leading to a comparison with the mechanisms most commonly found in chemo resistant cells.

Mechanisms involved in the cell cycle and apoptosis of HT-29 cells pre-treated with MK-886 prior to photodynamic therapy with hypericin

In our previous study we have proved that colon cancer cells HT-29 pre-treated with specific 5-lipoxygenase inhibitor MK-886 became more susceptible to photodynamic therapy (PDT) with hypericin and we also found that this mutual combination induced cell cycle arrest and stimulated onset of apoptosis (Kleban et al., 2007. J. Photochem. Photobiol. B 84, 2). To further explain events associated with MK-886 mediated sensitization of tumor cells toward PDT with hypericin, more detailed study of signaling pathways leading to increase in apoptosis as well as cell cycle perturbations was performed and is presented herein. Intensive accumulation of HT-29 cells in G0/G1 phase of cell cycle led to expression analyses of several G0/G1 checkpoint molecules (cyclin A, cyclin E, cdk-2, pRb). Similarly, accumulation of apoptotic cells invoked analyses of key molecules involved in apoptotic signaling (caspase-3, -8, -9; PARP; Lamin B; Mcl-1; Bax) by Western blotting and caspase activity assay. Long term survival of cells was examined by clonogenicity test. As the effect of PDT is mediated by ROS production, levels of hydrogen peroxides and superoxide anion were monitored by flow cytometric analyses. In addition, an impact of MK-886 on LTB4 production and expression of 5-LOX was monitored. Massive G0/G1 arrest in the cell cycle accompanied by increase in cyclin E level and decrease/absention of cyclin A, cdk-2 and pRb expression indicated incapability for G1/S transition. Minimal changes in cleavage of procaspases observed in cells treated with non-toxic concentrations of either agent alone or their mutual combination were not quite in line with their activity (caspase-3, -8, -9) which was significantly increased mainly in combinations. Treatment with non-toxic concentration of MK-886 had minimal influence over ROS production compared to control cells. In contrast, hypericin alone markedly increased the level of ROS, but no additional effect of MK-886 pre-treatment was detected. Further analyses of particular ROS groups unveiled an impact of increasing MK-886 concentration on superoxide accumulation accompanied with depletion of hydrogen peroxide level within the cells. The clonogenicity test revealed disruption of colony formation after mutual combination of both agents as compared to MK-886 or PDT alone. In conclusion, we presume that stimulation of apoptosis in our experimental model was accomplished preferentially through the mitochondrial pathway, although caspase-8 activation was also noticed. Interestingly, pre-treatment with MK-886 modulated distribution of ROS production in mutual combination with PDT.

Modulation of Hypericin Photodynamic Therapy by Pretreatment with 12 Various Inhibitors of Arachidonic Acid Metabolism in Colon Adenocarcinoma HT-29 Cells

One proposal to increase the efficiency of photodynamic therapy (PDT) is to accompany photosensitization with other treatment modalities, including modulation of arachidonic acid (AA) metabolism. The aim of this study was to evaluate the effectiveness of a combined modality approach employing 48 and 24 h pretreatment with various inhibitors of lipoxygenase (LOX; nordihydroguaiaretic acid, esculetin, AA-861, MK-886 and baicalein), cyclooxygenase (COX; diclofenac, flurbiprofen, ibuprofen, indomethacin, SC-560 and rofecoxib) and cytochrome P450-monooxygenase (proadifen) pathways, followed by hypericin-mediated PDT. Cytokinetic parameters like MTT assay, adherent and floating cell numbers, viability and cell cycle distribution analysis were examined 24 h after hypericin activation. Pretreatment of human colon cancer cells HT-29 prior to PDT with 5-LOX inhibitor MK-886 as well as 5, 12-LOX and 12-LOX inhibitors (esculetin and baicalein, respectively) resulted in significant and dose-dependent effects on all parameters tested. Pretreatment with diclofenac, flurbiprofen, ibuprofen and indomethacin, the nonspecific COX inhibitors, promoted hypericin-mediated PDT, but these effects were probably COX-independent. In contrast, application of SC-560 and rofecoxib, specific inhibitors of COX-1 and COX-2, respectively, attenuated PDT. Inhibition of P450 monooxygenase with proadifen implied also the significance of this metabolic pathway in cell survival and cell resistance to hypericin photocytotoxicity. In conclusion, our results testify that application of diverse inhibitors of AA metabolism may have different consequences on cellular response to hypericin-mediated PDT and that some of them could be considered for potentiation of PDT.

