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Capin JJ, Ridgers ND, Street JH, Fial A, Tomkinson GR. Activity levels across the intensity spectrum in athletes: a systematic review protocol. BMJ Open Sport Exerc Med 2024; 10:e002148. [PMID: 39161555 PMCID: PMC11331824 DOI: 10.1136/bmjsem-2024-002148] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 07/26/2024] [Indexed: 08/21/2024] Open
Abstract
Physical activity (PA) promotes better cardiometabolic health, physical function, brain health and longevity. In contrast, prolonged sedentary behaviour (SB) is a risk factor for many chronic diseases and poor health. Limited research has evaluated or synthesised how competitive sports participation influences PA across the lifespan. Some evidence suggests, ironically, that former competitive athletes may be insufficiently active and current athletes may be highly sedentary away from sport. This study describes the protocol for a systematic review and meta-analysis on activity levels across the intensity spectrum in athletes, addressing the primary research question: is sports participation significantly associated with PA and/or SB among current and former competitive athletes? PubMed, Embase, Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews, Web of Science and SPORTDiscus databases will be searched. Two reviewers will independently screen titles/abstracts and full texts of selected abstracts. Data will be extracted regarding the study population, sport played, PA measures and protocols, outcomes of interest and findings. Primary outcomes will include step counts, daily activity across the intensity spectrum (ie, sedentary, light, moderate and vigorous PA), metabolic equivalent of task and whole-day energy expenditure. Secondary outcomes will include additional accelerometry measures of PA, activity patterns and self-reported PA. The risk of bias will be assessed using the National Institutes of Health Study Quality Assessment Tools. Extracted data will be presented using narrative synthesis and tabular presentation. Meta-analyses will be conducted to determine outcomes with sufficient data.PROSPERO registration number: CRD42024469267.https://www.crd.york.ac.uk/prospero/display_record.php?RecordID=469267.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jacob John Capin
- Physical Therapy, Marquette University, Milwaukee, Wisconsin, USA
- Clinical & Translational Science Institute of Southeast Wisconsin, Medical College of Wisconsin, Milwaukee, Wisconsin, USA
| | - Nicola D Ridgers
- Alliance for Research in Exercise, Nutrition and Activity (ARENA), Allied Health & Human Performance, University of South Australia, Adelaide, South Australia, Australia
| | - Jena Heck Street
- Physical Therapy, Marquette University, Milwaukee, Wisconsin, USA
| | - Alissa Fial
- Raynor Library, Marquette University, Milwaukee, Wisconsin, USA
| | - Grant R Tomkinson
- Alliance for Research in Exercise, Nutrition and Activity (ARENA), Allied Health & Human Performance, University of South Australia, Adelaide, South Australia, Australia
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Maksimovic N, Cvjeticanin O, Rossi C, Manojlovic M, Roklicer R, Bianco A, Carraro A, Sekulic D, Milovancev A, Trivic T, Drid P. Prevalence of metabolic syndrome and its association with rapid weight loss among former elite combat sports athletes in Serbia. BMC Public Health 2024; 24:245. [PMID: 38254092 PMCID: PMC10801998 DOI: 10.1186/s12889-024-17763-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/25/2023] [Accepted: 01/13/2024] [Indexed: 01/24/2024] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND In terms of the potential influence of rapid weight loss (RWL) on the metabolic health of former combat sports athletes (CSA), the scientific literature is quite scarce. Therefore, the objective of the presented research was to determine the differences in metabolic syndrome (MetS) parameters and the prevalence of MetS between former athletes who performed RWL and athletes who did not. METHODS The sample of the presented study comprised 150 participants from Serbia, equally divided into two groups: 75 former athletes who had practiced combat sports and 75 ex-athletes of various other sports who did not practice RWL during their careers. The following parameters related to the MetS were evaluated: waist circumference, high-density lipoprotein cholesterol, systolic blood pressure, diastolic blood pressure, fasting glucose, and triglycerides. The oral glucose tolerance test (OGTT) was used to assess the participant's body response to sugar. RESULTS The RWL group had significantly higher both systolic (p < 0.001) and diastolic blood pressure (p < 0.001) compared to the group of athletes who did not practice weight reduction during their careers. Additionally, a tendency toward statistically significant differences between groups was recorded in the variable triglycerides (p = 0.069). Regarding OGTT, increased values of fasting blood glucose at the final measurement were revealed only in the RWL group (p = 0.003). The prevalence of MetS was substantially higher in CSA than in the control group (39.5% vs. 16.2%, respectively p = 0.002). CONCLUSIONS This study suggests that former elite CSA who used RWL during their sports career are susceptible to negative metabolic alterations at the end of their competitive period.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nemanja Maksimovic
- Sport and Exercise Research Unit, Department of Psychology, Educational Science and Human Movement, University of Palermo, Via Giovanni Pascoli 6, Palermo, 90144, Italy
| | - Ognjen Cvjeticanin
- Faculty of Sport and Physical Education, University of Novi Sad, Novi Sad, 21000, Serbia
| | - Carlo Rossi
- Sport and Exercise Research Unit, Department of Psychology, Educational Science and Human Movement, University of Palermo, Via Giovanni Pascoli 6, Palermo, 90144, Italy.
- Centro Medico Di Fisioterapia "Villa Sarina", Alcamo, 91011, Italy.
| | - Marko Manojlovic
- Faculty of Sport and Physical Education, University of Novi Sad, Novi Sad, 21000, Serbia
| | - Roberto Roklicer
- Faculty of Sport and Physical Education, University of Novi Sad, Novi Sad, 21000, Serbia
- Faculty of Education, Free University of Bozen-Bolzano, 39042, Brixen-Bressanone, BZ, Italy
| | - Antonino Bianco
- Sport and Exercise Research Unit, Department of Psychology, Educational Science and Human Movement, University of Palermo, Via Giovanni Pascoli 6, Palermo, 90144, Italy
| | - Attilio Carraro
- Faculty of Education, Free University of Bozen-Bolzano, 39042, Brixen-Bressanone, BZ, Italy
| | - Damir Sekulic
- Faculty of Kinesiology, University of Split, Split, 21000, Croatia
| | - Aleksandra Milovancev
- Faculty of Medicine, University of Novi Sad, Novi Sad, Serbia
- Institute of Cardiovascular Diseases of Vojvodina, Sremska Kamenica, Serbia
| | - Tatjana Trivic
- Faculty of Sport and Physical Education, University of Novi Sad, Novi Sad, 21000, Serbia
| | - Patrik Drid
- Faculty of Sport and Physical Education, University of Novi Sad, Novi Sad, 21000, Serbia
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Oltmans E, Confectioner K, Jonkers R, Kerkhoffs GMMJ, Moen M, Verhagen E, Wylleman P, Gouttebarge V. A 12-month prospective cohort study on symptoms of mental health disorders among Dutch former elite athletes. PHYSICIAN SPORTSMED 2022; 50:123-131. [PMID: 33353477 DOI: 10.1080/00913847.2020.1868276] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/12/2023]
Abstract
OBJECTIVES The primary objectives of the study were to (i) establish the 12-month incidence and comorbidity of symptoms of mental health disorders (distress, anxiety/depression, sleep disturbance, alcohol misuse, disordered eating) among Dutch former elite athletes and (ii) explore the potential relationship with the stressors involuntary retirement, recent life events, career dissatisfaction. The secondary objective was to investigate whether the incidence of symptoms of mental health disorders and their potential relationship with stressors are related to duration since retirement. METHODS An observational prospective cohort study with a 12-month follow-up was conducted among Dutch former elite athletes. Symptoms of mental health disorders and potential stressors were assessed using validated questionnaires. RESULTS A total of 282 participants were included at baseline and 193 completed follow-up. The incidence ranged from 7% for alcohol misuse to 28% for anxiety/depression. Comorbidity of two or three symptoms of mental health disorders was reported in 7% and 4%, respectively. Adverse life events were significantly related to disordered eating (RR = 1.30, 95%CI = 1.05-1.61), while career dissatisfaction also showed a significant relationship with disordered eating (RR = 3.98, 95%CI = 1.32-11.99) and sleep disturbance (RR = 3.23, 95%CI = 1.10-9.51). The stressor involuntary retirement did not have a significant relationship with any symptoms of mental health disorders. The effect of duration since retirement seemed to be most present in the first 15 years since athletic career retirement in the plotted graphs. CONCLUSIONS The 12-month incidence of symptoms of mental health disorders ranged from 7% to 28% and comorbidity of symptoms of mental health disorders was present in 12%. Adverse life events and career dissatisfaction only increased the risk of certain symptoms of mental health disorders. Duration since retirement might affect the incidence of symptoms of mental health disorders and its relationship with stressors in the first 15 years.
