Flavonoids eupatorin and sinensetin present in Orthosiphon stamineus leaves inhibit inflammatory gene expression and STAT1 activation

Metabolic Composition of Methanolic Extract of the Balkan Endemic Species Micromeria frivaldszkyana (Degen) Velen and Its Anti-Inflammatory Effect on Male Wistar Rats

Extracts from medicinal plants are widely used in the treatment and prevention of different diseases. Micromeria frivaldszkyana is a Balkan endemic species with reported antioxidant and antimicrobial characteristics; however, its phytochemical composition is not well defined. Here, we examined the metabolome of M. frivaldszkyana by chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS), ultra-performance liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry (UPLC-MS-MS), and inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (ICP-MS). Amino acids, organic acids, sugars, and sugar alcohols were the primary metabolites with the highest levels in the plant extract. Detailed analysis of the sugar content identified high levels of sucrose, glucose, mannose, and fructose. Lipids are primary plant metabolites, and the analysis revealed triacylglycerols as the most abundant lipid group. Potassium (K), magnesium (Mg), zinc (Zn), and calcium (Ca) were the elements with the highest content. The results showed linarin, 3-caffeoil-quinic acid, and rosmarinic acid, as well as a number of polyphenols, as the most abundant secondary metabolites. Among the flavonoids and polyphenols with a high presence were eupatorin, kaempferol, and apigenin-compounds widely known for their bioactive properties. Further, the acute toxicity and potential anti-inflammatory activity of the methanolic extract were evaluated in Wistar rats. No toxic effects were registered after a single oral application of the extract in doses of between 200 and 5000 mg/kg bw. A fourteen-day pre-treatment with methanolic extract of M. frivaldszkyana in doses of 250, 400, and 500 mg/kg bw induced anti-inflammatory activity in the 1st, 2nd, and 3rd hours after carrageenan injection in a model of rat paw edema. This effect was also present in the 4th hour only in the group treated with a dose of 500 mg/kg. In conclusion, M. frivaldszkyana extract is particularly rich in linarin, rosmarinic acid, and flavonoids (eupatorin, kaempferol, and apigenin). Its methanolic extract induced no toxicity in male Wistar rats after oral application in doses of up to 5000 mg/kg bw. Additionally, treatment with the methanolic extract for 14 days revealed anti-inflammatory potential in a model of rat paw edema on the 1st, 2nd, and 3rd hours after the carrageenan injection. These results show the anti-inflammatory potential of the plant, which might be considered for further exploration and eventual application as a phytotherapeutic agent.

PLGA nanomedical consignation: A novel approach for the management of prostate cancer

The malignancy of the prostate is a complicated ailment which impacts millions of male populations around the globe. Despite the multitude of endeavour accomplished within this domain, modalities that are involved in the ameliorative management of predisposed infirmity are still relent upon non-specific and invasive procedures, thus imposing a detrimental mark on the living standard of the individual. Also, the orchestrated therapeutic interventions are still incompetent in substantiating a robust and unabridged therapeutic end point owing to their inadequate solubility, low bioavailability, limited cell assimilation, and swift deterioration, thereby muffling the clinical application of these existing treatment modalities. Nanotechnology has been employed in an array of modalities for the medical management of malignancies. Among the assortment of available nano-scaffolds, nanocarriers composed of a bio-decomposable and hybrid polymeric material like PLGA hold an opportunity to advance as standard chemotherapeutic modalities. PLGA-based nanocarriers have the prospect to address the drawbacks associated with conventional cancer interventions, owing to their versatility, durability, nontoxic nature, and their ability to facilitate prolonged drug release. This review intends to describe the plethora of evidence-based studies performed to validate the applicability of PLGA nanosystem in the amelioration of prostate malignancies, in conjunction with PLGA focused nano-scaffold in the clinical management of prostate carcinoma. This review seeks to explore numerous evidence-based studies confirming the applicability of PLGA nanosystems in ameliorating prostate malignancies. It also delves into the role of PLGA-focused nano-scaffolds in the clinical management of prostate carcinoma, aiming to provide a comprehensive perspective on these advancements.

Discovery of anti-inflammatory natural flavonoids: Diverse scaffolds and promising leads for drug discovery

Natural products have been utilized for medicinal purposes for millennia, endowing them with a rich source of chemical scaffolds and pharmacological leads for drug discovery. Among the vast array of natural products, flavonoids represent a prominent class, renowned for their diverse biological activities and promising therapeutic advantages. Notably, their anti-inflammatory properties have positioned them as promising lead compounds for developing novel drugs combating various inflammatory diseases. This review presents a comprehensive overview of flavonoids, highlighting their manifold anti-inflammatory activities and elucidating the underlying pathways in mediating inflammation. Furthermore, this review encompasses systematical classification of flavonoids, related anti-inflammatory targets, involved in vitro and in vivo test models, and detailed statistical analysis. We hope this review will provide researchers engaged in active natural products and anti-inflammatory drug discovery with practical information and potential leads.

Sinensetin ameliorates high glucose-induced diabetic nephropathy via enhancing autophagy in vitro and in vivo

Diabetic nephropathy (DN) affects around 40% of people with diabetes, the final outcome of which is end-stage renal disease. The deficiency of autophagy and excessive oxidative stress have been found to participate in the pathogenesis of DN. Sinensetin (SIN) has been proven to have strong antioxidant capability. However, the effect of SIN on DN has not been studied. We examined the effect of SIN on cell viability and autophagy in the podocyte cell line, MPC5 cells, treated with high glucose (HG). For in vivo studies, DN mice models were established by intraperitoneal injected with streptozotocin (40 mg/kg) for 5 consecutive days and fed with a 60% high-fat diet, and SIN was given (10, 20, and 40 mg/kg) for 8 weeks via intraperitoneal injection. The results showed that SIN could protect MPC5 cells against HG-induced damage and significantly improve the renal function of DN mice. Moreover, SIN remarkably restored the autophagy activity of MPC5 cells which was inhibited under HG conditions. Consistent with this, SIN efficiently improved autophagy in the kidney tissue of DN mice. In brief, our findings demonstrated the protective effect of SIN on DN via restoring the autophagic function, which might provide a basis for drug development.

Sinensetin Attenuated Macrophagic NLRP3 Inflammasomes Formation via SIRT1-NRF2 Signaling

Macrophage-mediated inflammation plays essential roles in multiple-organ injury. Sinensetin (SNS) at least exhibits anti-inflammation, antioxidant, and antitumor properties. However, the underlying mechanism of SNS-targeted macrophage-mediated inflammation remains elusive. In the present study, our results showed that SNS suppressed lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced inflammation to ameliorate lung and liver injuries. Mechanistically, SNS significantly inhibited M1-type macrophage polarization and its NLRP3 inflammasome formation to significantly decrease tumor necrosis factor α (TNFα) and IL-6 expression, while increasing IL-10 expression. Moreover, SNS interacted and activated SIRT1 to promote NRF2 and its target gene SOD2 transcription, which subsequently decreased LPS-induced inflammation. SIRT1 knockdown impaired the effects of SNS on the inhibition of macrophage polarization, NLRP3 inflammasome formation, and NRF2/SOD2 signaling. Taken together, our results showed that SNS is a potential and promising natural active ingredient to ameliorate inflammatory injury via activating SIRT1/NRF2/SOD2 signaling.

An integrative analysis to predict the active compounds and explore polypharmacological mechanisms of Orthosiphon stamineus Benth

BACKGROUND

Orthosiphon stamineus Benth is a dietary supplement and traditional Chinese herb with widespread clinical applications, but a comprehensive understanding of its active compounds and polypharmacological mechanisms is lacking. This study aimed to systematically investigate the natural compounds and molecular mechanisms of O. stamineus via network pharmacology.

METHODS

Information on compounds from O. stamineus was collected via literature retrieval, while physicochemical properties and drug-likeness were evaluated using SwissADME. Protein targets were screened using SwissTargetPrediction, while the compound-target networks were constructed and analyzed via Cytoscape with CytoHubba for seed compounds and core targets. Enrichment analysis and disease ontology analysis were then carried out, generating target-function and compound-target-disease networks to intuitively explore potential pharmacological mechanisms. Lastly, the relationship between active compounds and targets was confirmed via molecular docking and dynamics simulation.

