Stat2 loss leads to cytokine-independent, cell-mediated lethality in LPS-induced sepsis

The Dual-Edged Sword: Risks and Benefits of JAK Inhibitors in Infections

Janus kinase inhibitors (JAKis) represent a relatively new class of immunomodulatory drugs with potent effects on various cytokine signalling pathways. They have revolutionized the treatment landscape for autoimmune diseases such as rheumatoid arthritis, psoriatic arthritis, and ulcerative colitis. However, their ability to modulate immune responses presents a dual-edged nature, influencing both protective immunity and pathological inflammation. This review explores the complex role of JAKis in infectious settings, highlighting both beneficial and detrimental effects. On the one hand, experimental models suggest that JAK inhibition can impair host defence mechanisms, increasing susceptibility to certain bacterial and viral infections. For example, tofacitinib-treated mice exhibited more severe joint erosions in Staphylococcus aureus (S. aureus) septic arthritis and showed impaired viral clearance in herpes simplex encephalitis. Additionally, clinical data confirm an increased risk of herpes zoster in patients receiving JAKis, underscoring the need for rigorous monitoring. On the other hand, JAK inhibition has demonstrated protective effects in certain infectious and hyperinflammatory conditions. In sepsis models, including cecal ligation and puncture (CLP) and S. aureus bacteraemia, tofacitinib improved survival by attenuating excessive inflammation. Furthermore, JAKis, particularly baricitinib, have shown substantial efficacy in mitigating cytokine storms during severe COVID-19 infections, leading to improved clinical outcomes and reduced mortality. These observations suggest that JAKis have a role in modulating hyperinflammatory responses in select infectious contexts. In conclusion, JAKis present a complex interplay between immunosuppression and immunomodulation. While they increase the risk of certain infections, they also show potential in managing hyperinflammatory conditions such as cytokine storms. The key challenge is determining which patients and situations benefit most from JAKis while minimizing risks, requiring a careful and personalized treatment approach.

Identification of signaling networks associated with lactate modulation of macrophages and dendritic cells

The advancement in the understanding of cancer immune evasion has manifested the development of cancer immunotherapeutic approaches such as checkpoint inhibitors and interleukin agonists. Although cancer immunotherapy breakthroughs have demonstrated improved potency for cancer treatment, only a fraction of patients effectively respond to these treatments. Moreover, there is compelling evidence indicating that cancer cells develop a unique microenvironment through adaptive metabolic reprogramming, which aberrantly modulates host immunity to evade immunosurveillance. As part of the tumor cell adaptive metabolic switch, lactate is produced and released into the tumor environment. Recent studies have shown that lactate significantly modulates immune functions, especially in innate immune cells. Dendritic cells (DCs) and macrophages (MΦs) are specialized antigen-presenting cells serving as key players in innate immunity and anticancer-associated immune responses. Although most studies have shown that lactate affects immune phenotypes (e.g., surface protein expression and cytokine production), the cell signaling network mediated by lactate is not fully understood. In the present study, we identified the key signaling pathways in bone marrow-derived DCs and MΦs that were changed by cancer-relevant concentrations of lactate. First, transcriptome analysis was used to guide notable signaling pathways mediated by lactate. Subsequently, biomolecular techniques, including immunoblotting, flow cytometry, and immunofluorescence imaging were performed to corroborate the changes in these key signaling pathways at the protein level. The results indicated that lactate differentially impacted the biochemical networks of DCs and MΦs. While lactate mainly altered STAT3, ERK, and p38 MAPK signaling cascades in DCs, the STAT1 and GSK-3β signaling in MΦs were the major pathways significantly impacted by lactate. This study identifies key biochemical pathways in innate immune cells that are impacted by lactate, which advances our understanding of the interplay between the tumor microenvironment and innate immunity.

Origin recognition complex subunit 6 (ORC6) is a key mediator of LPS-induced NFκB activation and the pro-inflammatory response

Lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-activated pro-inflammatory responses play a critical role in sepsis, a life-threatening condition. This study investigates the role of origin recognition complex subunit 6 (ORC6) in LPS responses in macrophages and monocytes. Silencing ORC6 using targeted shRNA significantly reduced LPS-induced expression and production of IL-1β (interleukin-1 beta), TNF-α (tumor necrosis factor alpha), and IL-6 (interleukin-6) in THP-1 human macrophages, peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs), and bone marrow-derived macrophages (BMDMs). Additionally, ORC6 knockout (KO) via the CRISPR/Cas9 method in THP-1 macrophages inhibited LPS-induced pro-inflammatory responses, while ectopic overexpression of ORC6 enhanced LPS-induced expression and production of pro-inflammatory cytokines. ORC6 is crucial for the activation of the nuclear factor kappa B (NFκB) signaling cascade in macrophages and monocytes. LPS-induced NFκB activation was largely inhibited by ORC6 silencing or KO, but potentiated following ORC6 overexpression. Mechanistically, ORC6 associated with nuclear p65 after LPS stimulation, an interaction necessary for NFκB activation. Overexpression of ORC6 did not recover the reduced pro-inflammatory response to LPS in THP-1 macrophages with silenced p65. Furthermore, the NFκB inhibitor BMS-345,541 nearly eliminated the pro-inflammatory response enhanced by ORC6 overexpression in response to LPS. Further studies revealed that ORC6 depletion inhibited NFκB activation induced by double-stranded RNA (dsRNA) and high mobility group box 1 (HMGB1) in THP-1 macrophages. In vivo experiments demonstrated that macrophage-specific knockdown of ORC6 protected mice from LPS-induced septic shock and inhibited LPS-stimulated production of IL-1β, TNF-α, and IL-6 in mouse serum. ORC6 silencing also inhibited LPS-induced NFκB activation in ex vivo cultured PBMCs following macrophage-specific knockdown of ORC6. These findings highlight ORC6 as a pivotal mediator in LPS-induced NFκB activation and the pro-inflammatory response in sepsis, suggesting that targeting ORC6 could be a novel therapeutic strategy for managing sepsis and related inflammatory conditions.