Molecular effectors of multiple cell death pathways initiated by photodynamic therapy

Photodynamic therapy (PDT) is a recently developed anticancer modality utilizing the generation of singlet oxygen and other reactive oxygen species, through visible light irradiation of a photosensitive dye accumulated in the cancerous tissue. Multiple signaling cascades are concomitantly activated in cancer cells exposed to the photodynamic stress and depending on the subcellular localization of the damaging ROS, these signals are transduced into adaptive or cell death responses. Recent evidence indicates that PDT can kill cancer cells directly by the efficient induction of apoptotic as well as non-apoptotic cell death pathways. The identification of the molecular effectors regulating the cross-talk between apoptosis and other major cell death subroutines (e.g. necrosis, autophagic cell death) is an area of intense research in cancer therapy. Signaling molecules modulating the induction of different cell death pathways can become useful targets to induce or increase photokilling in cancer cells harboring defects in apoptotic pathways, which is a crucial step in carcinogenesis and therapy resistance. This review highlights recent developments aimed at deciphering the molecular interplay between cell death pathways as well as their possible therapeutic exploitation in photosensitized cells.

Pre-treatment of HT-29 cells with 5-LOX inhibitor (MK-886) induces changes in cell cycle and increases apoptosis after photodynamic therapy with hypericin

It may be hypothesized that the lipoxygenase (LOX) metabolic pathway plays an important role in photodynamic therapy (PDT) of malignant tumours, and modification of this pathway may result in administration of lower doses of photodynamic active agents accompanied by reduced side effects. In this study, we examine in more detail the cytokinetic parameters of human colon adenocarcinoma HT-29 cells pre-treated for 48 or 24h with LOX inhibitor MK-886, followed by PDT induced by hypericin. Based on MTT assay the concentrations of both agents (MK-886 and hypericin) with relatively slight (non-significant) cytotoxic effects were selected. These concentrations were used for combined treatment, where MTT response, total cell number, floating cells quantification, viability, cell cycle progression and DNA synthesis were detected. Hoechst/PI staining, PARP fragmentation and mitochondrial membrane potential (MMP) were evaluated to determine the extent of apoptosis. While MK-886 alone caused mainly necrosis, 48h pre-treatment of cells with MK-886 followed by PDT with hypericin clearly shifted the type of cell death to apoptosis. PDT with hypericin alone caused apoptosis in 19% of the cell population. Some combined modalities significantly potentiated the apoptotic effect (31% of apoptotic cells; 2.5microM MK-886/0.1microM hypericin), i.e., by 60% more than after single treatment with hypericin. Increased apoptosis was confirmed by PARP (116kDa) cleavage to characteristic 89kDa fragments and changes in MMP. Increasing concentration of MK-886 was accompanied by massive changes in the cell cycle progression. Combined treatment with lower concentrations of MK-886 and hypericin increased accumulation of cells in the S phase, accompanied by inhibition of DNA synthesis. Increasing concentration of MK-886 in this combination caused the opposite effect, manifesting significant accumulation of cells in the G0/G1 phase. More pronounced effects were observed after the 48h pre-treatment schedule. This anti-proliferative effect was confirmed by BrdU incorporation. These results indicate that combined treatment involving PDT and LOX inhibitor MK-886 may improve the therapeutic effectiveness of PDT.

Photochemistry and Photobiology of Light Absorption by Living Cells

In this review, we summarize a part of our research concerning photobiostimulative effects on cardiomyocytes, sperm cells, and nerve cells. We concentrate on results demonstrating that photobiostimulation can be described by the Arndt-Schultz (A.S.) curve. Results monitoring an increase in reactive oxygen species (ROS) concentration following visible light irradiation describe the ascending part of the A.S. curve, whereas those that describe the antioxidant role of photobiostimulation represent the descending part of the curve.

Intracellular signaling mechanisms in photodynamic therapy

In photodynamic therapy (PDT) a sensitizer, light and oxygen are used to induce death of tumor cells and in the treatment of certain noncancerous conditions. Cell death in PDT may occur by apoptosis or by necrosis, depending on the sensitizer, on the PDT dose and on the cell genotype. Some sensitizers that have been used in PDT are accumulated in the mitochondria, and this may explain their efficiency in inducing apoptotic cell death, both in vitro and in vivo. In this review we will focus on the events that characterize apoptotic death in PDT and on the intracellular signaling events that are set in motion in photosensitized cells. Activation of phospholipases, changes in ceramide metabolism, a rise in the cytosolic free Ca2+ concentration, stimulation of nitric oxide synthase (NOS), changes in protein phosphorylation and alterations in the activity of transcription factors and on gene expression have all been observed in PDT-treated cells. Although many of these metabolic reactions contribute to the demise process, some of them may antagonize cell death. Understanding the signaling mechanisms in PDT may provide means to modulate the PDT effects at the molecular level and potentiate its antitumor effectiveness.