RESULTS

A total of 22 key active compounds and 65 targets were identified and the main polypharmacological mechanisms of O. stamineus were addressed. The molecular docking results suggested that nearly all core compounds and their targets possess good binding affinity. In addition, the separation of receptor and ligands was not observed in all dynamics simulation processes, whereas complexes of orthosiphol Z-AR and Y-AR performed best in simulations of molecular dynamics.

CONCLUSION

This study successfully identified the polypharmacological mechanisms of the main compounds in O. stamineus, and predicted five seed compounds along with 10 core targets. Moreover, orthosiphol Z, orthosiphol Y, and their derivatives can be utilized as lead compounds for further research and development. The findings here provide improved guidance for subsequent experiments, and we identified potential active compounds for drug discovery or health promotion.

A Combination of Polymethoxyflavones from Citrus sinensis and Prenylflavonoids from Humulus lupulus Counteracts IL-1β-Induced Differentiated Caco-2 Cells Dysfunction via a Modulation of NF-κB/Nrf2 Activation

We here investigated the anti-inflammatory activity of a polymethoxylated flavone-containing fraction (PMFF) from Citrus sinensis and of a prenylflavonoid-containing one (PFF) from Humulus lupulus, either alone or in combination (MIX). To this end, an in vitro model of inflammatory bowel disease (IBD), consisting of differentiated, interleukin (IL)-1β-stimulated Caco-2 cells, was employed. We demonstrated that non-cytotoxic concentrations of either PMFF or PFF or MIX reduced nitric oxide (NO) production while PFF and MIX, but not PMFF, also inhibited prostaglandin E2 release. Coherently, MIX suppressed both inducible NO synthase and cyclooxygenase-2 over-expression besides NF-κB activation. Moreover, MIX increased nuclear factor erythroid 2-related factor 2 (Nrf2) activation, heme oxygenase-1 expression, restoring GSH and reactive oxygen and nitrogen species (RONs) levels. Remarkably, these effects with MIX were stronger than those produced by PMFF or PFF alone. Noteworthy, nobiletin (NOB) and xanthohumol (XTM), two of the most represented phytochemicals in PMFF and PFF, respectively, synergistically inhibited RONs production. Overall, our results demonstrate that MIX enhances the anti-inflammatory and anti-oxidative effects of the individual fractions in a model of IBD, via a mechanism involving modulation of NF-κB and Nrf2 signalling. Synergistic interactions between NOB and XTM emerge as a relevant aspect underlying this evidence.

A Multilevel Study of Eupatorin and Scutellarein as Anti-Amyloid Agents in Alzheimer's Disease

Today, Alzheimer's disease (AD)-the most common neurodegenerative disorder, which affects 50 million people-remains incurable. Several studies suggest that one of the main pathological hallmarks of AD is the accumulation of abnormal amyloid beta (Aβ) aggregates; therefore, many therapeutic approaches focus on anti-Aβ aggregation inhibitors. Taking into consideration that plant-derived secondary metabolites seem to have neuroprotective effects, we attempted to assess the effects of two flavones-eupatorin and scutellarein-on the amyloidogenesis of Aβ peptides. Biophysical experimental methods were employed to inspect the aggregation process of Aβ after its incubation with each natural product, while we monitored their interactions with the oligomerized Aβ through molecular dynamics simulations. More importantly, we validated our in vitro and in silico results in a multicellular organismal model-namely, Caenorhabditis elegans-and we concluded that eupatorin is indeed able to delay the amyloidogenesis of Aβ peptides in a concentration-dependent manner. Finally, we propose that further investigation could lead to the exploitation of eupatorin or its analogues as potential drug candidates.

Natural flavonoid sinensetin inhibits cisplatin-induced pyroptosis and attenuates intestinal injury

The demand of exploring strategies to enhance chemotherapy drug efficacy and alleviate adverse effects by using natural compounds is increasing. Sinensetin (SIN) is a kind of natural flavonoids with anti-inflammatory activities. However, its protective impact on chemotherapy-induced adverse effects has not been well demonstrated. Here, we found that SIN could inhibit Cisplatin-induced release of proinflammatory cellular contents and inflammatory cell death-pyroptosis. In addition, Cisplatin-induced activation of gasdermin E (GSDME), a critical mediator of chemotherapy-induced tissue injury, could also be reversed by SIN. Furthermore, SIN impaired Cisplatin-induced intracellular damages, including ROS release and DNA damages. Importantly, SIN was able to alleviate intestinal injury in Cisplatin-challenged mice, which was accompanied by the decrease of lytic cell death and immune cell infiltration. Of note, SIN administration did not reverse Cisplatin-caused tumor suppression in vivo. In conclusion, our result provides a potential application of SIN to reduce Cisplatin-caused adverse effects, without impairing its anti-tumor capacity.

Therapeutic effectiveness of sinensetin against cancer and other human complications: A review of biological potential and pharmacological activities

BACKGROUND

Plant and their active phytoproducts have been used in modern medicine and playing an important role in the health sectors since a very early age. Human beings need a considerable amount of these plant-based phytochemicals for their health. The flavonoidal class phytochemical is an important class of natural products in modern healthcare because of their different pharmacological activities and health benefits. Flavonoidal class phytochemicals have been used to treat diabetes and related secondary complications in humans. Flavonoids have anti-apoptotic, anti-hyperlipidemic, anti-inflammatory, and anti-oxidant potential in the health sectors. Sinensetin, also called 3',4',5,6,7-pentametoksiflavon is a colorless compound with a molecular weight 372.37g/mol and is found to be present in the Orthosiphon stamineus.

METHODS

In the present investigation, we aim to collect scientific information on sinensetin and analyze it for its biological potential and therapeutic benefits against various types of disorders and complications. Medicinal importance and pharmacological activities data have been collected and analyzed in the present work for sinensetin through literature data analysis of different research works. Google Science Direct, PubMed, Scopus, and Google Scholar were mainly searched to collect the scientific information in the present work. The present work analyzed sinensetin's biological potential, pharmacological activities, and analytical aspects.

RESULTS

Literature data analysis of different scientific research works revealed the biological potential of phytochemicals in medicine, including flavonoids. Sinensetin has anti-tumor, anti-inflammatory, anti-oxidant, anti-diabetic, and antibacterial activities through their testing in different in vitro and in vivo models. Sinensetin has physiological functions, including anti-oxidant, anti-inflammation, and anti-cancer potential in medicine. Scientific data analysis signified the biological importance of sinensetin against tumors, gastric cancer, colorectal cancer, breast cancer, diabetes, influenza H1N1 infection, obesity, inflammation, colitis, brain disorders, and microbial infections. Further biological potential of sinensetin on enzymes and angiogenesis has been analyzed in the present work. Sinensetin was isolated through different analytical and extraction techniques, including chromatographic techniques.

CONCLUSION

Literature data analysis signified sinensetin's biological potential and pharmacological activities in medicine.

The combination of molecular docking and network pharmacology reveals the molecular mechanism of Danggui Niantong decoction in treating gout

BACKGROUND

Due to unhealthy diet and living habits, the incidence of gout is on the rise and has become a common disease with a high incidence. Danggui Niantong decoction (DGNTD), as a classic formula composed of 15 common herbs, has been widely used in clinical practice since ancient times to prevent and treat gout. However, the pharmacological mechanism and target of DGNTD are not clear.

METHODS

The potential active compounds and targets of DGNTD were obtained by traditional Chinese medicine systems pharmacology (TCMSP) database, and the differential genes of gout patients and controls were analyzed in gene expression omnibus (GEO) database. GSEA analysis of differential genes with GSEA 4.1.0 software and then the differential genes were intersected with the gout-related disease targets searched by GeneCard, CTD and OMIM disease database to obtain the final disease target. The "Traditional Chinese medicine-Active compounds-Targets" network was constructed by Cytoscape3.7.2 software. The R packet is used for enrichment analysis. The molecular docking between the active compound of DGNTD and the core target was verified by AutoDockTools software.