The increase of long noncoding RNA Fendrr in hepatocytes contributes to liver fibrosis by promoting IL-6 production

Liver fibrosis/cirrhosis is a pathological state caused by excessive extracellular matrix deposition. Sustained activation of hepatic stellate cells (HSC) is the predominant cause of liver fibrosis, but the detailed mechanism is far from clear. In this study, we found that long noncoding RNA Fendrr is exclusively increased in hepatocytes in the murine model of CCl4- and bile duct ligation-induced liver fibrosis, as well as in the biopsies of liver cirrhosis patients. In vivo, ectopic expression of Fendrr aggravated the severity of CCl4-induced liver fibrosis in mice. In contrast, inhibiting Fendrr blockaded the activation of HSC and ameliorated CCl4-induced liver fibrosis. Our mechanistic study showed that Fendrr binds to STAT2 and enhances its enrichment in the nucleus, which then promote the expression of interleukin 6 (IL-6), and, ultimately, activates HSC in a paracrine manner. Accordingly, disrupting the interaction between Fendrr and STAT2 by ectopic expression of a STAT2 mutant attenuated the profibrotic response inspired by Fendrr in the CCl4-induced liver fibrosis. Notably, the increase of Fendrr in patient fibrotic liver is positively correlated with the severity of fibrosis and the expression of IL-6. Meanwhile, hepatic IL-6 positively correlates with the extent of liver fibrosis and HSC activation as well, thus suggesting a causative role of Fendrr in HSC activation and liver fibrosis. In conclusion, these observations identify an important regulatory cross talk between hepatocyte Fendrr and HSC activation in the progression of liver fibrosis, which might represent a potential strategy for therapeutic intervention.

The Impact of Persistent Noise Exposure under Inflammatory Conditions

The aim of this study was to investigate the impact of noise exposure in an intensive care unit (ICU) environment on the development of postoperative delirium in a mouse model that mimics the ICU environment. Additionally, we aimed to identify the underlying mechanisms contributing to delirium and provide evidence for reducing the risk of delirium. In this study, to mimic an ICU environment, lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-injected sepsis mouse models were exposed to a 75 dB noise condition. Furthermore, we assessed neurobehavioral function and observed the level of neuroinflammatory response and blood-brain barrier (BBB) integrity in the hippocampal region. The LPS-injected sepsis mouse model exposed to noise exhibited increased anxiety-like behavior and cognitive impairment. Moreover, severe neuroinflammation and BBB disruption were detected in the hippocampal region. This study provides insights suggesting that persistent noise exposure under systemic inflammatory conditions may cause cognitive dysfunction and anxiety- like behavior via the mediation of BBB disruption and neuroinflammation. As a result, we suggest that the detailed regulation of noise exposure may be required to prevent the development of postoperative delirium.

Initial activation of STAT2 induced by IAV infection is critical for innate antiviral immunity

STAT2 is an important transcription factor activated by interferons (IFNs) upon viral infection and plays a key role in antiviral responses. Interestingly, here we found that phosphorylation of STAT2 could be induced by several viruses at early infection stage, including influenza A virus (IAV), and such initial activation of STAT2 was independent of type I IFNs and JAK kinases. Furthermore, it was observed that the early activation of STAT2 during viral infection was mainly regulated by the RIG-I/MAVS-dependent pathway. Disruption of STAT2 phosphorylation at Tyr690 restrained antiviral response, as silencing STAT2 or blocking STAT2 Y690 phosphorylation suppressed the expression of several interferon-stimulated genes (ISGs), thereby facilitating viral replication. In vitro experiments using overexpression system or kinase inhibitors showed that several kinases including MAPK12 and Syk were involved in regulation of the early phosphorylation of STAT2 triggered by IAV infection. Moreover, when MAPK12 kinase was inhibited, expression of several ISGs was clearly decreased in cells infected with IAV at the early infection stage. Accordingly, inhibition of MAPK12 accelerated the replication of influenza virus in host. These results provide a better understanding of how initial activation of STAT2 and the early antiviral responses are induced by the viral infection.

Exposing the Two Contrasting Faces of STAT2 in Inflammation

Inflammation is a natural immune defense mechanism of the body's response to injury, infection, and other damaging triggers. Uncontrolled inflammation may become chronic and contribute to a range of chronic inflammatory diseases. Signal transducer and activator of transcription 2 (STAT2) is an essential transcription factor exclusive to type I and type III interferon (IFN) signaling pathways. Both pathways are involved in multiple biological processes, including powering the immune system as a means of controlling infection that must be tightly regulated to offset the development of persistent inflammation. While studies depict STAT2 as protective in promoting host defense, new evidence is accumulating that exposes the deleterious side of STAT2 when inappropriately regulated, thus prompting its reevaluation as a signaling molecule with detrimental effects in human disease. This review aims to provide a comprehensive summary of the findings based on literature regarding the inflammatory behavior of STAT2 in microbial infections, cancer, autoimmune, and inflammatory diseases. In conveying the extent of our knowledge of STAT2 as a proinflammatory mediator, the aim of this review is to stimulate further investigations into the role of STAT2 in diseases characterized by deregulated inflammation and the mechanisms responsible for triggering severe responses.