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Affiliation(s)
- Emmeline Oltmans
- Amsterdam UMC, Univ of Amsterdam, Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, Amsterdam Movement Sciences, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Kaizeen Confectioner
- Amsterdam UMC, Univ of Amsterdam, Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, Amsterdam Movement Sciences, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Ruud Jonkers
- Amsterdam UMC, Univ of Amsterdam, Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, Amsterdam Movement Sciences, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Gino M M J Kerkhoffs
- Amsterdam UMC, Univ of Amsterdam, Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, Amsterdam Movement Sciences, Amsterdam, The Netherlands.,Academic Center for Evidence Based Sports Medicine (ACES), Amsterdam Movement Sciences, Amsterdam University Medical Centers, Amsterdam, The Netherlands.,Amsterdam Collaboration on Health & Safety in Sports, Amsterdam UMC IOC Research Center of Excellence, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Maarten Moen
- Elite Sports Department, Nederlands Olympisch Comité En Nederlandse Sport Federatie (NOC*NSF), Arnhem, The Netherlands.,The Sportsphysician Group, Onze Lieve Vrouw Gasthuis, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Evert Verhagen
- Amsterdam Collaboration on Health & Safety in Sports, Amsterdam UMC IOC Research Center of Excellence, Amsterdam, The Netherlands.,Division of Exercise Science and Sports Medicine, University of Cape Town, Cape Town, South Africa.,Amsterdam UMC, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, Department of Public and Occupational Health, Amsterdam Movement Sciences, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Paul Wylleman
- Elite Sports Department, Nederlands Olympisch Comité En Nederlandse Sport Federatie (NOC*NSF), Arnhem, The Netherlands.,Department of Sports Policy and Management, Vrije Universiteit Brussel, Brussel, Belgium
| | - Vincent Gouttebarge
- Amsterdam UMC, Univ of Amsterdam, Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, Amsterdam Movement Sciences, Amsterdam, The Netherlands.,Amsterdam Collaboration on Health & Safety in Sports, Amsterdam UMC IOC Research Center of Excellence, Amsterdam, The Netherlands.,Division of Exercise Science and Sports Medicine, University of Cape Town, Cape Town, South Africa
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Abstract
PURPOSE OF REVIEW We reviewed most current medical literature in order to describe the epidemiology, clinical manifestation, outcome, and management of hypertension in athletes. RECENT FINDINGS An estimated quarter of the world's population is suffering from hypertension and this prevalence is also reflected in athletes and in individuals involved in leisure time sport activities. Several studies found an inverse relationship between physical activity and blood pressure. Therefore, physical exercise is recommended to prevent, manage, and treat hypertension. On the other hand, the prevalence of hypertension may vary by sport and in some cases may even be higher in athletes competing in certain disciplines than in the general population. Hypertension is the most common medical condition in athletes and may raise concerns about its management and the individual's eligibility for competitive sports. A thorough clinical evaluation should be performed to correctly diagnose or rule out hypertension in athletes, describe the individual's risk profile, rule out secondary causes, and detect possible hypertension-mediated organ damage caused by hypertension at an early stage. Based on most recent clinical research and international consensus documents, we propose a diagnostic algorithm as well the non-pharmacological and pharmacological management of hypertension in athletes. Although elevated blood pressure levels are less common in the active population, athletes are not protected from hypertension. A thorough diagnostic approach may help to identify individual at risk for adverse cardiovascular events and to address the optimal treatment as well as sport recommendations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Victor Schweiger
- Department of Cardiology, University Heart Center Zurich, University Hospital Zurich, Rämistrasse 100, 8091, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - David Niederseer
- Department of Cardiology, University Heart Center Zurich, University Hospital Zurich, Rämistrasse 100, 8091, Zurich, Switzerland.
| | - Christian Schmied
- Department of Cardiology, University Heart Center Zurich, University Hospital Zurich, Rämistrasse 100, 8091, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Christine Attenhofer-Jost
- Department of Cardiology, University Heart Center Zurich, University Hospital Zurich, Rämistrasse 100, 8091, Zurich, Switzerland
- Cardiovascular Center Zurich, Hirslanden Klinik im Park, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Stefano Caselli
- Cardiovascular Center Zurich, Hirslanden Klinik im Park, Zurich, Switzerland
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Altowerqi ZM, Bin Zainuddin ZA. Does Participation in Sport Protect Former Saudi Arabian Athletes from High Blood Glucose after Retirement? Gerontology 2021; 68:889-893. [PMID: 34657033 DOI: 10.1159/000519697] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/25/2021] [Accepted: 09/15/2021] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
INTRODUCTION The prevalence of type 2 diabetes (T2D) has increased dramatically in the last decades in developed and developing countries. In this regard, the purpose of this study is to investigate the prevalence of prediabetes and diabetes in retired athletes in Saudi Arabia and compare it to nonathletes. This study hypothesizes that early participation in sport can prevent former athletes from abnormal blood glucose levels after retirement. METHODS The leading methods of researching the issues of the study include the analysis of theoretical sources, analysis of statistics, and comparison. Seventy-three former athletes and 26 nonathletes aged between 20 and 60 years participated in this study. Height, weight, and blood glucose levels were collected by the researcher. The former athletes were divided into 3 groups according to their type of training: endurance, mixed sports, and power sports. RESULTS The study results showed that 40.59% of former athletes had prediabetes compared to 16.83% of nonathletes. Furthermore, 8.91% of the former athletes had T2D, while 3.96% of the nonathletes had T2D. The results of this study indicated that former athletes had lower average blood glucose than nonathletes. Also, the study results indicated that no statistically significant differences were found between former athletes and nonathletes after retirement. About fasting blood glucose, former power athletes had higher average blood glucose than endurance athletes and mixed sports athletes. CONCLUSION It was concluded that no statistically significant differences were found between the former athlete groups.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zayed Mohammad Altowerqi
- Department of Education, Umm Al-Qura University, Makkah, Saudi Arabia.,Faculty of Social Science and Humanities, School of Education, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, Johor, Malaysia
| | - Zainal Abidin Bin Zainuddin
- Faculty of Social Science and Humanities, School of Education, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, Johor, Malaysia
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Beider S, Flohr S, Gehlert S, Witte T, Ernst D. [Association of physical activity with fatigue and functional capacity in patients with rheumatoid arthritis]. Z Rheumatol 2021; 80:113-121. [PMID: 32588130 PMCID: PMC8426241 DOI: 10.1007/s00393-020-00830-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/21/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Patients with rheumatoid arthritis (RA) tend to be less physically active. Physical activity has been shown to have a positive impact on disease activity and quality of life and is recommended by the European League Against Rheumatism (EULAR) as an integral component of standard treatment. OBJECTIVE A cross-sectional analysis of RA patients was carried out assessing disease activity, functional capacity and fatigue associated with physical activity. MATERIAL AND METHODS Physical activity, functional capacity and the global fatigue index (GFI) were examined using standardized questionnaires: the international physical activity questionnaire short form (IPAQ-SF), the functional questionnaire Hannover (FFbH) and the multidimensional assessment of fatigue (MAF). The data were evaluated using SPSS 26 (IBM, Armonk, NY, USA). The level of significance was tested with bivariate and partial correlations and nonparametric tests. RESULTS In total 164 patients were included in the study. The majority of the patients were female (127/164; 77%) and the median age of the cohort was 58.3 years (range 21-86 years). The median duration of disease-related symptoms at inclusion was 169 months (range 0-713 months). Physical activity was low in 39%, moderate in 37% and high in 24%. Patients reporting higher levels of physical activity reported significantly lower GFI (p < 0.001), functional limitations (p < 0.001) and disease activity (p = 0.045) scores than those with less physical activity. CONCLUSION Physical activity in RA patients was significantly correlated with functional capacity and levels of fatigue. In order to reduce the proportion of patients with low physical activity, the possibilities for functional training should be expanded and the patients should be encouraged to undertake sporting activities.