RESULTS

Two hundred eighty six and 244 targets of DGNTD-related active components and 652 targets of gout were obtained, of which 13 targets were potential targets of DGNTD in the treatment of gout. GSEA analysis showed that the differential genes were mainly involved in apoptosis, inflammatory reaction, and receptor metabolism and so on. Gene ontology (GO) functional enrichment analysis shows that DGNTD regulates many biological processes, such as the response to purine-containing compound and response to lipopolysaccharide, positive regulation of acute inflammatory response and other cellular components. Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes (KEGG) pathway enrichment analysis shows that DGNTD treatment of gout is mainly related to interleukin-17 (IL-17), Toll-like receptor, rheumatoid arthritis, tumor necrosis factor (TNF) and so on. The results of molecular docking showed that the five active compounds in DGNTD had strong binding activity to core protein receptors.

CONCLUSIONS

The active compounds of DGNTD may achieve the purpose of treating gout by acting on the core target (CASP8, CXCL8, FOS, IL1B, IL6, JUN, PTGS2, STAT1, MMP1, TNF) to regulate cell metabolism, proliferation and apoptosis, and improve inflammatory response, which is the result of multi-component, multi-target and multi-pathway interaction. It provides an idea for the development of new combined drugs for gout.

Toll-Like Receptor 4: A Promising Therapeutic Target for Alzheimer's Disease

Alzheimer's disease (AD) is a progressive neurodegenerative disease that primarily manifests as memory deficits and cognitive impairment and has created health challenges for patients and society. In AD, amyloid β-protein (Aβ) induces Toll-like receptor 4 (TLR4) activation in microglia. Activation of TLR4 induces downstream signaling pathways and promotes the generation of proinflammatory cytokines, such as tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α), interleukin-6 (IL-6), and interleukin-1β (IL-1β), which also trigger the activation of astrocytes and influence amyloid-dependent neuronal death. Therefore, TLR4 may be an important molecular target for treating AD by regulating neuroinflammation. Moreover, TLR4 regulates apoptosis, autophagy, and gut microbiota and is closely related to AD. This article reviews the role of TLR4 in the pathogenesis of AD and a range of potential therapies targeting TLR4 for AD. Elucidating the regulatory mechanism of TLR4 in AD may provide valuable clues for developing new therapeutic strategies for AD.

Targeting of Nrf2/PPARγ/NLRP3 Signaling Pathway by Stevia rebudiana Bertoni Extract Provides a Novel Insight into Its Protective Effect against Acute Gouty Arthritis-Induced Synovial Inflammation, Oxidative Stress and Apoptosis in a Rat Model

Our research work examined the potential protection of Stevia rebaudiana extract against monosodium urate crystals (MSU)-induced acute gouty arthritis in a rat model and its possible underlying mechanism. Forty rats were allocated into four groups (n = 10); a control group; an MSU group, whose rats received 0.1 of MSU single intra-articular injection in the ankle joint on the fifth day of the experiment; an MSU + Stevia group, which received 250 mg/kg/day of Stevia extract orally for seven days and MSU crystals on the fifth day; and an MSU + colchicine group, which was administered colchicine at 0.28 mg/kg daily for seven days and MSU crystals on the fifth day. Pretreatment with Stevia extract mitigated MSU-induced inflammation as evidenced by a decrease of the ankle edema and inflammatory cell infiltration and a significant downregulation of the protein level of NFκB, TNFα, IL-1β, IL6, and IL18 as well as NLRP3 gene expression. Additionally, there was a markedly increased PPARγ gene expression (p < 0.001) compared with the MSU group (p < 0.001) and alleviated oxidative stress via significant upregulating of Nrf2/HO-1. Moreover, the pretreatment attenuated apoptosis by significantly decreasing cytochrome c, Bax, Caspase-3, and by increasing Bcl-2 protein. In conclusion, Stevia extract exhibited strong anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, and antiapoptotic effects against MSU-induced gouty arthritis similar to the standard anti-inflammatory colchicine drugs.

Eupatorin and Salviandulin-A, with Antimicrobial and Anti-Inflammatory Effects from Salvia lavanduloides Kunth Leaves

This study describes the antimicrobial and anti-inflammatory effects from extracts obtained from the leaves of Salvia lavanduloides. The plant material was macerated with three solvents of ascending polarity (n-hexane (Sl-Hex), ethyl acetate (Sl-AcOEt), and dichloromethane (Sl-D)). The extracts, fractions (SlD-2 and SlD-3), and isolated compounds (15,16-epoxy-10-β-hydroxy-neo-cleroda-3,7,13(16),14-tetraene-17,12R:18,19-diolide (1), salviandulin A (2), and eupatorin (3)) were evaluated as antimicrobials against Gram-negative, Gram-positive bacteria and the fungus Candida albicans (Ca) using the minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) and the anti-inflammatory activity induced by 13-acetate of 12-O-tetradecanoylforbol (TPA). Sl-D and Sl-AcOEt extracts, SlD-2 and SlD-3 fractions showed the highest antimicrobial activity. The isolated compounds showed good activity against Pseudomonas aeruginosa with a MIC < 2 μg/mL, while the anti-inflammatory activity, the Sl-Hex, Sl-D extracts, and SlD-3 fraction presented an inhibition of 62, 45 and 61%, respectively, while (2) 70% and (3) 72%.

Kampo formulas alleviate aging-related emotional disturbances and neuroinflammation in male senescence-accelerated mouse prone 8 mice

Aging-induced neuroinflammation, also known as neuroinflammaging, plays a pivotal role in emotional disturbances, including depression and anxiety, in older individuals, thereby leading to cognitive dysfunction. Although numerous studies have focused on therapeutic strategies for cognitive impairment in older individuals, little research has been performed on treating its preceding emotional disturbances. Here, we examined whether Kampo formulas (kososan [KS], nobiletin-rich kososan [NKS], and hachimijiogan [HJG]) can ameliorate aging-induced emotional disturbances and neuroinflammation in mice. The depression-like behaviors observed in SAMP8 mice, relative to normally aging SAMR1 mice, were significantly prevented by treatment with Kampo formulas for 13 weeks. Western blot analysis revealed that hippocampal neuroinflammation was significantly abrogated by Kampo formulas. KS and NKS also significantly attenuated the hippocampal neuroinflammatory priming induced by lipopolysaccharide (LPS, 0.33 mg/kg, i.p.) challenge in SAMP8 mice. Hippocampal IL-1β, IL-6, and MCP-1 levels were significantly decreased in NKS-treated SAMP8 mice. KS and NKS showed significantly reduced tau accumulation in the brains of SAMP8 mice. RNA-sequencing revealed that each Kampo formula led to unique dynamics of hippocampal gene expression and appeared to abrogate hippocampal inflammatory responses. HJG significantly blocked the LPS-induced increase in serum IL-6 and MCP-1. These results suggest that Kampo formulas would be useful for treating aging-induced depression, in part by regulating neuroinflammatory pathways. This finding may pave the way for the development of therapeutic strategies for aging-related emotional disturbances, which may contribute to the prevention of cognitive dysfunction in older individuals.

Sinensetin attenuates oxygen-glucose deprivation/reperfusion-induced neurotoxicity by MAPK pathway in human cerebral microvascular endothelial cells

Sinensetin is a polymethoxylated flavone with anti-inflammatory and anti-oxidative activities. This work aimed to explore the function and mechanism of sinensetin in oxygen and glucose deprivation/reperfusion (OGD/R)-induced neurotoxicity. The overlapping target genes of cerebral stroke and sinensetin were determined according to GeneCards and ParmMapper tools and were subjected to Gene Ontology (GO) annotations and Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes (KEGG) pathway enrichment analyses. Human cerebral microvascular endothelial cells (HCMECs) were stimulated with OGD/R. Neurotoxicity was investigated by Cell Counting Kit-8, lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) release, reactive oxygen species (ROS) level, qRT-PCR, and TUNEL analysis. The proteins (p38, JNK, and ERK) in mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) signaling were measured using Western blotting. Total of 50 overlapping target genes of cerebral stroke and sinensetin were predicted. Pathway analysis showed they might be involved in the MAPK pathway. Sinensetin attenuated OGD/R-induced neurotoxicity by mitigating viability reduction, LDH release, ROS generation, inflammatory response, and apoptosis in HCMECs. Sinensetin weakened OGD/R-induced activation of the MAPK pathway via decreasing the phosphorylation of p38, JNK, and ERK. The pathway inhibitors mitigated the activation of the MAPK signaling, and sinensetin exacerbated this effect. The inhibitors reversed OGD/R-induced neurotoxicity in HCMECs, and sinensetin contributed to this role. Overall, sinensetin prevents OGD/R-induced neurotoxicity through decreasing the activation of MAPK pathway.