HMGB1 could restrict 1,3-β-glucan induced mice lung inflammation by affecting Beclin1 and Bcl2 interaction and promoting the autophagy of epithelial cells

Fungi were microorganisms that are ubiquitous in a variety of environments. Inhalation of fungi-contaminated organic dust led to hypersensitivity pneumonitis and might eventually cause irreversible pulmonary fibrosis. Studies showed that maintaining the homeostasis of epithelial cells was vital for defending the exogenous fungi invasion. HMGB1-dependent autophagy played a critical role in maintaining cell homeostasis in multiple inflammatory diseases. However, the actual role of HMGB1-dependent autophagy in hypersensitivity pneumonitis was unclear. In our study, mice were exposed to 0.3 mg/50 μL 1,3-β-glucan solution by intratracheal instillation to set up the lung inflammation model. To investigate the role of HMGB1-dependent autophagy in 1,3-β-glucan induced lung inflammation, AAV-sh-HMGB1 was intratracheally injected to silence HMGB1 in the lung. Our finding suggested that silencing HMGB1 could aggravate the 1,3-β-glucan induced lung inflammation by inhibiting the autophagy of epithelial cells. And ubiquitination of Beclin1 contributed to decreasing the interaction of Beclin1 and Bcl2, which might be a key regulatory mechanism of HMGB1 on 1,3-β-glucan induced autophagy.

Human Disease Phenotypes Associated with Loss and Gain of Function Mutations in STAT2: Viral Susceptibility and Type I Interferonopathy

STAT2 is distinguished from other STAT family members by its exclusive involvement in type I and III interferon (IFN-I/III) signaling pathways, and its unique behavior as both positive and negative regulator of IFN-I signaling. The clinical relevance of these opposing STAT2 functions is exemplified by monogenic diseases of STAT2. Autosomal recessive STAT2 deficiency results in heightened susceptibility to severe and/or recurrent viral disease, whereas homozygous missense substitution of the STAT2-R148 residue is associated with severe type I interferonopathy due to loss of STAT2 negative regulation. Here we review the clinical presentation, pathogenesis, and management of these disorders of STAT2.

Disrupting interferon-alpha and NF-kappaB crosstalk suppresses IFITM1 expression attenuating triple-negative breast cancer progression

Overexpression of interferon induced transmembrane protein-1 (IFITM1) enhances tumor progression in multiple cancers, but its role in triple-negative breast cancer (TNBC) is unknown. Here, we explore the functional significance and regulation of IFITM1 in TNBC and strategies to target its expression. Immunohistochemistry staining of a tissue microarray demonstrates that IFITM1 is overexpressed in TNBC samples which is confirmed by TCGA analysis. Targeting IFITM1 by siRNA or CRISPR/Cas9 in TNBC cell lines significantly inhibits proliferation, colony formation, and wound healing in vitro. Orthotopic mammary fat pad and mammary intraductal studies reveal that loss of IFITM1 reduces TNBC tumor growth and invasion in vivo. RNA-seq analysis of IFITM1/KO cells reveals significant downregulation of several genes involved in proliferation, migration, and invasion and functional studies identified NF-κB as an important downstream target of IFITM1. Notably, siRNA knockdown of p65 reduces IFITM1 expression and a drug-repurposing screen of FDA approved compounds identified parthenolide, an NFκB inhibitor, as a cytotoxic agent for TNBC and an inhibitor of IFITM1 in vitro and in vivo. Overall, our findings suggest that targeting IFITM1 by suppressing interferon-alpha/NFκB signaling represents a novel therapeutic strategy for TNBC treatment.

Targeting STAT3: A crucial modulator of sepsis

Signal transducer and activator of transcription 3 (STAT3) is a cellular signal transcription factor that has recently attracted a great deal of attention. It can trigger a variety of genes transcription in response to cytokines and growth factors stimulation, which plays an important role in many cellular biological processes involved in anti/proinflammatory responses. Sepsis is a life-threatening organ dysfunction resulting from dysregulated host responses to infection. As a converging point of multiple inflammatory responses pathways, accumulating studies have presented the elaborate network of STAT3 in sepsis pathophysiology; these results generally indicate a promising therapeutic application for targeting STAT3 in the treatment of sepsis. In the present review, we evaluated the published literature describing the use of STAT3 in the treatment of experimental and clinical sepsis. The information presented here may be useful for the design of future studies and may highlight the potential of STAT3 as a future biomarker and therapeutic target for sepsis.