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Affiliation(s)
- S Beider
- Klinik für Rheumatologie und Immunologie, Medizinische Hochschule Hannover, Carl-Neuberg-Str. 1, 30625, Hannover, Deutschland.
- Institut für Sportwissenschaft, Universität Hildesheim, Hildesheim, Deutschland.
| | - S Flohr
- Institut für Sportwissenschaft, Universität Hildesheim, Hildesheim, Deutschland
| | - S Gehlert
- Institut für Sportwissenschaft, Universität Hildesheim, Hildesheim, Deutschland
| | - T Witte
- Klinik für Rheumatologie und Immunologie, Medizinische Hochschule Hannover, Carl-Neuberg-Str. 1, 30625, Hannover, Deutschland
| | - D Ernst
- Klinik für Rheumatologie und Immunologie, Medizinische Hochschule Hannover, Carl-Neuberg-Str. 1, 30625, Hannover, Deutschland
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Runacres A, Mackintosh KA, McNarry MA. Health Consequences of an Elite Sporting Career: Long-Term Detriment or Long-Term Gain? A Meta-Analysis of 165,000 Former Athletes. Sports Med 2021; 51:289-301. [PMID: 33368029 PMCID: PMC7846545 DOI: 10.1007/s40279-020-01379-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 10/23/2020] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION Exercise is widely accepted to improve health, reducing the risk of premature mortality, cardiovascular disease (CVD) and cancer. However, several epidemiological studies suggest that the exercise-longevity relationship may be 'J' shaped; with elite athlete's likely training above these intensity and volume thresholds. Therefore, the aim of this meta-analysis was to examine this relationship in former elite athletes. METHODS 38,047 English language articles were retrieved from Web of Science, PubMed and SportDiscus databases published after 1970, of which 44 and 24 were included in the systematic review and meta-analysis, respectively. Athletes were split into three groups depending on primary sport: Endurance (END), Mixed/Team, or power (POW). Standard mortality ratio's (SMR) and standard proportionate mortality ratio (SPMR) were obtained, or calculated, and combined for the meta-analysis. RESULTS Athletes lived significantly longer than the general population (male SMR 0.69 [95% CI 0.61-0.78]; female SMR 0.51 [95% CI 0.40-0.65]; both p < 0.01). There was no survival benefit for male POW athletes compared to the general population (SMR 1.04 [95% CI 0.91-1.12]). Although male athlete's CVD (SMR 0.73 [95% CI 0.62-0.85]) and cancer mortality (SMR 0.75 [95% CI 0.63-0.89]), were significantly reduced compared to the general population, there was no risk-reduction for POW athletes CVD mortality (SMR 1.10 [0.86-1.40]) or END athletes cancer mortality (SMR 0.73 [0.50-1.07]). There was insufficient data to calculate female sport-specific SMR's. DISCUSSION Overall, athletes live longer and have a reduced incidence of both CVD and cancer mortality compared to the general population, refuting the 'J' shape hypothesis. However, different health risks may be apparent according to sports classification, and between sexes, warranting further investigation. Trial registration PROSPERO (registration number: CRD42019130688).
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Affiliation(s)
- Adam Runacres
- Applied Sports, Technology, Exercise and Medicine (A-STEM) Research Centre, Swansea University, Swansea, UK
| | - Kelly A Mackintosh
- Applied Sports, Technology, Exercise and Medicine (A-STEM) Research Centre, Swansea University, Swansea, UK.
| | - Melitta A McNarry
- Applied Sports, Technology, Exercise and Medicine (A-STEM) Research Centre, Swansea University, Swansea, UK
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de Subijana CL, Galatti L, Moreno R, Chamorro JL. Analysis of the Athletic Career and Retirement Depending on the Type of Sport: A Comparison between Individual and Team Sports. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH AND PUBLIC HEALTH 2020; 17:ijerph17249265. [PMID: 33322365 PMCID: PMC7764278 DOI: 10.3390/ijerph17249265] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/22/2020] [Revised: 12/05/2020] [Accepted: 12/08/2020] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
The type of sport practiced may shape the athletic career, considered as the period in which an athlete is dedicated to obtaining their maximum performance in one or more sports. The aim of this study was to compare athletic careers and retirement in individual and team sports. Four hundred and ten former elite athletes (38.5 ± 7.6 years) answered an ad hoc questionnaire; 61.5% were men and 38.5% women; 45.1% were from individual sports, while 54.9% were from team sports. It emerged that the age of maximum sports performance and the retirement age occurred significantly later in team sports than in individual sports (U = 15,042 and U = 12,624.5, respectively p < 0.001). Team sports athletes combined their athletic career with work to a greater extent than those from individual sports (χ2 (3, N = 408) = 14.2; p = 0.003; Cv = 0.187). Individual sports athletes trained more hours per week (30.0 ± 11.7 h) than those involved in team sports (19.2 ± 10.7 h; U = 9682; p < 0.001). These athletes (team sports) were in a better economic and working situation at retirement transition (χ2 (3, N = 406) = 23.9; p < 0.001; Cv = 0.242). Individual sports athletes perform physical activity more frequently than team sports athletes (U = 16,267.5; p = 0.045), while team sports athletes participate more actively in veteran competitions (χ2 (1, N = 390) = 3.9; p = 0.047; Cv = 0.104) and more frequently attend events as spectators (χ2 (1, N = 390) = 8.4; p = 0.004; Cv = 0.151). dual career support providers should be aware that team sports athletes enjoy a longer athletic career, and they are in a better position to face the retirement transition than individual sports athletes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cristina López de Subijana
- Departamento de Ciencias Sociales de la Actividad Física, Universidad Politécnica de Madrid, 28031 Madrid, Spain;
| | - Larisa Galatti
- Faculdade de Ciências Aplicadas, Limeira, Universidad de Campinas, São Paulo 13083970, Brazil;
| | - Rubén Moreno
- Faculty of Sport Sciences, Universidad Europea de Madrid, C/Tajo s/n, Villaviciosa de Odón, 28670 Madrid, Spain;
| | - Jose L. Chamorro
- Faculty of Sport Sciences, Universidad Europea de Madrid, C/Tajo s/n, Villaviciosa de Odón, 28670 Madrid, Spain;
- Correspondence:
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Pallarés S, Miró S, Pérez-Rivases A, Torregrossa M, Ramis Y, Cruz J, Viladrich C. Motivaciones hacia la actividad física de adolescentes, adultos mayores y exdeportistas de élite: Un análisis cualitativo. PENSAMIENTO PSICOLÓGICO 2020. [DOI: 10.11144/javerianacali.ppsi18-2.mafa] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Objetivo. Explorar las similitudes y diferencias de los tipos de motivación hacia la práctica de actividad física (AF) de adolescentes, adultos mayores y exdeportistas de élite, desde la Teoría de la Autodeterminación, para la creación de programas de AF. Método. La recolección de los datos se llevó a cabo mediante grupos focales: tres con adolescentes, dos con adultos mayores y uno con exdeportistas. En total, participaron 17 adolescentes, 14 adultos mayores y cuatro exdeportistas. Se realizó un análisis temático. Resultados. Para cada grupo se encontró un conjunto de factores de motivación autónoma, controlada y amotivacionales hacia la práctica de AF. En común, en los tres grupos estudiados, se identificaron la diversión, la socialización y la salud como factores de motivación hacia la práctica de AF. Conclusión. Las orientaciones para la creación de programas de AF para adolescentes se centraron en la individualización de sus objetivos y la percepción en la libertad de elección relacionada con cada AF. En adultos mayores, el enfoque fue hacia nuevas experiencias, considerando de forma significativa el perfil del monitor. Para el grupo de exdeportistas se propone que el punto de partida sea la reconceptualización de la práctica de AF después de la carrera deportiva.