Bee Venom Alleviated Edema and Pain in Monosodium Urate Crystals-Induced Gouty Arthritis in Rat by Inhibiting Inflammation

Bee venom (BV) acupuncture has anti-inflammatory and analgesic effects; therefore, it was used as a traditional Korean medicine for various musculoskeletal disorders, especially arthritis. In this study, we investigated the effect of BV on monosodium urate (MSU) crystal-induced acute gouty rats. An intra-articular injection of MSU crystal suspension (1.25 mg/site) was administered to the tibiotarsal joint of the hind paw of Sprague Dawley rats to induce MSU crystal-induced gouty arthritis. Colchicine (30 mg/kg) was orally administered 1 h before MSU crystal injection as a positive control, and BV (0.5 mg/kg) was injected into the tibiotarsal joint immediately after MSU crystal injection. The ankle thickness, mechanical allodynia, and expression of proinflammatory cytokines (TNF-α, IL-1β, IL6, COX2 and iNOS) and chemokines (MIP-1α, MIP-1β, MCP-1, GRO-α, MIP-2α) were then evaluated. BV reduced the expression of proinflammatory cytokines and chemokines, which are important mediators of MSU crystal-induced inflammatory responses. This anti-inflammatory effect was also confirmed histologically to attenuate synovitis and neutrophil infiltration. We demonstrated that BV markedly ameliorated ankle edema and mechanical allodynia in gouty rats. These results suggest that BV acupuncture is a potential clinical therapy for acute gouty management.

Eupatorin Suppressed Tumor Progression and Enhanced Immunity in a 4T1 Murine Breast Cancer Model

Eupatorin is a polymethoxy flavone extracted from Orthosiphon stamineus and was reported to exhibit cytotoxic effects on several cancer cell lines. However, its effect as an anti-breast cancer agent in vivo has yet to be determined. This study aims to elucidate the potential of eupatorin as an anti-breast cancer agent in vivo using 4T1 challenged BALB/c mice model. In this article, BALB/c mice (20-22 g) challenged with 4T1 cells were treated with 5 mg/kg or 20 mg/kg eupatorin, while the untreated and healthy mice were fed with olive oil (vehicle) via oral gavage. After 28 days of experiment, the mice were sacrificed and blood was collected for serum cytokine assay, while tumors were harvested to extract RNA and protein for gene expression assay and hematoxylin-eosin staining. Organs such as spleen and lung were harvested for immune suppression and clonogenic assay, respectively. Eupatorin (20 mg/kg) was effective in delaying the tumor development and reducing metastasis to the lung compared with the untreated mice. Eupatorin (20 mg/kg) also enhanced the immunity as the population of NK1.1+ and CD8+ in the splenocytes and the serum interferon-γ were increased. Concurrently, eupatorin treatment also has downregulated the expression of pro-inflammatory and metastatic related genes (IL-1β. MMP9, TNF-α, and NF-κB). Thus, this study demonstrated that eupatorin at the highest dosage of 20 mg/kg body weight was effective in delaying the 4T1-induced breast tumor growth in the animal model.

Sinensetin Attenuates Amyloid Beta25-35-Induced Oxidative Stress, Inflammation, and Apoptosis in SH-SY5Y Cells Through the TLR4/NF-κB Signaling Pathway

Sinensetin (SIN) is an important active compound that exists widely in citrus plants, and has been reported to exhibit various pharmacological properties, including anti-oxidative, anti-inflammatory, and anti-tumor. This study was designed to examine whether SIN can protect against amyloid beta (Aβ)-induced neurotoxicity and to elucidate the underlying mechanism. Our results showed that pretreatment with SIN for 1 h, followed by co-treatment with Aβ plus SIN for 24 h, attenuated Aβ_25-35-induced cell viability reduction, oxidative stress, inflammation, and apoptosis in a dose-dependent manner. Aβ_25-35-induced upregulation of Toll-like receptor 4 (TLR4) expression and nuclear translocation of nuclear factor-kappaB (NF-κB) p65 subunit were inhibited by pretreatment with SIN. Furthermore, the protective effect of SIN was abrogated by TLR4 overexpression. Hence, our data suggested that SIN attenuated Aβ_25-35-induced neurotoxicity through the TLR4/NF-κB pathway.

Exploring the Mechanism Whereby Sinensetin Delays the Progression of Pulmonary Fibrosis Based on Network Pharmacology and Pulmonary Fibrosis Models

The incidence of pulmonary fibrosis (PF), a progressively fatal disease, has increased in recent years. However, there are no effective medicines available. Previous results have shown that sinensetin probably has some curative effects on PF. Therefore, this paper aims to predict the targets of sinensetin using a network pharmacology method and to confirm its effects and functional targets in PF using a mouse PF model. First, network pharmacology analysis showed that sinensetin has 105 functional targets, and 1,698 gene targets closely relate to PF. The intersection of the functional targets and gene targets produced 52 targets for the treatment of PF with sinensetin. The PPIs (protein-protein interactions) led to several potential key target genes, including MAPK1, EGFR, SRC, and PTGS2. The results of GO and KEGG analyses suggested the crucial function of apoptosis in PF and its involvement in the PI3K signaling pathway. Subsequently, we tested the molecular docking of sinensetin with the PI3K protein using the AutoDock4 software. The results showed that sinensetin could fit well into several binding sites of the PI3K protein. Furthermore, we constructed a PF mouse model through one-off intratracheal instillation of bleomycin and then intragastrically administered different concentrations of sinensetin to the model mice. Twenty-eight days later, the mice were sacrificed, and the lung tissues, serum, and bronchoalveolar lavage fluid (BALF) were collected. The in vivo tests showed that the body weight of model mice increased slightly compared with that of PF mice after intragastric sinensetin. HE and Masson staining suggested a certain extent of reduction in the pathology of lung tissues. The expression of collagens I and III, as well as hydroxyproline in the lung tissues, was reduced to a certain extent. IL-6 levels in the serum and BALF decreased markedly. The expression of vimentin and α-SMA in pulmonary tissues decreased. Cell apoptosis, as well as P-PI3K and P-AKT levels, in lung tissues also reduced. In summary, network pharmacology and in vivo test results suggest sinensetin causes an effective delay in the progression of pulmonary fibrosis, and the functional mechanism is likely related to PI3K-AKT signaling.

Phytochemical Analysis and Biological Activities of the Ethanolic Extract of Daphne sericea Vahl Flowering Aerial Parts Collected in Central Italy

In this paper, the first phytochemical analysis of the ethanolic extract of Daphne sericea Vahl flowering aerial parts collected in Italy and its biological activities were reported. Eleven compounds were identified i.e., α-linolenic acid (1), tri-linoleoyl-sn-glycerol (2), pheophorbide a ethyl ester (3), pilloin (4), sinensetin (5), yuanhuanin (6), rutamontine (7), syringin (8), p-coumaric acid (9), p-anisic acid (10) and caffeic acid (11). To the best of our knowledge, compounds (1-4, 7-8 and 10) were isolated from D. sericea for the first time during this work, whereas sinensetin (5) represents a newly identified component of the entire Thymelaeaceae family. The extract was found to possess radical scavenging against both DPPH^• and 2,2′-azino-bis(3-thylbenzothiazoline-6-sulfonic acid (ABTS^•+) radicals, with at least a 40-fold higher potency against the latter. Moreover, chelating abilities against both ferrous and ferric ions have been highlighted, thus suggesting a possible indirect antioxidant power of the extract. Although the precise bioactive compounds remain to be discovered, the polyphenolic constituents, including phenolic acids, tannins and flavonoids, seem to contribute to the antioxidant power of the phytocomplex. In addition, the extract produced cytotoxic effects in MDA-MB-231 and U87-MG cancer cell lines, especially at the concentration of 625 μg/mL and after 48–72 h. Further studies are required to clarify the contribution of the identified compounds in the bioactivities of the extract and to support possible future applications.