Stat2-Drp1 mediated mitochondrial mass increase is necessary for pro-inflammatory differentiation of macrophages

Macrophage recruitment and pro-inflammatory differentiation are hallmarks of various diseases, including infection and sepsis. Although studies suggest that mitochondria may regulate macrophage immune responses, it remains unclear whether mitochondrial mass affects macrophage pro-inflammatory differentiation. Here, we found that lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-activated macrophages possess higher mitochondrial mass than resting cells. Therefore, this study aimed to explore the functional role and molecular mechanisms of increased mitochondrial mass in pro-inflammatory differentiated macrophages. Results show that an increase in the mitochondrial mass of macrophages positively correlates with inflammatory cytokine generation in response to LPS. RNA-seq analysis revealed that LPS promotes signal transducers and activators of transcription 2 (Stat2) and dynamin-related protein 1 (Drp1) expression, which are enriched in positive mitochondrial fission regulation. Meanwhile, knockdown or pharmacological inhibition of Drp1 blunts LPS-induced mitochondrial mass increase and pro-inflammatory differentiation. Moreover, Stat2 boosts Drp1 phosphorylation at serine 616, required for Drp1-mediated mitochondrial fission. LPS also causes Stat2-and Drp1-dependent biogenesis, which contributes to the generation of additional mitochondria. However, these mitochondria are profoundly remodeled, displaying fragmented morphology, loose cristae, reduced Δψm, and metabolic programming. Furthermore, these remodeled mitochondria shift their function from ATP synthesis to reactive oxygen species (ROS) production, which drives NFκB-dependent inflammatory cytokine transcription. Interestingly, an increase in mitochondrial mass with constitutively active phosphomimetic mutant of Drp1 (Drp1^S616E) boosted pro-inflammatory response in macrophages without LPS stimulation. In vivo, we also demonstrated that Mdivi-1 administration inhibits LPS-induced macrophage pro-inflammatory differentiation. Importantly, we observed Stat2 phosphorylation and Drp1-dependent mitochondrial mass increase in macrophages isolated from LPS-challenged mice. In conclusion, we comprehensively demonstrate that a Stat2-Drp1 dependent mitochondrial mass increase is necessary for pro-inflammatory differentiation of macrophages. Therefore, targeting the Stat2-Drp1 axis may provide novel therapeutic approaches for treating infection and inflammatory diseases.

Stat2 stability regulation: an intersection between immunity and carcinogenesis

Signal transducer and activator of transcription (STAT2) is a member of the STAT family that plays an essential role in immune responses to extracellular and intracellular stimuli, including inflammatory reactions, invasion of foreign materials, and cancer initiation. Although the majority of STAT2 studies in the last few decades have focused on interferon (IFN)-α/β (IFNα/β) signaling pathway-mediated host defense against viral infections, recent studies have revealed that STAT2 also plays an important role in human cancer development. Notably, strategic research on STAT2 function has provided evidence that transient regulatory activity by homo- or heterodimerization induces its nuclear localization where it to forms a ternary IFN-stimulated gene factor 3 (ISGF3) complex, which is composed of STAT1 and/or STAT2 and IFN regulatory factor 9 (IEF9). The molecular mechanisms of ISGF3-mediated ISG gene expression provide the basic foundation for the regulation of STAT2 protein activity but not protein quality control. Recently, previously unknown molecular mechanisms of STAT2-mediated cell proliferation via STAT2 protein quality control were elucidated. In this review, we briefly summarize the role of STAT2 in immune responses and carcinogenesis with respect to the molecular mechanisms of STAT2 stability regulation via the proteasomal degradation pathway.

The activity of STAT2, a protein stimulated by molecular signalling systems to activate selected genes in ways that can lead to cancer, is regulated by factors controlling its rate of degradation. Yong-Yeon Cho and colleagues at The Catholic University of Korea in South Korea review the role of STAT2 in links between molecular signals of the immune response and the onset of cancer. They focus on the significance of factors that regulate the stability of STAT2. One key factor appears to be the molecular mechanisms controlling the degradation of STAT2 by cellular structures called proteasomes. These structures break down proteins as part of routine cell maintenance. Deeper understanding of the stimulation, action and degradation of STAT2 will assist efforts to treat the many cancers in which STAT2 activity is involved.

Stat2 loss disrupts damage signalling and is protective in acute pancreatitis

The severity of sterile inflammation, as seen in acute pancreatitis, is determined by damage-sensing receptors, signalling cascades and cytokine production. Stat2 is a type I interferon signalling mediator that also has interferon-independent roles in murine lipopolysaccharide-induced NF-κB-mediated sepsis. However, its role in sterile inflammation is unknown. We hypothesised that Stat2 determines the severity of non-infective inflammation in the pancreas. Wild type (WT) and Stat2^-/- mice were injected i.p. with caerulein or l-arginine. Specific cytokine-blocking antibodies were used in some experiments. Pancreata and blood were harvested 1 and 24 h after the final dose of caerulein and up to 96 h post l-arginine. Whole-tissue phosphoproteomic changes were assessed using label-free mass spectrometry. Tissue-specific Stat2 effects were studied in WT/Stat2^-/- bone marrow chimera and using Cre-lox recombination to delete Stat2 in pancreatic and duodenal homeobox 1 (Pdx1)-expressing cells. Stat2^-/- mice were protected from caerulein- and l-arginine-induced pancreatitis. Protection was independent of type I interferon signalling. Stat2^-/- mice had lower cytokine levels, including TNF-α and IL-10, and reduced NF-κB nuclear localisation in pancreatic tissue compared with WT. Inhibition of TNF-α improved (inhibition of IL-10 worsened) caerulein-induced pancreatitis in WT but not Stat2^-/- mice. Phosphoproteomics showed downregulation of MAPK mediators but accumulation of Ser412-phosphorylated Tak1. Stat2 deletion in Pdx1-expressing acinar cells (Stat2^{flox/Pdx1-cre} ) reduced pancreatic TNF-α expression, but not histological injury or serum amylase. WT/Stat2^-/- bone marrow chimera mice were protected from pancreatitis irrespective of host or recipient genotype. Stat2 loss results in disrupted signalling in pancreatitis, upstream of NF-κB in non-acinar and/or bone marrow-derived cells. © 2020 The Authors. The Journal of Pathology published by John Wiley & Sons Ltd on behalf of Pathological Society of Great Britain and Ireland.