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Duncombe SL, Tanaka H, De Larochelambert Q, Schipman J, Toussaint JF, Antero J. High hopes: lower risk of death due to mental disorders and self-harm in a century-long US Olympian cohort compared with the general population. Br J Sports Med 2020; 55:900-905. [PMID: 33214139 DOI: 10.1136/bjsports-2020-102624] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 11/05/2020] [Indexed: 02/02/2023]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE To determine the risk of death due to prominent mental disorders, substance abuse, and self-harm among US Olympians compared with the general population. METHODS All female (n=2301) and male (n=5823) US Olympians who participated in the summer or winter Games between 1912 and 2012 were followed until 2016. The National Death Index certified their vital statuses and causes of death. We performed a Standard Mortality Ratio (SMR) analysis for all causes studied and applied the years-saved (YS) method to quantify differences in the risk of death for (1) anxiety, depression and self-harm and (2) substance abuse and eating disorders. Additionally, we examined the YS across sports with greater than 100 total deaths and between medalists and non-medalists. RESULTS US Olympians had a 32% (SMR=0.68, 95% CI 0.49 to 0.91) lower risk of death compared with the general population, resulting in a longevity advantage of 0.21 YS (95% CI 0.14 to 0.29) for deaths by depression, anxiety and self-harm and 0.12 years (95% CI 0.08 to 0.15) for substance abuse and eating disorders. There were no significant differences between medalists and non-medalists, but findings varied by sports. Most sports (eg, athletics, swimming, rowing) had significantly lower risks of deaths than the general population with the exceptions of fencing and shooting. Shooting showed a trend towards a higher risk through suicide by firearm. CONCLUSION Olympians have a lower risk of death, favouring an increased longevity compared with the general population for mental disorders, substance abuse and suicides.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stephanie L Duncombe
- Institute for Research in Medicine and Epidemiology of Sports (IRMES, EA7329), INSEP, Paris, France
| | - Hirofumi Tanaka
- Kinesiology and Health Education, University of Texas at Austin, Austin, Texas, USA
| | | | - Julien Schipman
- Institute for Research in Medicine and Epidemiology of Sports (IRMES, EA7329), INSEP, Paris, France
| | - Jean-François Toussaint
- Institute for Research in Medicine and Epidemiology of Sports (IRMES, EA7329), INSEP, Paris, France.,Centre d'Investigation en Médecine du Sport (CIMS), AP-HP, Paris, France
| | - Juliana Antero
- Institute for Research in Medicine and Epidemiology of Sports (IRMES, EA7329), INSEP, Paris, France
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11
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Antero J, Tanaka H, De Larochelambert Q, Pohar-Perme M, Toussaint JF. Female and male US Olympic athletes live 5 years longer than their general population counterparts: a study of 8124 former US Olympians. Br J Sports Med 2020; 55:206-212. [DOI: 10.1136/bjsports-2019-101696] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 06/08/2020] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
ObjectiveTo quantify US female and male Olympic athletes’ longevity and the years of life lost or saved due to multiple causes of death as compared with the US general population.MethodsFormer US athletes who had participated in the summer or winter Olympic Games at least once between 1912 and 2012 were included. Olympians’ date of birth, death and the underlying causes of death were certified by the National Death Index. The Olympians’ overall and cause-specific mortality were compared with the US general population based on the US life tables, adjusted by sex, period and age. Mortality differences between the populations were quantified using the years lost/years saved (YS) method.Results8124 US Olympians (2301 women and 5823 men) lived 5.1 years longer (YS 95% CI 4.3 to 6.0) than the general population, based on 2309 deaths observed (225 women, 2084 men). Different causes of death contributed to longevity for Olympians as follows: 2.2 years were saved (1.9 to 2.5) from cardiovascular diseases (CVDs); cancer, 1.5 years (1.3 to 1.8); respiratory diseases (eg, influenza, pneumonia), 0.8 years (0.7 to 0.9); external causes (eg, accidents, homicides), 0.5 years (0.4 to 0.6); endocrine and metabolic diseases (eg, diabetes, hyperlipidaemia), 0.4 years (0.2 to 0.5) and digestive system diseases (eg, cirrhosis, hepatic failure), 0.3 years (0.2 to 0.4). Mortality rates due to nervous system disorders (eg, Alzheimer’s and Parkinsons’s diseases) and mental illness (eg, dementia, schizophrenia) were not different from the general population.ConclusionUS Olympians lived longer than the general population, an advantage mainly conferred by lower risks of CVD and cancer. Nervous system disorders and mental illness did not differ between US Olympians and the general population.
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Kontro TK, Tolvanen A, Sarna S, Kaprio J, Kujala UM. Physical activity, use of alcohol and smoking in middle-aged and aging men. A longitudinal study among Finnish male former athletes and controls. Eur J Sport Sci 2020; 21:460-469. [PMID: 32449485 DOI: 10.1080/17461391.2020.1761889] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
Abstract
It is not known whether decrease in physical activity (PA) is associated with binge drinking among former athletes. The purpose of this study was to investigate the reciprocal associations between PA and use of alcohol among former athletes and controls at four time points. Furthermore, we examined whether there were longitudinal latent profiles related to use of alcohol, smoking and PA during the follow-up. Finnish male former elite athletes (n = 1633) and matched controls (n = 1099) questionnaire-reported their PA, alcohol consumption and smoking at four time points in 1985, 1995, 2001 and 2008. Former athletes were more physically active and smoked less than controls, but in all profiles smoking decreased during the follow-up. Former athletes consumed alcohol significantly more compared to controls in 1985, especially if their athletic career had ended suddenly by sports injury. At other time points, no differences were seen. Five latent profiles were found, and there were significant differences between former athletes and controls in the probabilities to belong to four of them. PA decreased in four of five profiles, while alcohol consumption decreased or increased in some profiles. But PA did not predict later alcohol consumption at any time point. Cross-lagged path model indicated that the mutual associations of alcohol use and PA were weak at most. Although risk of excessive alcohol consumption may increase in individuals, whose athletic career has ended suddenly by sports injury, overall PA and alcohol affected each other's development only modestly among former athletes and controls during the 23-year follow-up.
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Affiliation(s)
- Titta K Kontro
- Faculty of Sport and Health Sciences, University of Jyväskylä, Jyväskylä, Finland
| | - Asko Tolvanen
- Methodology Center for Human Sciences, University of Jyväskylä, Jyväskylä, Finland
| | - Seppo Sarna
- Department of Public Health, University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland
| | - Jaakko Kaprio
- Department of Public Health, University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland.,Institute for Molecular Medicine Finland (FIMM), University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland
| | - Urho M Kujala
- Faculty of Sport and Health Sciences, University of Jyväskylä, Jyväskylä, Finland
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13
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Kontro TK, Sarna S, Kaprio J, Kujala UM. The difference in risk of chronic pulmonary disease morbidity and mortality between former elite athletes and ordinary men in Finland. Eur J Sport Sci 2019; 20:1140-1149. [PMID: 31763958 DOI: 10.1080/17461391.2019.1697375] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
Abstract
The impact of a history of competitive sports on later smoking behaviour and occurrence of chronic pulmonary diseases is poorly known. We investigated how a history of elite level sports predicted later pulmonary disease morbidity and mortality. Chronic pulmonary disease incidence was assessed from national hospital and cause-of-death registers from 1970 to 2015 among Finnish male former elite athletes (n = 2078) and matched controls (n = 1453) alive in 1970 (mean age 45.0 years). Hazard ratios (HRs) were calculated by Cox proportional hazards model. In 1985, cohort members reported on their smoking habits, engagement in physical activity/sports and physician-diagnosed chronic diseases. The risk of any chronic pulmonary disease or death was lower among former athletes than controls (age-adjusted HR 0.61; 95% CI 0.46-0.83). The risk was significantly lower among endurance (HR 0.54), mixed (HR 0.61), and power sports athletes (HR 0.66) compared to controls. The age- and smoking pack-year-adjusted HRs of incident diseases from the time of the 1985 questionnaire until the end of follow-up in former athletes was 0.58 (95% CI 0.37-0.93) compared to controls. In 1985 athletes smoked less and their cumulative smoking quantity was lower than that of controls. Former athletes were more physically active and self-reported less physician-diagnosed emphysema. The risk of any chronic pulmonary disease was lower among former athletes than controls even after considering smoking status and cumulative smoking quantity. Ability to compete at the highest level of sports in young adulthood associated with a reduced risk of pulmonary disease in later life.