Sinensetin: An Insight on Its Pharmacological Activities, Mechanisms of Action and Toxicity

Sinensetin, a plant-derived polymethoxylated flavonoid found in Orthosiphon aristatus var. aristatus and several citrus fruits, has been found to possess strong anticancer activities and a variety of other pharmacological benefits and promising potency in intended activities with minimal toxicity. This review aims to compile an up-to-date reports of published scientific information on sinensetin pharmacological activities, mechanisms of action and toxicity. The present findings about the compound are critically analyzed and its prospect as a lead molecule for drug discovery is highlighted. The databases employed for data collection are mainly through Google Scholar, PubMed, Scopus and Science Direct. In-vitro and in-vivo studies showed that sinensetin possessed strong anticancer activities and a wide range of pharmacological activities such as anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, antimicrobial, anti-obesity, anti-dementia and vasorelaxant activities. The studies provided some insights on its several mechanisms of action in cancer and other disease states. However, more detail mechanistic studies are needed to understand its pharmacological effects. More in vivo studies in various animal models including toxicity, pharmacokinetic, pharmacodynamic and bioavailability studies are required to assess its efficacy and safety before submission to clinical studies. In this review, an insight on sinensetin pharmacological activities and mechanisms of action serves as a useful resource for a more thorough and comprehensive understanding of sinensetin as a potential lead candidate for drug discovery.

Analgesic and anti-inflammatory activity of Artemisia extracts on animal models of nociception

Introduction. The study aims to assess the antinociceptive and anti-inflammatory activity of extracts obtained from indigenous species of wormwood: Artemisia absinthium, A. annua, A. vulgaris and A. pontica. Materials and methods. For these experiments, we employed nociception models using thermal stimulus (hot plate and tail immersion tests, t = 52.5 0C; 30, 60 and 90 minutes testing), chemical stimulus (Zymosan-induced abdominal constriction response test, using distinct lots and testing at 60, 90 and 120 minutes after administration of samples) and pressure stimulus (Randall Selitto test) and an inflammation model for the evaluation of inflammatory edema by Plethysmometer test. Groups of 6 Swiss mice / lot were used, receiving by oral administration the plant extracts suspended in 0.1% CMC-Na. The doses were administered in geometric progression. Chemical analyses were performed by HPLC-MS in order to identify bioactive substances present in extracts: methoxylated flavonoids, sesquiterpene lactones, phytosterols and hydroxycinnamic acids. Results and discussion. All plant extracts showed antinociceptive action on the models with thermal stimulus, as demonstrated by the ED50 values obtained at different test times. In the models of nociception with chemical and mechanical stimulus, models based on inflammatory mediation, the studied fractions have partially proved their antinociceptive action. Regarding the degree of inhibition of inflammatory edema, the highest potency was exhibited by Artemisia pontica extract (86.5% inhibition for the dose of 100 mg/kg). Hispidulin and eupatorin, known anti-inflammatory compounds, were identified in all extracts, along with caffeic and chlorogenic acids, stigmasterol, campesterol and β-sitosterol. Conclusions. The obtained results support the use of these plant extracts in moderate intensity pain, triggered by both central and peripheral mechanisms. Keywords: hot-plate test, tail immersion test, abdominal constrictive response, Randall-Selitto test, inflammatory edema,

Sinensetin induces apoptosis and autophagy in the treatment of human T-cell lymphoma

The present study was carried out to explore the effect of sinensetin in human T-cell lymphoma Jurkat cells and to reveal the underlying molecular mechanisms. We found that sinensetin significantly impeded Jurkat cell proliferation in a dose-dependent and time-dependent manner. Additionally, sinensetin treatment triggered apoptosis and autophagy in Jurkat cells. The apoptosis induction was related to a loss of mitochondrial membrane potential and to increased caspase-3/-8/-9 and poly(ADP-ribose) polymerase (PARP) cleavage. Sinensetin also induced autophagy, as evidenced by the formation of acidic vacuoles, the upregulation of LC3-II and beclin-1, and the downregulation of p62. In addition, the inhibition of autophagy by 3-methyladenine significantly enhanced the apoptosis rate and improved the sensitivity of the Jurkat cells to sinensetin. Moreover, sinensetin induced cell death, apoptosis, and autophagy through the activation of the reactive oxygen species/ c-Jun N-terminal kinase signaling pathway and the inhibition of the Akt/mTOR signaling pathways. In summary, our results revealed that sinensetin induced apoptosis and autophagy in human T-cell lymphoma Jurkat cells by activating reactive oxygen species/ c-Jun N-terminal kinase and blocking the Akt/mTOR signaling pathways. Thus, sinensetin might be a potential candidate in the development of antitumor drugs targeting T-cell leukemia.

Rationale of Orthosiphon aristatus for Healing Diabetic Foot Ulcer

Orthosiphon aristatus (Blume) Miq. is traditionally used for wound healing in South East Asia and scientifically proven for its antidiabetic potential. Wounds due to diabetes, especially diabetic foot ulcer (DFU), always involve a complicated healing process. The present work aims to review the information on the rationale of the phytochemicals from O. aristatus in promoting DFU healing. The findings showed that the DFU healing potential of O. aristatus was characterized by a reduction in the blood glucose level, mainly attributed to the significant concentration of constituents such as caffeic acid, rosmarinic acid, and sinensetin in the plant extract. These phytochemicals possibly induce insulin secretion and sensitivity, improve the lipid profile, and stimulate glucose uptake. Furthermore, the healing effect may also be contributed to the antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and antihyperglycemic properties of the plant. The roles of phytochemicals have been systematically postulated in the 4 phases of the healing process. Moreover, no adverse toxic sign or abnormality has been reported upon oral administration of the plant extract. This suggests that O. aristatus extract could be a potential diabetic wound healing phytomedicine for further preclinical and clinical studies.

A Systematic Review of the Protective Actions of Cat's Whiskers (Misai Kucing) on the Central Nervous System

Orthosiphon stamineus (OS) or Orthosiphon aristatus var. aristatus (OAA) is commonly known as cat's whiskers or "misai kucing". It is an herbaceous shrub that is popular in many different traditional and complementary medicinal systems. Its popularity has been justified by the plethora of studies that have shown that the secondary metabolites of the plant has effects that range from anti-inflammatory and gastroprotective to anorexic and antihypertensive. As such, OS could also be a potential treatment for Central Nervous System (CNS) disorders. However, a cohesive synthesis of the protective actions of OS was lacking. This systematic review was therefore commenced to elaborate on the various protective mechanisms of OS in the CNS. The PRISMA model was used and five databases (Google Scholar, SCOPUS, SpringerLink, ScienceDirect, and PubMed) were searched with relevant keywords to finally identify four articles that met the inclusion criteria. The articles described the protective effects of OS extracts on Alzheimer's disease, epilepsy, learning and memory, oxidative stress, and neurotoxicity. All the articles found were experimental or preclinical studies on animal models or in vitro systems. The reported activities demonstrated that OS could be a potential neuroprotective agent and might improve CNS conditions like neurodegeneration, neuroinflammation, and oxidative stress.

Sinensetin suppresses influenza a virus-triggered inflammation through inhibition of NF-κB and MAPKs signalings

Background

Human respiratory system infected with influenza A virus (IAV) elicited a robust pro-inflammatory response that resulted in severe illness and even death. Currently, limited immunomodulator is available to counteract IAV-associated pneumonia in the clinic. Sinensetin, a polymethoxylated flavone with five methoxy groups, has been found to possess anti-agiogenesis, anti-inflammatory and anti-diabetic activities. However, the effects of sinensetin on IAV-triggered pro-inflammatory response remain unclear. In the present study, the anti-inflammatory effects and corresponding possible mechanism of sinensetin in IAV-infected A549 cells were subjected to investigations.