JAK-STAT Targeting Offers Novel Therapeutic Opportunities in Sepsis

Sepsis is a life-threatening condition caused by exaggerated host responses to infections taking place in two phases: (i) a systemic (hyper)inflammatory response syndrome (SIRS), participating in multiple organ failure (MOF), a major complication of septic shock, followed by (ii) a compensatory anti-inflammatory response syndrome (CARS), leading to sepsis-induced immunosuppression and resulting in late infections and long-term mortality. The Janus kinase-signal transducer and activator of transcription (JAK-STAT)-dependent signaling pathway is involved in both manifestations, hence playing a key role during sepsis. It is also involved in emergency myelopoiesis, which participates in host defense. The aim of this review is to highlight and refine the recent implications of this signaling pathway in sepsis and illustrate why its central position makes it a potential biomarker and therapeutic target.

STAT2 dependent Type I Interferon response promotes dysbiosis and luminal expansion of the enteric pathogen Salmonella Typhimurium

The mechanisms by which the gut luminal environment is disturbed by the immune system to foster pathogenic bacterial growth and survival remain incompletely understood. Here, we show that STAT2 dependent type I IFN signaling contributes to the inflammatory environment by disrupting hypoxia enabling the pathogenic S. Typhimurium to outgrow the microbiota. Stat2^-/- mice infected with S. Typhimurium exhibited impaired type I IFN induced transcriptional responses in cecal tissue and reduced bacterial burden in the intestinal lumen compared to infected wild-type mice. Although inflammatory pathology was similar between wild-type and Stat2^-/- mice, we observed decreased hypoxia in the gut tissue of Stat2^-/- mice. Neutrophil numbers were similar in wild-type and Stat2^-/- mice, yet Stat2^-/- mice showed reduced levels of myeloperoxidase activity. In vitro, the neutrophils from Stat2^-/- mice produced lower levels of superoxide anion upon stimulation with the bacterial ligand N-formylmethionyl-leucyl-phenylalanine (fMLP) in the presence of IFNα compared to neutrophils from wild-type mice, indicating that the neutrophils were less functional in Stat2^-/- mice. Cytochrome bd-II oxidase-mediated respiration enhances S. Typhimurium fitness in wild-type mice, while in Stat2^-/- deficiency, this respiratory pathway did not provide a fitness advantage. Furthermore, luminal expansion of S. Typhimurium in wild-type mice was blunted in Stat2^-/- mice. Compared to wild-type mice which exhibited a significant perturbation in Bacteroidetes abundance, Stat2^-/- mice exhibited significantly less perturbation and higher levels of Bacteroidetes upon S. Typhimurium infection. Our results highlight STAT2 dependent type I IFN mediated inflammation in the gut as a novel mechanism promoting luminal expansion of S. Typhimurium.

The spread of invading microbes is frequently contained by an inflammatory response. Yet, some pathogenic microbes have evolved to utilize inflammation for niche generation and to support their metabolism. Here, we demonstrate that S. Typhimurium exploits type I IFN signaling, a prototypical anti-viral response, to foster its own growth in the inflamed gut. In the absence of STAT2-dependent type I IFN, production of neutrophil reactive oxygen species was impaired, and epithelial metabolism returned to homeostatic hypoxia. Consequently, S. Typhimurium was unable to respire in the absence of type I IFN, and failed to expand in the gut lumen. Furthermore, perturbation of the gut microbiota was dependent on type I IFN signaling. Taken together, our work suggests that S. Typhimurium utilizes STAT2-dependent type I IFN signaling to generate a niche in the inflamed intestinal tract and outcompete the gut microbiota.

Peroxiredoxin I deficiency increases LPS‑induced lethal shock in mice

Peroxiredoxin I (Prx I) plays a role in regulating macrophage proinflammatory cytokine production and gene expression and participates in immune regulation. However, the possible protective role of Prx I in endotoxin‑induced lethal shock is poorly understood. In the present study, western blot analysis, ELISA and haematoxylin and eosin staining were performed to examine the protein expression of cytoines and analyses the levels of cytokines in the serum and tissue to evaluate the tissue damage. The present study revealed that lipopolysaccharide (LPS)‑induced lethality in Prx I‑/‑ mice was is accelerated via the observed decreased serum IL‑10 levels. Results also demonstrated rapid immune cell infiltration and oxidative stress in the Prx I‑/‑mice liver after LPS injections. These phenomena increased liver apoptosis through increasing cleaved caspase‑3 protein expression in Prx I‑/‑ mice after LPS injections, resulting in high lethality after LPS challenges. These findings provide a new insight for understanding the function of Prx I against endotoxin‑induced injury.