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Affiliation(s)
- Titta K Kontro
- Faculty of Sport and Health Sciences, University of Jyväskylä, Jyväskylä, Finland
| | - Seppo Sarna
- Department of Public Health, University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland
| | - Jaakko Kaprio
- Department of Public Health, University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland.,Institute for Molecular Medicine Finland (FIMM), University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland
| | - Urho M Kujala
- Faculty of Sport and Health Sciences, University of Jyväskylä, Jyväskylä, Finland
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Emotion, Psychological Well-Being and Their Influence on Resilience. A Study with Semi-Professional Athletes. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH AND PUBLIC HEALTH 2019; 16:ijerph16214192. [PMID: 31671532 PMCID: PMC6861950 DOI: 10.3390/ijerph16214192] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/16/2019] [Revised: 10/24/2019] [Accepted: 10/26/2019] [Indexed: 01/07/2023]
Abstract
The objective of the present study is to analyze the influence of coaches on emotional intelligence and on levels of anxiety, motivation, self-esteem, and resilience among athletes. Five-hundred forty-seven semi-professional athletes between the ages of 16 and 19 participated in this study. Various statistical analyses were conducted which explain the causal relationships between the variables. The results, obtained using a structural equations model, find that while autonomy support positively predicts emotional intelligence, perceived control predicts it negatively. Moreover, emotional intelligence positively predicts self-esteem and self-determined motivation, but negatively predicts anxiety. Other results show that self-esteem positively predicts self-determined motivation, whereas anxiety predicts it negatively. Finally, self-determined motivation positively predicts resilience. Indeed, the study demonstrates the influence and the importance of coaches in relation to the emotional intelligence, psychological well-being, and motivational processes of adolescent athletes when the latter engage in their respective sports. These results help to better understand how different behavioral, emotional, and social aspects belonging to the athlete interrelate with one another during competition.
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Melekoğlu T, Sezgin E, Işın A, Türk A. The Effects of a Physically Active Lifestyle on the Health of Former Professional Football Players. Sports (Basel) 2019; 7:E75. [PMID: 30925669 PMCID: PMC6524351 DOI: 10.3390/sports7040075] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/01/2019] [Revised: 02/27/2019] [Accepted: 03/26/2019] [Indexed: 01/10/2023] Open
Abstract
The purpose of this investigation was to determine if a physically active lifestyle affects the health of former football players. Sixty former professional football players aged 40⁻50 years and who ended their sports career at least ten years ago were recruited for the study and grouped into two groups based on their physical activity habits after their retirement. Health and lifestyle characteristics were collected through a questionnaire to obtain information about recreational physical activity levels, diseases, family medical history, smoking, alcohol intake and dietary habits. Furthermore, lung functions, blood parameters and cardiovascular health were evaluated. Our results showed that body weight and body fat percentage were significantly higher in retired footballers who had a sedentary lifestyle compared to those who were physically active. The absolute and predicted values for forced expiratory volume in one-second values were higher in the active group. Twelve retired athletes were found to have intraventricular conduction delay. The findings suggest that former footballers who have higher levels of physical activity have advanced body composition, respiratory functions and serum lipids compared to former footballers with less active lifestyles. It is recommended that former elite athletes should maintain physically active lifestyles to sustain their health and reduce the risk of disease and disability in the later years of life.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tuba Melekoğlu
- Department of Trainer Education, Akdeniz University Faculty of Sports Sciences, Antalya 07058, Turkey.
| | - Erdi Sezgin
- Department of Trainer Education, Akdeniz University Faculty of Sports Sciences, Antalya 07058, Turkey.
| | - Ali Işın
- Department of Trainer Education, Akdeniz University Faculty of Sports Sciences, Antalya 07058, Turkey.
| | - Ayşen Türk
- Clinics of Sports Medicine, Antalya Education & Research Hospital, Antalya 07058, Turkey.
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Venckunas T, Mieziene B, Emeljanovas A. Aerobic Capacity Is Related to Multiple Other Aspects of Physical Fitness: A Study in a Large Sample of Lithuanian Schoolchildren. Front Physiol 2018; 9:1797. [PMID: 30618809 PMCID: PMC6297359 DOI: 10.3389/fphys.2018.01797] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/24/2018] [Accepted: 11/29/2018] [Indexed: 01/30/2023] Open
Abstract
This study evaluated how aerobic capacity is related to performance in other aspects of health-related physical fitness among schoolchildren. The study involved >15,200 schoolchildren of both genders aged 11–18 years, who were tested with a reliable tests from Eurofit battery for most important aspects of exercise capacity and anthropometrics from 1992 to 2012. The analysis showed that aerobic capacity was weakly but significantly positively related to all other aspects of exercise abilities tested in all age groups for both genders. Variance of performance in agility shuttle run and standing broad jump were each explained by aerobic capacity the strongest (>10%), followed by weaker but still significant positive relation of aerobic capacity with the abilities in bent arm hang and abdominal curl tests (aerobic capacity explaining ∼6.5% of the variance of the performance in these tests), as well as in balance and flexibility tasks (aerobic capacity significantly explaining ∼3% of the variance). Thus, while aerobic capacity in schoolchildren of all ages and both genders can explain the performance in other aspects of physical fitness and especially leg muscle power, the percent of explained variance in the results of any these tests was not high and therefore aerobic capacity should be tested as a separate important fitness parameter which cannot be substituted by other tests from the Eurofit battery.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tomas Venckunas
- Institute of Sport Science and Innovations, Lithuanian Sports University, Kaunas, Lithuania
| | - Brigita Mieziene
- Institute of Sport Science and Innovations, Lithuanian Sports University, Kaunas, Lithuania
| | - Arunas Emeljanovas
- Institute of Sport Science and Innovations, Lithuanian Sports University, Kaunas, Lithuania
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Mannes ZL, Waxenberg LB, Cottler LB, Perlstein WM, Burrell LE, Ferguson EG, Edwards ME, Ennis N. Prevalence and Correlates of Psychological Distress among Retired Elite Athletes: A Systematic Review. INTERNATIONAL REVIEW OF SPORT AND EXERCISE PSYCHOLOGY 2018; 12:265-294. [PMID: 31217807 PMCID: PMC6583001 DOI: 10.1080/1750984x.2018.1469162] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/01/2017] [Accepted: 04/20/2018] [Indexed: 06/09/2023]
Abstract
This article presents results of a systematic review of the literature (2000-2017) examining the prevalence and correlates of psychological distress among retired elite athletes. Forty articles were selected and included. Our review suggests the prevalence of psychological distress among retired athletes is similar to that found in the general population. However, subgroups reporting medical comorbidities, significant pain, a greater number of concussions, less social support, and adverse psychosocial factors were at greater risk for psychological distress. Additionally, athletes experiencing psychological distress in retirement often do not seek treatment for their distress. Based on the existing literature, there is a need for greater standardization and use of reliable measures, as well as use of diagnostic interviews in order to assess the most accurate prevalence of psychological distress among these athletes. Longitudinal designs, matched control groups, more heterogeneous samples, and use of multivariate analyses would also help to more accurately determine the prevalence and risk factors of psychological distress in this population. This review suggests a number of different clinical implications and highlights directions for future research to enhance our understanding of the long-term psychological health of former elite athletes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zachary L. Mannes
- Department of Clinical and Health Psychology, College of Public Health and Health Professions, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL
| | - Lori B. Waxenberg
- Department of Clinical and Health Psychology, College of Public Health and Health Professions, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL
| | - Linda B. Cottler
- Department of Epidemiology, College of Public Health and Health Professions & College of Medicine, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL
| | - William M. Perlstein
- Department of Clinical and Health Psychology, College of Public Health and Health Professions, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL
| | - Larry E. Burrell
- Department of Clinical and Health Psychology, College of Public Health and Health Professions, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL
| | - Erin G. Ferguson
- Department of Clinical and Health Psychology, College of Public Health and Health Professions, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL
| | - Mary E. Edwards
- Health Science Center, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL
| | - Nicole Ennis
- Department of Clinical and Health Psychology, College of Public Health and Health Professions, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL
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Barbosa Filho VC, Oppa DF, Mota J, Sá SMD, Lopes ADS. Predictors of health-related quality of life among Brazilian former athletes. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2018. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ramd.2016.02.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
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19
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Maciejewska D, Michalczyk M, Czerwińska-Rogowska M, Banaszczak M, Ryterska K, Jakubczyk K, Piotrwski J, Hołowko J, Drozd A, Wysokińki P, Ficek K, Wilk K, Lubkowska A, Cięszczyk P, Bertrand J, Stachowska E. Seeking Optimal Nutrition for Healthy Body Mass Reduction among Former Athletes. J Hum Kinet 2017; 60:63-75. [PMID: 29339986 PMCID: PMC5765786 DOI: 10.1515/hukin-2017-0090] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/30/2023] Open
Abstract
The aim of the study was to investigate the efficacy of 6 week Mediterranean diet or 30% calorie restriction on the fatty acid profile and eicosanoids (hydroxyoctadecadienoi acids and hydroxyeicosatetraenoic acids) concentration. Furthermore, basic biochemical variables such as insulin, glucose, HOMA-IR, and a lipid profile were estimated. The study enrolled 94 Caucasian former athletes aged 20-42, with body height of 179 ± 16.00 cm and body mass of 89.26 ± 13.25 kg who had not been active for at least 5 years. The subjects were randomly assigned to one of the three intervention groups: CR group – the 30% calorie restriction (n = 32), MD group - the Mediterranean diet (n = 34), and C group - a control group (n = 28). The pattern of nutrition was analysed before and after the experiment using the 72 h food diaries. In order to evaluate the effect of diet intervention, the following variables were measured: anthropometrics, basic biochemical variables (insulin, fasting glucose, HOMA-IR, lipid profile), fatty acids and their blood derivatives profiles. The CR group showed significantly lower levels of several biochemical variables, i.e., BMI, total cholesterol LDL, TG, total lipids, insulin and HOMA – IR (p < 0.05). Subjects consuming the MD diet significantly decreased their BMI and reduced the level of total lipids (p < 0.05). We did not find any significant changes in the C group. The analysis of the fatty acid profile revealed that the CR group had a significantly decreased EPA level (p < 0.05). The MD group showed a significantly increased level of the DHA (p < 0.05) and improvement in the omega - 3 index (p < 0.05). Subjects following the MD also showed significantly lower concentrations of 15 - hydroxyicosatetraenoic acid (15-HETE). We did not observe any significant differences between the CR and C groups. Within short time, calorie restriction helps to improve lipid variables and insulin resistance. The MD diet seems to be more advantageous in the decrease of inflammation, but does not improve basic biochemical variables. We can conclude that calorie restriction can be a good choice for former athletes, although EPA and DHA supplementation is needed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dominika Maciejewska
- Department of Biochemistry and Human Nutrition, Pomeranian Medical University, Szczecin, Poland
| | - Małgorzata Michalczyk
- Department of Sports Nutrition, Academy of Physical Education in Katowice, Katowice, Poland
| | | | - Marcin Banaszczak
- Department of Biochemistry and Human Nutrition, Pomeranian Medical University, Szczecin, Poland
| | - Karina Ryterska
- Department of Biochemistry and Human Nutrition, Pomeranian Medical University, Szczecin, Poland
| | - Karolina Jakubczyk
- Department of Biochemistry and Human Nutrition, Pomeranian Medical University, Szczecin, Poland
| | - Jakub Piotrwski
- Department of Biochemistry and Human Nutrition, Pomeranian Medical University, Szczecin, Poland
| | - Joanna Hołowko
- Department of Biochemistry and Human Nutrition, Pomeranian Medical University, Szczecin, Poland
| | - Arleta Drozd
- Department of Biochemistry and Human Nutrition, Pomeranian Medical University, Szczecin, Poland
| | - Paweł Wysokińki
- Medical Education Unit, Pomeranian Medical University, Szczecin, Poland
| | - Krzysztof Ficek
- Department of Medicine and Sport Physioteraphy, Academy of Physical Education in Katowice, Katowice, Poland
| | - Krzysztof Wilk
- Faculty of Physical Culture and Health Promotion, University of Szczecin, Szczecin, Poland
| | - Anna Lubkowska
- Department of Functional Diagnostics and Physical Medicine, Pomeranian Medical University, Szczecin, Poland
| | - Paweł Cięszczyk
- Department of Physical Education, Gdańsk University of Physical Education and Sport, Gdansk, Poland
| | - Jerzy Bertrand
- Department of Hygiene and Physiology, Military Institute of Hygiene and Epidemiology, Warsaw, Poland
| | - Ewa Stachowska
- Department of Biochemistry and Human Nutrition, Pomeranian Medical University, Szczecin, Poland
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20
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Kontro TK, Sarna S, Kaprio J, Kujala UM. Mortality and health-related habits in 900 Finnish former elite athletes and their brothers. Br J Sports Med 2017; 52:89-95. [PMID: 29127265 DOI: 10.1136/bjsports-2017-098206] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 10/25/2017] [Indexed: 11/04/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND There is conflicting evidence on the associations between participation in vigorous sports, health habits, familial factors and subsequent mortality. We investigated all-cause mortality and health-related behaviour among former elite athletes and their brothers. METHODS The mortality of Finnish male former elite athletes, who had represented Finland between 1920 and 1965 (n=900) and their age-matched brothers (n=900), was followed from the time when athlete started an elite athlete career until 31 December 2015. The age-adjusted HRs were calculated by a paired Cox proportional hazards model. In 2001, surviving participants (n=199 athletes and n=199 age-matched brothers) reported their self-rated health (SRH), physical activity, alcohol consumption and smoking habits in the questionnaire. RESULTS During the total follow-up period, 1296 deaths (72% of the cohort) occurred. The age-adjusted HRs for all-cause mortality in former athletes was 0.75 (95% CI 0.65 to 0.87, P<0.001) compared with their age-matched brothers. Median age at death was 79.9 years for endurance, 75.9 years for mixed sports and 72.2 years for power sports athletes, and 77.5, 73.7 and 72.2 years for their age-matched brothers, respectively. In 2001, compared with their brothers, former athletes smoked less (P<0.001), were more physically active (P<0.05) and rated their health more often as very good (P<0.05). CONCLUSIONS Former elite athletes are more physically active, smoke less, have better self-rated health and live longer than their brothers. Genetic differences between athletes and brothers, aerobic training for endurance elite sports and a healthier lifestyle may all contribute to reduced mortality.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Seppo Sarna
- Department of Public Health, University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland
| | - Jaakko Kaprio
- Department of Public Health, University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland.,Institute for Molecular Medicine Finland (FIMM), University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland
| | - Urho M Kujala
- Faculty of Sport and Health Sciences, University of Jyväskylä, Jyväskylä, Finland
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21
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Leisure Time Physical Activity and Sleep Predict Mortality in Men Irrespective of Background in Competitive Sports. PROGRESS IN PREVENTIVE MEDICINE 2017. [DOI: 10.1097/pp9.0000000000000009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
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Physical Activity and Health Perception in Aging: Do Body Mass and Satisfaction Matter? A Three-Path Mediated Link. PLoS One 2016; 11:e0160805. [PMID: 27611689 PMCID: PMC5017576 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0160805] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/24/2016] [Accepted: 06/14/2016] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Although ageing people could benefit from healthy diet and physical activity to maintain health and quality of life, further understandings of the diet- and physical activity-related mechanisms that may cause changes in health and quality of life perception are necessary. The purpose of the study was to investigate the effect of eating attitudes, body mass and image satisfaction, and exercise dependence in the relationship between physical activity and health and quality of life perception in older individuals. Hundred and seventy-nine late middle-aged, (55–64 yrs), young-old (65–74 yrs), and old (75–84 yrs) senior athletes (n = 56), physically active (n = 58) or sedentary adults (n = 65) were submitted to anthropometric evaluations (body mass, height) and self-reported questionnaires: Body Image Dimensional Assessment, Exercise Dependence Scale, Eating Attitude Test, and Short Form Health Survey (Physical Component Summary [PCS] and Mental Component Summary [MCS] of and health and quality of life perception). Senior athletes, physically active, and sedentary participants subgroups differed (P<0.05) from each other in body mass index (BMI) and several components of body image and exercise dependence. Senior athletes showed, compared to their sedentary counterparts, further differences (P<0.05) in eating attitudes and in both PCS and MCS. Mediation analysis showed that the relationship between physical activity habit and MCS, but not PCS, was indirectly explained by a serial mediation chain composed of objective BMI and subjective body image (dis)satisfaction. Findings confirm the relevant role of physically active life habits for older individuals to perceive good physical and mental health. The novelty of the three-path mediated link between physical activity level and mental health perception suggests that the beneficial effect of a physically active lifestyle on weight control can positively impinge on the cognitive-emotional dimension of mental health by ensuring the maintenance, also at older age, of a satisfactory body image.