Methods

The cytotoxic effects of sinensetin towards A549 cells was detected by MTT and LDH assays. The antiviral activity of sinensetin against influenza A virus was assayed in A549 cells with an engineered replication-competent influenza A virus carrying Gaussia luciferase reporter gene infection. The effect of sinensetin on influenza A virus-triggered inflammatory reaction was determined by qRT-PCR, Luminex assays, ELISA and Western blot.

Results

Our results showed that sinensetin did not exhibit antiviral activity against A/PR/8/34 (H1N1). Meanwhile, sinensetin treatment significantly decreased IAV-induced expression of pro-inflammatory mediators at mRNA and protein levels, including IL-6, TNF-α, IP-10, IL-8 and MCP-1. Additionally, levels of cyclooxygenase (COX)-2 and the downstream product prostaglandin E₂ (PGE₂) up-regulated by IAV infection were dramatically suppressed by sinensetin. The mechanistic investigation revealed that sinensetin treatment suppressed the NF-κB transcriptional activity using the NF-κB reporter stable HEK293 cell line stimulated with TNF-α (20 ng/mL) or influenza H1N1 virus. Furthermore, sinensetin abrogated influenza H1N1 virus-induced activation of NF-κB, ERK1/2 MAPK and p38 MAPK signalings.

Conclusion

Collectively, our results indicated that sinensetin has potential capacity to attenuate IAV-triggered pro-inflammatory response via inactivation of NF-κB, ERK1/2 MAPK and p38 MAPK signalings, which implied that sinensetin may be a promising candidate drug for influenza H1N1 virus infection therapeutics.

Citrus Peel Flavonoids as Potential Cancer Prevention Agents

Citrus fruit and in particular flavonoid compounds from citrus peel have been identified as agents with utility in the treatment of cancer. This review provides a background and overview regarding the compounds found within citrus peel with putative anticancer potential as well as the associated in vitro and in vivo studies. Historical studies have identified a number of cellular processes that can be modulated by citrus peel flavonoids including cell proliferation, cell cycle regulation, apoptosis, metastasis, and angiogenesis. More recently, molecular studies have started to elucidate the underlying cell signaling pathways that are responsible for the flavonoids' mechanism of action. These growing data support further research into the chemopreventative potential of citrus peel extracts, and purified flavonoids in particular. This critical review highlights new research in the field and synthesizes the pathways modulated by flavonoids and other polyphenolic compounds into a generalized schema.

Evaluation of apoptotic effects of mPEG-b-PLGA coated iron oxide nanoparticles as a eupatorin carrier on DU-145 and LNCaP human prostate cancer cell lines

Many studies have so far confirmed the efficiency of phytochemicals in the treatment of prostate cancer. Eupatorin, a flavonoid with a wide range of phytomedical activities, suppresses proliferation of and induces apoptosis of multiple cancer cell lines. However, low solubility, poor bioavailability, and rapid degradation limit its efficacy. The aim of our study was to evaluate whether the use of mPEG-b-poly (lactic-co-glycolic) acid (PLGA) coated iron oxide nanoparticles as a carrier could enhance the therapeutic efficacy of eupatorin in DU-145 and LNcaP human prostate cancer cell lines. Nanoparticles were prepared by the co-precipitation method and were fully characterized for morphology, surface charge, particle size, drug loading, encapsulation efficiency and in vitro drug-release profile. The inhibitory effect of nanoparticles on cell viability was evaluated by MTT test. Apoptosis was then determined by Hoechest staining, cell cycle analysis, NO production, annexin/propidium iodide (PI) assay, and Western blotting. The results indicated that eupatorin was successfully entrapped in Fe₃O₄@mPEG-b-PLGA nanoparticles with an efficacy of (90.99 ± 2.1)%. The nanoparticle’s size was around (58.5 ± 4) nm with a negative surface charge [(−34.16 ± 1.3) mV]. In vitro release investigation showed a 30% initial burst release of eupatorin in 24 h, followed by sustained release over 200 h. The MTT assay indicated that eupatorin-loaded Fe₃O₄@mPEG-b-PLGA nanoparticles exhibited a significant decrease in the growth rate of DU-145 and LNcaP cells and their IC50 concentrations were 100 μM and 75 μM, respectively. Next, apoptosis was confirmed by nuclear condensation, enhancement of cell population in the sub-G1 phase and increased NO level. Annexin/PI analysis demonstrated that eupatorin-loaded Fe₃O₄@mPEG-b-PLGA nanoparticles could increase apoptosis and decrease necrosis frequency. Finally, Western blotting analysis confirmed these results and showed that Bax/Bcl-2 ratio and the cleaved caspase-3 level were up-regulated by the designing nanoparticles. Encapsulation of eupatorin in Fe₃O₄@mPEG-b-PLGA nanoparticles increased its anticancer effects in prostate cancer cell lines as compared to free eupatorin. Based on these results, this formulation can provide a sustained eupatorin-delivery system for cancer treatment with the drug remaining active at a significantly lower dose, making it a suitable candidate for pharmacological uses.

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In the current study, Eupatorin was efficiently encapsulated in mPEG-b-PLGA coated iron oxide nanoparticles.

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The nanoparticles bypass the limitations and provide a sustained release of Eupatorin into the human prostate cancer cell.

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The designed nanoparticles can be more effective in inhibiting cancer cell growth as compared to free form.

Assessment of a developed HPLC-MS/MS approach for determining plasma eupatorin in rats and its application in pharmacokinetics analysis

Eupatorin, a bioactive compound extracted from Java tea (Orthosiphon stamineus), possesses potent anti-cancer, anti-inflammatory and vasodilation activities. To date, no pharmacokinetics studies on eupatorin have yet been performed. Here, we established and validated a sensitive and selective LC-MS/MS (liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry) approach for determining plasma eupatorin in rats. Chromatographic fractionation was conducted on a Wonda Cract ODS-2 C18 Column (4.6 mm × 150 mm, 5 μm) with a mobile phase containing aqueous 0.1% formic acid and acetonitrile using a flow rate of 0.8 ml min⁻¹. In multiple reaction monitoring mode, precursor-to-product ion transitions for quantification of eupatorin and the internal standard were set at 343.1 → 328.1 and 252.0 → 155.9, respectively. The intra- and inter-day precision and accuracy were found to be below 6.72% and within ±8.26% in rat plasma, respectively. Meanwhile, all values of the matrix effect, recovery and stability were within the accepted ranges. Furthermore, we carried out the pharmacokinetic analysis using the developed method. The pharmacokinetic study revealed that while the C_max (maximum plasma concentration) of eupatorin and time for reaching the C_max (T_max) were 974.886 ± 293.898 μg L⁻¹ and 0.25 h, respectively, the half-life was 0.353 ± 0.026 h. This study will be of great significance to the research on the pharmacology, clinical pharmacy and drug action mechanism of eupatorin.

Eupatorin, a bioactive compound extracted from Java tea (Orthosiphon stamineus), possesses potent anti-cancer, anti-inflammatory and vasodilation activities.

Identification of Metabolites of Eupatorin in Vivo and in Vitro Based on UHPLC-Q-TOF-MS/MS

Eupatorin is the major bioactive component of Java tea (Orthosiphon stamineus), exhibiting strong anticancer and anti-inflammatory activities. However, no research on the metabolism of eupatorin has been reported to date. In the present study, ultra-high-performance liquid chromatography coupled with hybrid triple quadrupole time-of-flight mass spectrometry (UHPLC-Q-TOF-MS) combined with an efficient online data acquisition and a multiple data processing method were developed for metabolite identification in vivo (rat plasma, bile, urine and feces) and in vitro (rat liver microsomes and intestinal flora). A total of 51 metabolites in vivo, 60 metabolites in vitro were structurally characterized. The loss of CH2, CH2O, O, CO, oxidation, methylation, glucuronidation, sulfate conjugation, N-acetylation, hydrogenation, ketone formation, glycine conjugation, glutamine conjugation and glucose conjugation were the main metabolic pathways of eupatorin. This was the first identification of metabolites of eupatorin in vivo and in vitro and it will provide reference and valuable evidence for further development of new pharmaceuticals and pharmacological mechanisms.