Low energy visible light induces reactive oxygen species generation and stimulates an increase of intracellular calcium concentration in cardiac cells

Low energy visible light (LEVL) irradiation has been shown to exert some beneficial effects on various cell cultures. For example, it increases the fertilizing capability of sperm cells, promotes cell proliferation, induces sprouting of neurons, and more. To learn about the mechanism of photobiostimulation, we studied the relationship between increased intracellular calcium ([Ca2+]i) and reactive oxygen species production following LEVL illumination of cardiomyocytes. We found that visible light causes the production of O2. and H2O2 and that exogenously added H2O2 (12 microm) can mimic the effect of LEVL (3.6 J/cm2) to induce a slow and transient increase in [Ca2+]i. This [Ca2+]i elevation can be reduced by verapamil, a voltage-dependent calcium channel inhibitor. The kinetics of [Ca2+]i elevation and morphologic damage following light or addition of H2O2 were found to be dose-dependent. For example, LEVL, 3.6 J/cm2, which induced a transient increase in [Ca2+]i, did not cause any cell damage, whereas visible light at 12 J/cm2 induced a linear increase in [Ca2+]i and damaged the cells. The linear increase in [Ca2+]i resulting from high energy doses of light could be attenuated into a non-linear small rise in [Ca2+]i by the presence of extracellular catalase during illumination. We suggest that the different kinetics of [Ca2+]i elevation following various light irradiation or H2O2 treatment represents correspondingly different adaptation levels to oxidative stress. The adaptive response of the cells to LEVL represented by the transient increase in [Ca2+]i can explain LEVL beneficial effects.

Decreased efficiency of trypsinization of cells following photodynamic therapy: evaluation of a role for tissue transglutaminase

Identifying the cellular responses to photodynamic therapy (PDT) is important if the mechanisms of cellular damage are to be fully understood. The relationship between sensitizer, fluence rate and the removal of cells by trypsinization was studied using the RIF-1 cell line. Following treatment of RIF-1 cells with pyridinium zinc (II) phthalocyanine (PPC), or polyhaematoporphyrin at 10 mW cm-2 (3 J cm-2), there was a significant number of cells that were not removed by trypsin incubation compared to controls. Decreasing the fluence rate from 10 to 2.5 mW cm-2 resulted in a two-fold increase in the number of cells attached to the substratum when PPC used as sensitizer; however, with 5,10,15,20 meso-tetra(hydroxyphenyl) chlorine (m-THPC) there was no resistance to trypsinization following treatment at either fluence rate. The results indicate that resistance of cells to trypsinization following PDT is likely to be both sensitizer and fluence rate dependent. Increased activity of the enzyme tissue-transglutaminase (tTGase) was observed following PPC-PDT, but not following m-THPC-PDT. Similar results were obtained using HT29 human colonic carcinoma and ECV304 human umbilical vein endothelial cell lines. Hamster fibrosarcoma cell (Met B) clones transfected with human tTGase also exhibited resistance to trypsinization following PPC-mediated photosensitization; however, a similar degree of resistance was observed in PDT-treated control Met B cells suggesting that tTGase activity alone was not involved in this process.

Signaling pathways in cell death and survival after photodynamic therapy

Photodynamic therapy (PDT) is a cytotoxic treatment, which can induce cells to initiate a rescue response, or to undergo cell death, either apoptosis or necrosis. The many signaling pathways involved in these processes are the topic of this review. The subcellular localization of the photosensitizer has been shown to be a key factor in the outcome of PDT. Mitochondrial localized photosensitizers are able to induce apoptosis very rapidly. Lysosomal localized photosensitizers can elicit either a necrotic or an apoptotic response. In the plasma membrane, a target for various photosensitizers, rescue responses, apoptosis and necrosis is initiated. Several protein phosphorylation cascades are involved in the regulation of the response to PDT. Finally, a number of stress-induced proteins play a role in the rescue response after PDT. Notably, the induction of apoptosis by PDT might not be crucial for an optimal outcome. Recent studies indicate that abrogation of the apoptotic pathway does alter the clonogenic survival of the cells after PDT. Further studies, both in vitro and especially in vivo could lead to more efficient combination therapies in which signaling pathways, involved in cell death or rescue, are either up- or downregulated before PDT.