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23
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Leppänen M, Pasanen K, Kujala UM, Parkkari J. Overuse injuries in youth basketball and floorball. Open Access J Sports Med 2015; 6:173-9. [PMID: 26045679 PMCID: PMC4447174 DOI: 10.2147/oajsm.s82305] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Background The popularity of team sports is growing among young people. High training volume and intensity may predispose young athletes to overuse injuries. Research to date has tended to focus on acute injuries rather than overuse injuries. The purpose of this study was to examine the occurrence, nature, and severity of overuse injuries in youth basketball and floorball, with the hypothesis that overuse injuries are frequent in youth team sports. Methods The study comprised a total of 401 Finnish team sports athletes (207 basketball and 194 floorball players). The data were collected using a detailed questionnaire. The participants (mean age 15.8±1.9 years) responded to the questionnaire covering information on overuse injuries during the previous 12 months. Results A total of 190 overuse injuries was reported (97 in basketball and 93 in floorball). In both sports, most of the injuries involved the lower extremities (66% and 55% of all injuries in basketball and floorball, respectively). In basketball, the most commonly injured site was the knee (44 cases, 45%). In floorball, the most commonly injured sites were the lower back/pelvis (36 cases, 39%) and knee (32 cases, 34%). Overuse injuries caused an average time loss from full participation of 26±50 (median 7) days in basketball and 16±37 (median 5) days in floorball. Conclusion Overuse injuries are a common problem in youth team sports, and often cause long-term absence from full participation. The findings suggest that injury reduction and training load monitoring strategies are needed in the field. More research using explicit prospective data collection is needed to better understand the problem.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mari Leppänen
- Tampere Research Center of Sports Medicine, UKK Institute for Health Promotion Research, Tampere, Finland
| | - Kati Pasanen
- Tampere Research Center of Sports Medicine, UKK Institute for Health Promotion Research, Tampere, Finland
| | - Urho M Kujala
- Department of Health Sciences, University of Jyväskylä, Jyväskylä, Finland
| | - Jari Parkkari
- Tampere Research Center of Sports Medicine, UKK Institute for Health Promotion Research, Tampere, Finland
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Laine MK, Eriksson JG, Kujala UM, Kaprio J, Loo BM, Sundvall J, Bäckmand HM, Peltonen M, Jula A, Sarna S. Former male elite athletes have better metabolic health in late life than their controls. Scand J Med Sci Sports 2015; 26:284-90. [PMID: 25758211 DOI: 10.1111/sms.12442] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 02/04/2015] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
Elite-class athletes have longer life expectancy and lower risk for chronic noncommunicable diseases possibly because of physically active and healthier lifestyle. In this study, we assessed former male Finnish elite-class athletes' (n = 392) and their matched controls' (n = 207) body composition, and risk for the metabolic syndrome (MS) and nonalcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD) in later life. Compared with the controls, the former athletes had lower body fat percentage (24.8% vs 26.0%, P = 0.021), lower risk for MS [odds ratio (OR) 0.57, 95% confidence interval (CI) 0.40-0.81], and NAFLD (OR 0.61, 95% CI 0.42-0.88). High volume of current leisure-time physical activity (LTPA) was associated with lower body fat percentage (P for trend < 0.001). When current volume of LTPA increased 1 MET h/week, the risk of MS and NAFLD decreased (OR 0.99, 95% CI 0.98-0.99 and OR 0.97, 95% CI 0.96-0.98, respectively). Although a career as an elite-class athlete during young adulthood may help to protect from developing metabolic syndrome, present exercise levels and volume of LTPA seem equally important as well.
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Affiliation(s)
- M K Laine
- Department of General Practice and Primary Health Care, University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland.,Vantaa Health Center/Network of Academic Health Centers, University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland
| | - J G Eriksson
- Department of General Practice and Primary Health Care, University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland.,Division of Welfare and Health Promotion, Department of Chronic Disease Prevention, Diabetes Prevention Unit, National Institute for Health and Welfare, Helsinki, Finland.,Folkhälsan Research Centre, Helsinki, Finland.,Unit of General Practice, Helsinki University Central Hospital, Helsinki, Finland.,Vasa Central Hospital, Vasa, Finland
| | - U M Kujala
- Department of Health Sciences, University of Jyväskylä, Jyväskylä, Finland
| | - J Kaprio
- Department of Public Health, University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland.,Department of Mental Health and Substance Abuse Services, National Institute for Health and Welfare, Helsinki, Finland.,Institute for Molecular Medicine, University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland
| | - B-M Loo
- Population Research Unit, Department of Chronic Disease Prevention, National Institute for Health and Welfare, Turku, Finland
| | - J Sundvall
- Division of Welfare and Health Promotion, Department of Chronic Disease Prevention, Diabetes Prevention Unit, National Institute for Health and Welfare, Helsinki, Finland
| | - H M Bäckmand
- Department of Public Health, University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland.,Health and Social Welfare Department, Vantaa, Finland
| | - M Peltonen
- Division of Welfare and Health Promotion, Department of Chronic Disease Prevention, Diabetes Prevention Unit, National Institute for Health and Welfare, Helsinki, Finland
| | - A Jula
- Population Research Unit, Department of Chronic Disease Prevention, National Institute for Health and Welfare, Turku, Finland
| | - S Sarna
- Department of Public Health, University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland
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Is athletic background associated with a future lower prevalence of risk factors for chronic disease? J Exerc Sci Fit 2014. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jesf.2014.06.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
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Kettunen JA, Kujala UM, Kaprio J, Bäckmand H, Peltonen M, Eriksson JG, Sarna S. All-cause and disease-specific mortality among male, former elite athletes: an average 50-year follow-up. Br J Sports Med 2014; 49:893-7. [PMID: 25183628 DOI: 10.1136/bjsports-2013-093347] [Citation(s) in RCA: 64] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 08/12/2014] [Indexed: 11/04/2022]
Abstract
AIM To investigate life expectancy and mortality among former elite athletes and controls. METHODS HR analysis of cause-specific deaths sourced from the national death registry for former Finnish male endurance, team and power sports athletes (N=2363) and controls (N=1657). The median follow-up time was 50 years. RESULTS Median life expectancy was higher in the endurance (79.1 years, 95% CI 76.6 to 80.6) and team (78.8, 78.1 to 79.8) sports athletes than in controls (72.9, 71.8 to 74.3). Compared to controls, risk for total mortality adjusted for socioeconomic status and birth cohort was lower in the endurance ((HR 0.70, 95% CI 0.61 to 0.79)) and team (0.80, 0.72 to 0.89) sports athletes, and slightly lower in the power sports athletes (0.93, 0.85 to 1.03). HR for ischaemic heart disease mortality was lower in the endurance (0.68, 0.54 to 0.86) and team sports (0.73, 0.60 to 0.89) athletes. HR for stroke mortality was 0.52 (0.33 to 0.83) in the endurance and 0.59 (0.40 to 0.88) in the team sports athletes. Compared to controls, the risk for smoking-related cancer mortality was lower in the endurance (HR 0.20, 0.08 to 0.47) and power sports (0.40, 0.25 to 0.66) athletes. For dementia mortality, the power sports athletes, particularly boxers, had increased risk (HR 4.20, 2.30 to 7.81). CONCLUSIONS Elite athletes have 5-6 years additional life expectancy when compared to men who were healthy as young adults. Lower mortality for cardiovascular disease was in part due to lower rates of smoking, as tobacco-related cancer mortality was especially low.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Urho M Kujala
- Department of Health Sciences, University of Jyväskylä, Jyväskylä, Finland
| | - Jaakko Kaprio
- Department of Public Health, University of Helsinki, Hjelt Institute, Helsinki, Finland Department of Mental Health and Substance Abuse Services, National Institute for Health and Welfare, Helsinki, Finland University of Helsinki, Institute for Molecular Medicine (FIMM), Helsinki, Finland
| | - Heli Bäckmand
- Health and Social Welfare Department, City of Vantaa, Finland
| | - Markku Peltonen
- Department of Chronic Disease Prevention, National Institute for Health and Welfare, Helsinki, Finland
| | - Johan G Eriksson
- Department of General Practice and Primary Health Care, University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland Vasa Central Hospital, Vasa, Finland Folkhälsan Research Centre, Helsinki, Finland Unit of General Practice, Helsinki University Central Hospital, Helsinki, Finland
| | - Seppo Sarna
- Department of Public Health, University of Helsinki, Hjelt Institute, Helsinki, Finland
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27
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Sormunen J, Bäckmand HM, Sarna S, Kujala UM, Kaprio J, Dyba T, Pukkala E. Lifetime physical activity and cancer incidence—A cohort study of male former elite athletes in Finland. J Sci Med Sport 2014; 17:479-84. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jsams.2013.10.239] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/22/2013] [Revised: 09/21/2013] [Accepted: 10/04/2013] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
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28
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Nützel A, Dahlhaus A, Fuchs A, Gensichen J, König HH, Riedel-Heller S, Maier W, Schäfer I, Schön G, Weyerer S, Wiese B, Scherer M, van den Bussche H, Bickel H. Self-rated health in multimorbid older general practice patients: a cross-sectional study in Germany. BMC FAMILY PRACTICE 2014; 15:1. [PMID: 24387712 PMCID: PMC3923097 DOI: 10.1186/1471-2296-15-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 64] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/24/2013] [Accepted: 12/17/2013] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
Background With increasing life expectancy the number of people affected by multimorbidity rises. Knowledge of factors associated with health-related quality of life in multimorbid people is scarce. We aimed to identify the factors that are associated with self-rated health (SRH) in aged multimorbid primary care patients. Methods Cross-sectional study with 3,189 multimorbid primary care patients aged from 65 to 85 years recruited in 158 general practices in 8 study centers in Germany. Information about morbidity, risk factors, resources, functional status and socio-economic data were collected in face-to-face interviews. Factors associated with SRH were identified by multivariable regression analyses. Results Depression, somatization, pain, limitations of instrumental activities (iADL), age, distress and Body Mass Index (BMI) were inversely related with SRH. Higher levels of physical activity, income and self-efficacy expectation had a positive association with SRH. The only chronic diseases remaining in the final model were Parkinson’s disease and neuropathies. The final model accounted for 35% variance of SRH. Separate analyses for men and women detected some similarities; however, gender specific variation existed for several factors. Conclusion In multimorbid patients symptoms and consequences of diseases such as pain and activity limitations, as well as depression, seem to be far stronger associated with SRH than the diseases themselves. High income and self-efficacy expectation are independently associated with better SRH and high BMI and age with low SRH. Trial registration MultiCare Cohort study registration:ISRCTN89818205.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anna Nützel
- Department of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, Technical University of Munich, Munich, Germany.