A Review of Malaysian Medicinal Plants with Potential Anti-Inflammatory Activity

This article aims to provide detailed information on Malaysian plants used for treating inflammation. An extensive search on electronic databases including PubMed, Google Scholar, Scopus, and ScienceDirect and conference papers was done to find relevant articles on anti-inflammatory activity of Malaysian medicinal plants. The keyword search terms used were "inflammation," "Malaysia," "medicinal plants," "mechanisms," "in vitro," and "in vivo." As a result, 96 articles on anti-inflammatory activity of Malaysian medicinal plants were found and further reviewed. Forty-six (46) plants (in vitro) and 30 plants (in vivo) have been identified to possess anti-inflammatory activity where two plants, Melicope ptelefolia (Tenggek burung) and Portulaca oleracea (Gelang pasir), were reported to have the strongest anti-inflammatory activity of more than 90% at a concentration of 250 µg/ml. It was showed that the activity was mainly due to the occurrence of diverse naturally occurring phytochemicals from diverse groups such as flavonoids, coumarins, alkaloids, steroids, benzophenone, triterpenoids, curcuminoids, and cinnamic acid. Hence, this current review is a detailed discussion on the potential of Malaysian medicinal plants as an anti-inflammatory agent from the previous studies. However, further investigation on the possible underlying mechanisms and isolation of active compounds still remains to be investigated.

Identification and Comparison of Constituents of Aurantii Fructus and Aurantii Fructus Immaturus by UFLC-DAD-Triple TOF-MS/MS

Although Aurantii Fructus (AF) and Aurantii Fructus Immaturus (AFI) are both the fruits of the same rutaceae plant at different stages of growth, they exert similar yet distinct clinical effects. The chemical composition is crucial for quality control as well as therapeutic application. To address this concern, it is significant to evaluate the similarities and differences of the constituents in both AF and AFI. The extract of AF and AFI were comprehensively analyzed by ultra fast liquid chromatography-photodiode array detector-triple-time of flight-tandem mass spectrometry (UFLC-DAD-Triple TOF-MS/MS). Among the 40 compounds detected, 19 metabolites were detected in both the AF and AFI; whereas 13 compounds were only detected in AF and five constituents were exclusively detected in AFI. In particular, even in AFI, three compounds were only identified in AFI (Citrus aurantium' L. and its cultivar). Among the 18 compounds confirmed by standard database, 13 compounds were reported in AF and AFI for the first time. Furthermore, the distinction was also revealed by the content of naringin, hesperidin, neohesperidin, and synephrine. The study directly contributed to the similarities and differences of AF and AFI. Herein, similarities and the differences in chemical profiles of AF and AFI could explain the current clinical applications.

Clarifying of the potential mechanism of Sinisan formula for treatment of chronic hepatitis by systems pharmacology method

Chronic hepatitis is a general designation class of diseases, which results in different degrees of liver necrosis and inflammatory reaction, followed by liver fibrosis, may eventually develop into cirrhosis. However, the molecular pathogenesis of chronic hepatitis is too complex to elucidate. Herbal medicines, featured with multiple targets and compounds, have long displayed therapeutic effect in treating chronic hepatitis, though their molecular mechanisms of contribution remain indistinct. This research utilized the network pharmacology to confirm the molecular pathogenesis of chronic hepatitis through providing a comprehensive analysis of active chemicals, drug targets and pathways' interaction of Sinisan formula for treating chronic hepatitis. The outcomes showed that 80 active ingredients of Sinisan formula interacting with 91 therapeutic proteins were authenticated. Sinisan formula potentially participates in immune modulation, anti-inflammatory and antiviral activities, even has regulating effects on lipid metabolism. These mechanisms directly or indirectly are involved in curing chronic hepatitis by an interaction way. The network pharmacology based analysis demonstrated that Sinisan has multi-scale curative activity in regulating chronic hepatitis related biological processes, which provides a new potential way for modern medicine in the treatment of chronic diseases.

Anti-inflammatory activity of standardized dichloromethane extract of Salvia connivens on macrophages stimulated by LPS

CONTEXT

A previous study demonstrated that the chloroform extract of Salvia connivens Epling (Lamiaceae) has anti-inflammatory activity.

OBJECTIVE

Identification of the active components in the dicholorometane extract (DESC), and, standardization of the extract based in ursolic acid.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

DESC was prepared by percolation with dichlromethane and after washed with hot hexane, its composition was determined by CG-MS and NMR, and standardized by HPLC. The anti-inflammatory activity was tested on acute TPA-induced mouse ear oedema at doses of 2.0 mg/ear. The cell viability of macrophages was evaluated by MTT method, and pro- and anti-inflammatory interleukin levels were measured using an ELISA kit.

RESULTS

Ursolic acid, oleanolic acid, dihydroursolic acid and eupatorin were identified in DESC, which was standardized based on the ursolic acid concentration (126 mg/g). The anti-inflammatory activities of DESC, the acid mixture, and eupatorin (2 mg/ear) were 60.55, 57.20 and 56.40% inhibition, respectively, on TPA-induced ear oedema. The IC50 of DESC on macrophages was 149.4 μg/mL. DESC (25 μg/mL) significantly reduced TNF-α (2.0-fold), IL-1β (2.2-fold) and IL-6 (2.0-fold) in macrophages stimulated with LPS and increased the production of IL-10 (1.9-fold).

DISCUSSION

Inflammation is a basic response to injuries, and macrophages are involved in triggering inflammation. Macrophage cells exhibit a response to LPS, inducing inflammatory mediators, and DESC inhibits the biosynthesis of the pro-inflammatory and promote anti-inflammatory cytokines.

CONCLUSION

DESC has an anti-inflammatory effect; reduced the levels of IL-1β, Il-6 and TNF-α; and increases IL-10 in macrophages stimulated with LPS. Ursolic acid is a good phytochemical marker.

Comparative Analysis of the Interaction between Different Flavonoids and PDIA3

Flavonoids, plant secondary metabolites present in fruits, vegetables, and products such as tea and red wine, show antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, antithrombotic, antiviral, and antitumor activity. PDIA3 is a member of the protein disulfide isomerase family mainly involved in the correct folding of newly synthetized glycoproteins. PDIA3 is associated with different human pathologies such as cancer, prion disorders, Alzheimer's disease, and Parkinson's diseases and it has the potential to be a pharmacological target. The interaction of different flavonoids with PDIA3 was investigated by quenching fluorescence analysis and the effects on protein activity were evaluated. A higher affinity was observed for eupatorin-5-methyl ether and eupatorin which also inhibit reductase activity of PDIA3 but do not significantly affect its DNA binding activity. The use of several flavonoids differing in chemical structure and functional groups allows us to make some consideration about the relationship between ligand structure and the affinity for PDIA3. The specific flavone backbone conformation and the degree of polarity seem to play an important role for the interaction with PDIA3. The binding site is probably similar but not equivalent to that of green tea catechins, which, as previously demonstrated, can bind to PDIA3 and prevent its interaction with DNA.

Cat's whiskers (Orthosiphon stamineus) tea modulates arthritis pathogenesis via the angiogenesis and inflammatory cascade

Background

Orthosiphon stamineus is used traditionally to treat gout, arthritis, and inflammatory related conditions. The in vitro anti-inflammatory effects of the plant have been scientifically investigated. The goal of the present study was to evaluate the potential of the 50% ethanol extract of O. stamineus (EOS) to treat rheumatoid arthritis.

Methods

Anti-arthritic activity was assessed using the in vitro heat denaturation test and the (FCA)-induced arthritis model. Efficacy was assessed by measurements of paw edema and granulation, X-ray radiography, fluorescence molecular tomography (FMT), and histological evaluation. Levels of (TNF-α), interleukin-1 (IL-1), and (COX-1 and COX-2) were analyzed in vitro in lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-stimulated human macrophage (U937). TNF-α and IL-1 levels in the serum samples of arthritic rats were also measured using an ELISA kit.