Indocyanine green angiography and retinal sensitivity after photodynamic therapy of subfoveal choroidal neovascularization

Photodynamic therapy (PDT) is currently being evaluated in clinical trials for the treatment of choroidal neovascularization (CNV). Preliminary results indicate that PDT achieves immediate absence of leakage from CNV while maintaining visual acuity. Indocyanine green angiography reveals a reduction in CNV size and a persistent decrease in leakage activity after PDT. PDT appears to be characteristically accompanied by choroidal perfusion changes that regularly resolve within 3 months. Microperimetry shows an improvement of the central visual field with a decrease in scotoma size and intensity. Repeated PDT applications do not cause additional damage to the treated area, but might further enhance the recovery of macular function. A placebo-controlled, multi-center trial (TAP trial) evaluating the benefit of repeated PDT treatments in 3-month intervals is currently underway.

Photodynamic action of porphyrin on Ca2+ influx in endoplasmic reticulum: a comparison with mitochondria

We have studied the distribution properties of haematoporphyrin (HP) and protoporphyrin (PP) in mitochondria and endoplasmic reticulum after isolation from rat liver. The photosensitizing efficiency of porphyrin on the Ca2+ influx function of microsomes has been compared with that obtained on Ca2+ uptake in mitochondria. HP and PP are accumulated in microsomes to a greater extent than in mitochondria, both porphyrins binding to membrane protein sites. The Ca2+ influx functions of mitochondria and microsomes, before and after irradiation in the presence of HP or PP, were studied by following the changes in the free Ca2+ concentration in the medium as revealed by the variations in fluorescence intensity of the Ca2+ indicator Calcium Green-1. For the same amount of incorporated porphyrin, the Ca2+ influx function of microsomes is degraded by irradiation more rapidly than that of mitochondria. The protective effect of dithiothreitol suggests that thiol groups in the Ca2+-transporting enzyme are the preferential targets of the photodynamic effect. These results suggest that intracellular Ca2+ movements are altered primarily by the endoplasmic reticulum rather than by mitochondrial damage, in good agreement with other observations made in porphyrin-loaded irradiated cells.

Porphyrin sensitization and intracellular calcium changes in the prokaryote Propionibacterium acnes

Photosensitization induces intracellular free calcium changes ([Ca2+]i) in some eukaryotic cell systems which either contribute to or protect against cell inactivation. We have investigated whether or not similar changes can be induced in prokaryotes. The skin bacterium Propionibacterium acnes was sensitized using protoporphyrin IX (PP IX) or 5-aminolevulinic acid (ALA). Exogenous ALA resulted in either a preferential accumulation of protoporphyrin (ALA-PP) or of coproporphyrin and/or uroporphyrin (ALA-CP/UP) in P. acnes. For PP IX or ALA-PP sensitization, exposure to broad-band red light resulted in an increase in [Ca2+]i. For ALA-PP sensitization, this increase was transient and [Ca2+]i returned to basal levels within 5-10 min after irradiation. However, the elevated [Ca2+]i levels obtained after PP IX sensitization were maintained for at least 1 h after irradiation. In both cases, the reduction in the external calcium concentration led to an enhancement in the cell survival, indicating that induced [Ca2+]i changes may participate in photoinactivation. Sensitization by hydrophilic coproporphyrin and/or uroporphyrin (ALA-CP/UP) did not affect the [Ca2+]i levels, but higher levels of cell inactivation were obtained. It therefore appears that damage to membrane-associated components is at least partly responsible for [Ca2+]i alterations after photosensitization.

The role of protein kinase C activity in the killing of Chinese hamster ovary cells by ionizing radiation and photodynamic treatment

In several recent studies it has been shown that protein kinase C (PKC) activity may either potentiate or antagonize cell killing by different cytotoxic agents. These apparently conflicting observations suggest that the effects of PKC activity on cell survival may depend on the different properties of different cell types but do not exclude the possibility that the effects may also depend on the nature of the cytotoxic agent. In this context the effects of PKC activation and PKC inhibition or down-regulation on Chinese hamster ovary (CHO) cell survival after photodynamic treatment and ionizing radiation were studied. It appeared that PKC activation by short-term incubation with 12-O-tetradecanoyl-phorbol-13-acetate (TPA) protected CHO cells against ionizing radiation but, in contrast, sensitized the cells to photodynamic treatment. Conversely, inhibition of PKC by H7 and down-regulation of PKC activity by prolonged incubation with TPA sensitized CHO cells to ionizing radiation but protected the cells against photodynamic treatment. These results demonstrate that in one particular cell type PKC activity may have opposite effects on cell survival following cellular damage, depending on the nature of the cytotoxic agent.