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Marquet LA, Brown M, Tafflet M, Nassif H, Mouraby R, Bourhaleb S, Toussaint JF, Desgorces FD. No effect of weight cycling on the post-career BMI of weight class elite athletes. BMC Public Health 2013; 13:510. [PMID: 23711106 PMCID: PMC3724479 DOI: 10.1186/1471-2458-13-510] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/03/2012] [Accepted: 05/16/2013] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Repetitions of pre-competition weight-loss diets done by athletes participating in weight class sports can be regarded as periods of weight cycling. The aim of the present study is to identify the long term post-career (22 years) evolutionary profile of athletes’ BMI after such weight cycling. Methods One hundred and thirty-six retired French athletes who participated in major international competitions in weight class sports (rowers, wrestlers, boxers, and judokas) were included. Former and current body mass, height, dietary characteristics during the career (annual frequency, amount of weight lost), current physical activity, and answers on the eating-attitude test were collected by phone interview (consistency was tested by comparison with measured weight). We performed ANOVA tests for comparison between groups (sport, dieting), post-hoc tests (Bonferroni test) to identify differences within groups. BMI’s changes were treated using a mixed model. Results The recorded weight changes did not depend upon time since retirement. Between 18 y and 50 y, athletes’ BMI increased by 3.2 kg/m2 compared to the 4.2 kg/m2 increase in the general population. This increase was independent of the number of diets during the career. Retired athletes declared a mean weekly physical activity of 4.8 h ± 4.3. The eating-attitude test showed low scores for all sports without any correlation to diet characteristics. Conclusion Weight cycling during an athletic career does not induce a massive weight gain after retirement, probably due to the high level of physical activity still practiced after retirement by these athletes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Laurie-anne Marquet
- Institut de Recherche bioMédicale et d'Epidémiologie du Sport (IRMES), INSEP, 11, avenue du Tremblay, 75012, Paris, France.
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Deaner RO. Distance running as an ideal domain for showing a sex difference in competitiveness. ARCHIVES OF SEXUAL BEHAVIOR 2013; 42:413-428. [PMID: 22700008 DOI: 10.1007/s10508-012-9965-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 48] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/27/2011] [Revised: 03/19/2012] [Accepted: 03/23/2012] [Indexed: 06/01/2023]
Abstract
Men are over-represented in the arts, sciences, and sports. This has been hypothesized to reflect an evolved male predisposition for enduring competitiveness or long-term motivation to improve one's performance and "show-off." Evidence for this hypothesis is equivocal, however, because there are viable alternative explanations for men's dominance in most cultural display domains. Here, I argue that distance running is an ideal domain for addressing this issue. Distance running is ideal because it indicates enduring competitiveness, allows objective comparisons, and is accessible, acceptable, and popular for both men and women. I review recent studies and present new data showing that substantially more men than women run relatively fast in the U.S., that this sex difference in relative performance can be attributed, at least in part, to men's greater training motivation, and that this pattern has been stable for several decades. Distance running thus provides compelling evidence for an evolved male predisposition for enduring competitiveness. I conclude with suggestions regarding how variation in achievement motivation can be informed by considering how evolved predispositions interact with environmental and social conditions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Robert O Deaner
- Department of Psychology, Grand Valley State University, Allendale, MI 49401, USA.
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Batista C, Soares JM. Are former elite athletes more protected against metabolic syndrome? J Cardiol 2013; 61:440-5. [PMID: 23490562 DOI: 10.1016/j.jjcc.2013.01.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/07/2012] [Revised: 12/13/2012] [Accepted: 01/16/2013] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE Scientific literature offers no epidemiological data regarding prevalence and protective factors for the metabolic syndrome (MetSyn) among former athletes. The aim of this cross-sectional study was to investigate whether former athletes are better protected against MetSyn and if this hypothetical protection is dependent on sex, career, or later lifestyle. METHODS We assessed demographic, behavioral, physical, and biochemical characteristics in a population of 491 subjects of both sexes. RESULTS After adjustment for potential confounding factors, we found no significant differences in the likelihood of MetSyn among former elite, non-elite, and non-athletes. Likewise, sex and previous sport intensity did not reveal a significant association with the syndrome. However, both former elite [odds ratio (OR) 0.20, p=0.020] and non-elite athletes (OR 0.50, p=0.044) who after career termination engaged in the recommended amounts of physical activity, showed a reduced likelihood for the MetSyn. CONCLUSIONS Former athletes tend to adopt healthier lifestyles, which may give them an advantage regarding the risk factors that delineate the syndrome. Furthermore, physical activity engagement at recommended levels seems to play an important role in the association with MetSyn, even in subjects who have never been athletes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cristiano Batista
- Centre of Research, Education, Innovation and Intervention in Sport, University of Porto, Porto, Portugal.
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Hessami Z, Aryanpur M, Emami H, Masjedi M. Behavior and Knowledge of Iranian Professional Athletes towards Smoking. Asian J Sports Med 2013; 3:297-300. [PMID: 23342230 PMCID: PMC3525828 DOI: 10.5812/asjsm.34603] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/14/2012] [Accepted: 08/20/2012] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
PURPOSE This study aimed to assess the rate of tobacco consumption among professional athletes in Iran and assessing their knowledge and attitude in this regard. METHODS A total of 738 athletes from 10 different types of sports were evaluated. Athletes were all members of the priority leagues. After obtaining consent from the Physical Education Organization and coordination with the related federations, athletes were asked to fill out the standard questionnaire. RESULTS All understudy subjects were males. The mean age was 28.4±2.7 yrs. The mean age of initiation of sport in these subjects was reported to be 12.3±4.01 yrs. A total of 178 (24.6%) subjects had experienced cigarette smoking and 308 (42.3%) had experienced hookah smoking. Sixty four subjects (9%) were current smokers. The mean score of knowledge about hazards of smoking was 5.6±0.9 among those who had experienced smoking. This score was 7.9±0.5 among those with no smoking experience (P=0.04). CONCLUSIONS Rate of smoking among professional athletes is lower than general population average. So participation in organized sports may be a protective factor against tobacco use in people.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zahra Hessami
- Address: Massih Daneshvari Hospital, Darabad, Bahonar Ave, Tehran, Iran.
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