IRF9 and unphosphorylated STAT2 cooperate with NF-κB to drive IL6 expression

In response to IFNβ, the IL6 gene is activated, modestly at early times by ISGF3 (IRF9 plus tyrosine-phosphorylated STATs 1 and 2), and strongly at late times by U-ISGF3 (IRF9 plus U-STATs 1 and 2, lacking tyrosine phosphorylation). A classical IFN-stimulated response element (ISRE) at -1,513 to -1,526 in the human IL6 promoter is required. Pretreating cells with IFNβ or increasing the expression of U-STAT2 and IRF9 exogenously greatly enhances IL6 expression in response to the classical NF-κB activators IL1, TNF, and LPS. U-STAT2 binds tightly to IRF9, the DNA binding subunit of ISGF3, and also to the p65 subunit of NF-κB. Therefore, as shown by ChIP analyses, U-STAT2 can bridge the ISRE and κB elements in the IL6 promoter. In some cancer cells, the protumorigenic activation of STAT3 will be enhanced by the increased synthesis of IL6 that is facilitated by high expression of U-STAT2 and IRF9.

Swiprosin-1 deficiency impairs macrophage immune response of septic mice

Despite the fact that many therapeutic strategies have been adopted to delay the development of sepsis, sepsis remains one of the leading causes of death in noncoronary intensive care units. Recently, sepsis-3 was defined as life-threatening organ dysfunction due to a dysregulated host response to infection. Here, we report that swiprosin-1 (also known as EFhd2) plays an important role in the macrophage immune response to LPS-induced or cecal ligation and puncture-induced (CLP-induced) sepsis in mice. Swiprosin-1 depletion causes higher mortality, more severe organ dysfunction, restrained macrophage recruitment in the lung and kidney, and attenuated inflammatory cytokine production (including IL-1β, IL-6, TNF-α, IL-10, and IFN-γ). The immunosuppression caused by swiprosin-1 deficiency is manifested by impaired bactericidal capacity and decreased HLA-DR expression in macrophages. Swiprosin-1 affects the activation of the JAK2/STAT1/STAT3 pathway by regulating the expression of IFN-γ receptors in macrophages. Our findings provide a potential target for the regulation of the macrophage immune response in sepsis.

Contribution of Progranulin to Protective Lung Immunity During Bacterial Pneumonia

Background

Progranulin (PGRN) is an important immunomodulatory factor in a variety of inflammatory diseases. However, its role in pulmonary immunity against bacterial infection remains unknown.

Methods

Pneumonia was induced in PGRN-deficient and normal wild-type mice using Pseudomonas aeruginosa or Staphylococcus aureus, and we assessed the effects of PGRN on survival, bacterial burden, cytokine and chemokine production, and pulmonary leukocyte recruitment after bacterial pneumonia.

Results

Patients with community-acquired pneumonia displayed elevated PGRN levels. Likewise, mice with Gram-negative and Gram-positive pneumonia had increased PGRN production in the lung and circulation. Progranulin deficiency led to increased bacterial growth and dissemination accompanied by enhanced lung injury and mortality in bacterial pneumonia, which was associated with impaired recruitment of macrophages and neutrophils in the lung. The reduced number of pulmonary macrophages and neutrophils observed in PGRN-deficient mice was related to a reduction of CCL2 and CXCL1 in the lungs after bacterial pneumonia. Importantly, therapeutic administration of PGRN improved mortality in severe bacterial pneumonia.

Conclusions

This study supports a novel role for PGRN in pulmonary immunity and suggests that treatment with PGRN may be a viable therapy for bacterial pneumonia.

STAT2 Is a Pervasive Cytokine Regulator due to Its Inhibition of STAT1 in Multiple Signaling Pathways

STAT2 is the quintessential transcription factor for type 1 interferons (IFNs), where it functions as a heterodimer with STAT1. However, the human and murine STAT2-deficient phenotypes suggest important additional and currently unidentified type 1 IFN-independent activities. Here, we show that STAT2 constitutively bound to STAT1, but not STAT3, via a conserved interface. While this interaction was irrelevant for type 1 interferon signaling and STAT1 activation, it precluded the nuclear translocation specifically of STAT1 in response to IFN-γ, interleukin-6 (IL-6), and IL-27. This is explained by the dimerization between activated STAT1 and unphosphorylated STAT2, whereby the semiphosphorylated dimers adopted a conformation incapable of importin-α binding. This, in turn, substantially attenuated cardinal IFN-γ responses, including MHC expression, senescence, and antiparasitic immunity, and shifted the transcriptional output of IL-27 from STAT1 to STAT3. Our results uncover STAT2 as a pervasive cytokine regulator due to its inhibition of STAT1 in multiple signaling pathways and provide an understanding of the type 1 interferon-independent activities of this protein.