Results

Treatment with EOS resulted in dose-dependent inhibition of paw edema in acute and chronic models of inflammation. It also inhibited significantly the production of TNF-α, IL-1 COX-1, and COX-2 in the LPS-stimulated U937 macrophages. EOS significantly suppressed FCA-induced paw edema as well as the serum levels of TNF-α and IL-1. X-rays of the synovial joint of the hind leg showed considerable improvement in joint integrity and recovery of tibia-talus bones from degeneration and osteoporotic lesions. Histology of proximal interphalangeal joints of EOS-treated animals showed obvious protection of cartilage and soft tissue. Finally, FMT analysis strongly supported the anti-arthritic effect of EOS. EOS had high phenolic and total flavonoid content as well as strong antioxidant activity.

Conclusions

Results illustrated that the anti-arthritic properties of O. stamineus could be beneficial for prevention and management of rheumatoid arthritis and other chronic inflammatory disorders.

Graphical abstract

Illustration of the Anti- arthritis efficacy of Orthosiphon Stamineus standardized extract.

Differential Effects of Methoxylated p-Coumaric Acids on Melanoma in B16/F10 Cells

As an approach to search for chemopreventive agents, we tested p-coumaric acid, 3-methoxy-p-coumaric acid (ferulic acid), and 3,5-dimethoxy-p-coumaric acid (sinapic acid) in B16/F10 melanoma cells. Intracellular melanin contents were determined by 3-(4,5-dimethylthiazol-2-yl)-2,5-diphenyl tetrazolium bromide assay and cytotoxicity of the compounds were examined by lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) release. p-Coumaric acid showed inhibitory effect on melanogenesis, but ferulic acid increased melanin content, and sinapic acid had almost no effect on melanogenesis. Treatment with ferulic acid resulted in a 2 to 3 fold elevation in the production of melanin. Correlatively, cell viability decreased in a dose-dependent manner when treated with ferulic acid. However, ferulic acid did not affect the LDH release from the cells. Treatment with sinapic acid resulted in a 50~60% elevation in the release of LDH when treated with a 200 μg/mL concentration and showed neither cytostasis nor increase of melanin synthesis in a dose-dependent manner. Taken together, p-coumaric acid inhibits melanogenesis, ferulic acid induces melanogenesis, and sinapic acid exerts cytotoxic effects in B16/F10 murine melanoma cells. The results indicate that the addition of methoxy groups to p-coumaric acid shows the melanogenic or cytotoxic effects in melanoma cells compared to the original compound. Therefore, this study suggests the possibility that methoxylated p-coumaric acid, ferulic acid can be used as a chemopreventive agent.

Tangeretin Triggers Melanogenesis through the Activation of Melanogenic Signaling Proteins and Sustained Extracellular Signal-Regulated Kinase in B16/F10 Murine Melanoma Cells

In order to test the effectiveness of tangeretin at ameliorating melanoma and melanoma-associated depigmentation, western blotting was used to assess the melanin content of treated melanoma cells. Tangeretin, a 4′,5,6,7,8-pentamethoxyflavone, was found to trigger intracellular melanin production in a concentration-dependent manner in B16/F10 murine melanoma cells. Melanin content increased 1.74-fold in response to treatment with 25 μM of tangeretin, compared to that in non-treated cells. Examination of melanogenic protein expression showed that tyrosinase, tyrosinase-related protein (TRP)-1, and extracellular signal-regulated kinase (ERK) 1/2 levels increased in a dose-dependent manner. Furthermore, the expression of cyclic adenosine monophosphate response element binding protein (CREB) and microphthalmia transcription factor (MITF) was increased by tangeretin in 1 h and 4 h, respectively. Tangeretin-upregulated melanogenesis was suppressed by ERK 1/2 inhibitor and not by ERK1 inhibitor. These results suggest that tangeretin has therapeutic potential for melanoma and melanoma-associated depigmentation because it can induce hyperpigmentation through the activation of melanogenic signaling proteins and initiation of sustained ERK2 expression.

In vitro effect of important herbal active constituents on human cytochrome P450 1A2 (CYP1A2) activity

This study was designed to investigate eight herbal active constituents (andrographolide, asiaticoside, asiatic acid, madecassic acid, eupatorin, sinensetin, caffeic acid, and rosmarinic acid) on their potential inhibitory effects on human cytochrome P450 1A2 (CYP1A2) activity. A fluorescence-based enzyme assay was performed by co-incubating human cDNA-expressed CYP1A2 with its selective probe substrate, 3-cyano-7-ethoxycoumarin (CEC), in the absence or presence of various concentrations of herbal active constituents. The metabolite (cyano-hydroxycoumarin) formed was subsequently measured in order to obtain IC50 values. The results indicated that only eupatorin and sinensetin moderately inhibited CYP1A2 with IC50 values of 50.8 and 40.2 μM, while the other active compounds did not significantly affect CYP1A2 activity with IC50 values more than 100 μM. Ki values further determined for eupatorin and sinensetin were 46.4 and 35.2 μM, respectively. Our data indicated that most of the investigated herbal constituents have negligible CYP1A2 inhibitory effect. In vivo studies however may be warranted to ascertain the inhibitory effect of eupatorin and sinensetin on CYP1A2 activity in clinical situations.

Orthosiphon stamineus protects Caenorhabditis elegans against Staphylococcus aureus infection through immunomodulation

Amidst growing concerns over the spread of antibiotic-resistant Staphylococcus aureus strains, the identification of alternative therapeutic molecules has become paramount. Previously, we utilized a Caenorhabditis elegans–S. aureus screening platform to identify potential anti-infective agents from a collection of natural extracts and synthetic compounds. One of the hits obtained from the screen was the aqueous extract of Orthosiphon stamineus leaves (UE-12) that enhanced the survival of infected nematodes without interfering with bacterial growth. In this study, we used a fluorescent transgenic reporter strain and observed that the repressed expression of the lys-7 defense gene in infected nematodes was restored in the presence of UE-12. Analysis of a selected panel of PMK-1 and DAF-16-regulated transcripts and loss-of-function mutants in these pathways indicates that the protective role of UE-12 is mediated via the p38 MAP kinase and insulin-like signaling pathways. Further analysis of a panel of known bioactive compounds of UE-12 proposed eupatorin (C₁₈H₁₆O₇) as the possible candidate active molecule contributing to the anti-infective property of UE-12. Taken together, these findings strongly suggest that the O. stamineus leaf extract is a promising anti-infective agent that confers an advantage in survival against S. aureus infection by modulating the immune response of the infected host.

Evaluation of anti-inflammatory activity of prenylated substances isolated from Morus alba and Morus nigra

Chromatographic separation of root extracts of Morus alba and M. nigra led to the identification of the 2-arylbenzofurans moracin C (1), mulberrofuran Y (2), and mulberrofuran H (3), and the prenylated flavonoids kuwanon E (4), kuwanon C (5), sanggenon H (6), cudraflavone B (7), and morusinol (8), and the Diels-Alder adducts soroceal (9), and sanggenon E (10). The cytotoxicity and their antiphlogistic activity, determined as the attenuation of the secretion of TNF-α and IL-1β and the inhibition of NF-κB nuclear translocation in LPS-stimulated macrophages, were evaluated for compounds 1-10.

Antioxidant and toxicity studies of 50% methanolic extract of Orthosiphon stamineus Benth

The present study evaluated the antioxidant activity and potential toxicity of 50% methanolic extract of Orthosiphon stamineus (Lamiaceae) leaves (MEOS) after acute and subchronic administration in rats. Superoxide radical scavenging, hydroxyl radical scavenging, and ferrous ion chelating methods were used to evaluate the antioxidant properties of the extract. In acute toxicity study, single dose of MEOS, 5000 mg/kg, was administered to rats by oral gavage, and the treated rats were monitored for 14 days. While in the subchronic toxicity study, MEOS was administered orally, at doses of 1250, 2500, and 5000 mg/kg/day for 28 days. From the results, MEOS showed good superoxide radical scavenging, hydroxyl radical scavenging, ferrous ion chelating, and antilipid peroxidation activities. There was no mortality detected or any signs of toxicity in acute and subchronic toxicity studies. Furthermore, there was no significant difference in bodyweight, relative organ weight, and haematological and biochemical parameters between both male and female treated rats in any doses tested. No abnormality of internal organs was observed between treatment and control groups. The oral lethal dose determined was more than 5000 mg/kg and the no-observed-adverse-effect level (NOAEL) of MEOS for both male and female rats is considered to be 5000 mg/kg per day.