Decreased expression of HLA class I on ocular melanoma cells following in vitro photodynamic therapy

Our objective was to investigate whether photodynamic therapy (PDT) influences the expression of HLA Class I and beta 2-microglobulin molecules on cultured uveal melanoma cells. Uveal melanoma cells were incubated with hematoporphyrin esters (HPE) and illuminated using red light. HLA expression on cells was determined by flowcytometry. PDT treatment induced an immediate reduction in expression of HLA Class I and beta 2-microglobulin, followed by a transient increase in expression after 2 h. Normalization occurred after 6 h. Treatment of ocular melanoma cells with PDT temporally alters the expression of HLA Class I and beta 2-microglobulin, which may affect anti-tumor-immune responses.

Apoptosis or necrosis following Photofrin photosensitization: influence of the incubation protocol

Photosensitization using the tumor-localizing porphyrin Photofrin induces cell death both in vitro and in vivo, but the mechanism of cell death is not well understood. Cell lysis (necrosis) and apoptosis have both been observed. The latter seems restricted mainly to lymphoma and epithelial cell lines. To check the influence of the incubation protocol on the cell death mechanism, CV-1 cells were loaded with Photofrin using two different protocols. In both protocols, photosensitized CV-1 cells underwent severe morphological changes before cell death. Many cells treated with protocol 1 (24 h with 1 microgram/mL of Photofrin in culture medium) underwent apoptosis, as demonstrated by plasma membrane blebbing and fragmentation into vesicles, condensation of the chromatin and fragmentation of the nucleus with oligonucleosomic degradation of the DNA. In contrast, cells treated with protocol 2 (1 h with 10 micrograms/mL of Photofrin in phosphate-buffered saline) lysed instead of fragmented, without oligonucleosomic degradation of the DNA. This type of cell death looks much like necrosis. However, early morphological changes suggest that it is, in fact, apoptosis stopped by plasma membrane leakage. It is concluded that apoptosis is primarily induced in CV-1 cells but may be arrested by membrane lysis, depending on the incubation protocol.

Hematoporphyrin derivative (Photofrin) photodynamic action on Ca2+ transport in monkey kidney cells (CV-1)

After 24 h incubation with Photofrin (PF), photodynamic action has been studied on Ca2+ transport in CV-1 cells. A moderate increase of the cytosolic free Ca2+ concentration [Ca2+]i is observed immediately after a dose of irradiation which yields a survival rate of less than 5% at 48 h. In parallel, studies on digitonin-permeabilized cells indicate that such a treatment inhibits endoplasmic reticulum Ca2+ uptake with few alterations of this process in mitochondria. In contrast, ADP-stimulated respiration is impeded and intracellular ATP level decreases. It is suggested that direct damage to endoplasmic reticulum as well as mitochondrial disturbance are the primary mechanisms responsible for a nontransient elevation of [Ca2+]i preceding cell death.

Herpes virus infection and repair in cells pretreated with gilvocarcin V or merocyanine 540 and radiation

Pretreatment of mammalian cells with certain genotoxic agents decreases the ability of the cell monolayers to support virus plaque formation but enhances repair of UV-irradiated virus. This study was made to determine whether these phenomena extend to pretreatments with light and photosensitizers, including one dye that primarily affects cell membranes. Confluent CV-1 monkey kidney fibroblast monolayers were pretreated with either gilvocarcin V (GV) or merocyanine 540 (MC540) and light of appropriate wavelengths and infected with control or UV-irradiated herpes simplex virus (HSV). GV phototreatment is known to affect cells at the DNA level, and MC540 at the membrane level. UV radiation served as a positive control pretreatment. Phototoxic concentrations of GV and MC540 were determined via the capacity of pretreated cell monolayers to support plaque formation by unirradiated HSV. Parallel monolayer pretreatment and subsequent infection by UV-irradiated HSV demonstrated that both types of phototreatments enhanced virus survival, but the dose responses and time courses were different. The DNA-damaging GV phototreatment mimicked the effect of UV-irradiating the cells and produced delayed enhanced repair of UV-irradiated virus. However, the MC540-phototreatment produced enhancement of virus survival with a bimodal dose response pattern for immediate infection, suggesting a different route for affecting repair of damaged virus.