NK cells promote neutrophil recruitment in the brain during sepsis-induced neuroinflammation

Sepsis could affect the central nervous system and thus induces neuroinflammation, which subsequently leads to brain damage or dysfunction. However, the mechanisms of generation of neuroinflammation during sepsis remain poorly understood. By administration of lipopolysaccharides (LPS) in mice to mimic sepsis, we found that shortly after opening the blood-brain barrier, conventional CD11b(+)CD27(+) NK subset migrated into the brain followed by subsequent neutrophil infiltration. Interestingly, depletion of NK cells prior to LPS treatment severely impaired neutrophil recruitment in the inflamed brain. By in vivo recruitment assay, we found that brain-infiltrated NK cells displayed chemotactic activity to neutrophils, which depended on the higher expression of chemokines such as CXCL2. Moreover, microglia were also responsible for neutrophil recruitment, and their chemotactic activity was significantly impaired by ablation of NK cells. Furthermore, depletion of NK cells could significantly ameliorate depression-like behavior in LPS-treated mice. These data indicated a NK cell-regulated neutrophil recruitment in the blamed brain, which also could be seen on another sepsis model, cecal ligation and puncture. So, our findings revealed an important scenario in the generation of sepsis-induced neuroinflammation.

STAT2 Is Required for TLR-Induced Murine Dendritic Cell Activation and Cross-Presentation

TLR-stimulated cross-presentation by conventional dendritic cells (cDCs) is important in host defense and antitumor immunity. We recently reported that cDCs lacking the type I IFN signaling molecule STAT2 are impaired in cross-presenting tumor Ags to CD8(+) T cells. To investigate how STAT2 affects cross-presentation, we determined its requirements for dendritic cell activation. In this study, we report that STAT2 is essential for the activation of murine female cDCs upon TLR3, -4, -7, and -9 stimulation. In response to various TLR ligands, Stat2(-/-) cDCs displayed reduced expression of costimulatory molecules and type I IFN-stimulated genes. The cDC responses to exogenous IFN-α that we evaluated required STAT2 activation, indicating that the canonical STAT1-STAT2 heterodimers are the primary signaling transducers of type I IFNs in cDCs. Interestingly, LPS-induced production of IL-12 was STAT2 and type I IFN receptor (IFNAR) dependent, whereas LPS-induced production of TNF-α and IL-6 was STAT2 and IFNAR independent, suggesting a specific role of the IFNAR-STAT2 axis in the stimulation of proinflammatory cytokines by LPS in cDCs. In contrast, R848- and CpG-induced cytokine production was less influenced by the IFNAR-STAT2 axis. Short kinetics and IFNAR blockade studies showed that STAT2 main function is to transduce signals triggered by autocrine type I IFNs. Importantly, Stat2(-/-) cDCs were deficient in cross-presenting to CD8(+) T cells in vitro upon IFN-α, CpG, and LPS stimulation, and also in cross-priming and licensing cytotoxic T cell killers in vivo. We conclude that STAT2 plays a critical role in TLR-induced dendritic cell activation and cross-presentation, and thus is vital in host defense.

Enhanced growth of influenza A virus by coinfection with human parainfluenza virus type 2

It has been reported that dual or multiple viruses can coinfect epithelial cells of the respiratory tract. However, little has been reported on in vitro interactions of coinfected viruses. To explore how coinfection of different viruses affects their biological property, we examined growth of influenza A virus (IAV) and human parainfluenza virus type 2 (hPIV2) during coinfection of Vero cells. We found that IAV growth was enhanced by coinfection with hPIV2. The enhanced growth of IAV was not reproduced by coinfection with an hPIV2 mutant with reduced cell fusion activity, or by ectopic expression of the V protein of hPIV2. In contrast, induction of cell fusion by ectopic expression of the hPIV2 HN and F proteins augments IAV growth. hPIV2 coinfection supported IAV growth in cells originated from the respiratory epithelium. The enhancement correlated closely with cell fusion ability of hPIV2 in those cells. These results indicate that cell fusion induced by hPIV2 infection is beneficial to IAV replication and that enhanced viral replication by coinfection with different viruses can modify their pathological consequences.

Cytokine response in mouse bone marrow derived macrophages after infection with pathogenic and non-pathogenic Rift Valley fever virus

Rift Valley fever virus (RVFV) is the most pathogenic member of the genus Phlebovirus within the family Bunyaviridae, and can cause severe disease in humans and livestock. Until recently, limited information has been published on the cellular host response elicited by RVFV, particularly in macrophages and dendritic cells, which play critical roles in stimulating adaptive and innate immune responses to viral infection. In an effort to define the initial response of host immunomodulatory cells to infection, primary mouse bone marrow derived macrophages (BMDM) were infected with the pathogenic RVFV strain ZH501, or attenuated strains MP-12 or MP-12 based Clone13 type (rMP12-C13 type), and cytokine secretion profiles examined. The secretion of T helper (Th)1-associated antiviral cytokines, chemokines and various interleukins increased rapidly after infection with the attenuated rMP12-C13 type RVFV, which lacks a functional NSs virulence gene. In comparison, infection with live-attenuated MP-12 encoding a functional NSs gene appeared to cause a delayed immune response, while pathogenic ZH501 ablates the immune response almost entirely. These data demonstrate that NSs can inhibit components of the BMDM antiviral response and supports previous work indicating that NSs can specifically regulate the type I interferon response in macrophages. Furthermore, our data demonstrate that genetic differences between ZH501 and MP-12 reduce the ability of MP-12 to inhibit antiviral signalling and subsequently reduce virulence in BMDM, demonstrating that viral components other than NSs play a critical role in regulating the host response to RVFV infection.

Signal transducer and activator of transcription 2 deficiency is a novel disorder of mitochondrial fission

Defects of mitochondrial dynamics are emerging causes of neurological disease. In two children presenting with severe neurological deterioration following viral infection we identified a novel homozygous STAT2 mutation, c.1836 C>A (p.Cys612Ter), using whole exome sequencing. In muscle and fibroblasts from these patients, and a third unrelated STAT2-deficient patient, we observed extremely elongated mitochondria. Western blot analysis revealed absence of the STAT2 protein and that the mitochondrial fission protein DRP1 (encoded by DNM1L) is inactive, as shown by its phosphorylation state. All three patients harboured decreased levels of DRP1 phosphorylated at serine residue 616 (P-DRP1(S616)), a post-translational modification known to activate DRP1, and increased levels of DRP1 phosphorylated at serine 637 (P-DRP1(S637)), associated with the inactive state of the DRP1 GTPase. Knockdown of STAT2 in SHSY5Y cells recapitulated the fission defect, with elongated mitochondria and decreased P-DRP1(S616) levels. Furthermore the mitochondrial fission defect in patient fibroblasts was rescued following lentiviral transduction with wild-type STAT2 in all three patients, with normalization of mitochondrial length and increased P-DRP1(S616) levels. Taken together, these findings implicate STAT2 as a novel regulator of DRP1 phosphorylation at serine 616, and thus of mitochondrial fission, and suggest that there are interactions between immunity and mitochondria. This is the first study to link the innate immune system to mitochondrial dynamics and morphology. We hypothesize that variability in JAK-STAT signalling may contribute to the phenotypic heterogeneity of mitochondrial disease, and may explain why some patients with underlying mitochondrial disease decompensate after seemingly trivial viral infections. Modulating JAK-STAT activity may represent a novel therapeutic avenue for mitochondrial diseases, which remain largely untreatable. This may also be relevant for more common neurodegenerative diseases, including Alzheimer's, Huntington's and Parkinson's diseases, in which abnormalities of mitochondrial morphology have been implicated in disease pathogenesis.

Park7 interacts with p47(phox) to direct NADPH oxidase-dependent ROS production and protect against sepsis

Inappropriate inflammation responses contribute to mortality during sepsis. Through Toll-like receptors (TLRs), reactive oxygen species (ROS) produced by NADPH oxidase could modulate the inflammation responses. Parkinson disease (autosomal recessive, early onset) 7 (Park7) has a cytoprotective role by eliminating ROS. However, whether Park7 could modulate inflammation responses and mortality in sepsis is unclear. Here, we show that, compared with wild-type mice, Park7(-/-) mice had significantly increased mortality and bacterial burdens in sepsis model along with markedly decreased systemic and local inflammation, and drastically impaired macrophage phagocytosis and bacterial killing abilities. Surprisingly, LPS and phorbol-12-myristate-13-acetate stimulation failed to induce ROS and proinflammatory cytokine production in Park7(-/-) macrophages and Park7-deficient RAW264.7 cells. Through its C-terminus, Park7 binds to p47(phox), a subunit of the NADPH oxidase, to promote NADPH oxidase-dependent production of ROS. Restoration of Park7 expression rescues ROS production and improves survival in LPS-induced sepsis. Together, our study shows that Park7 has a protective role against sepsis by controlling macrophage activation, NADPH oxidase activation and inflammation responses.

CXCL1 contributes to host defense in polymicrobial sepsis via modulating T cell and neutrophil functions

Severe bacterial sepsis leads to a proinflammatory condition that can manifest as septic shock, multiple organ failure, and death. Neutrophils are critical for the rapid elimination of bacteria; however, the role of neutrophil chemoattractant CXCL1 in bacterial clearance during sepsis remains elusive. To test the hypothesis that CXCL1 is critical to host defense during sepsis, we used CXCL1-deficient mice and bone marrow chimeras to demonstrate the importance of this molecule in sepsis. We demonstrate that CXCL1 plays a pivotal role in mediating host defense to polymicrobial sepsis after cecal ligation and puncture in gene-deficient mice. CXCL1 appears to be essential for restricting bacterial outgrowth and death in mice. CXCL1 derived from both hematopoietic and resident cells contributed to bacterial clearance. Moreover, CXCL1 is essential for neutrophil migration, expression of proinflammatory mediators, activation of NF-κB and MAPKs, and upregulation of adhesion molecule ICAM-1. rIL-17 rescued impaired host defenses in cxcl1(-/-) mice. CXCL1 is important for IL-17A production via Th17 differentiation. CXCL1 is essential for NADPH oxidase-mediated reactive oxygen species production and neutrophil extracellular trap formation. This study reveals a novel role for CXCL1 in neutrophil recruitment via modulating T cell function and neutrophil-related bactericidal functions. These studies suggest that modulation of CXCL1 levels in tissues and blood could reduce bacterial burden in sepsis.

An essential role for IFN-β in the induction of IFN-stimulated gene expression by LPS in macrophages

TLR agonists such as LPS and poly(I:C) induce expression of type I IFNs, such as IFN-α and -β, by macrophages. To examine the role of IFN-β in the induction of ISGs by LPS, we compared the ability of LPS to induce ISGF3 activity and ISG expression in bone marrow-derived macrophages from WT and Ifnb1(-/-) mice. We found that LPS treatment activated ISGF3 and induced expression of ISGs such as Oas1, Mx1, Ddx58 (RIG-I), and Ifih1 (MDA5) in WT macrophages, but not in macrophages derived from Ifnb1(-/-) mice or Ifnar1(-/-) mice. The inability of LPS to induce activation of ISGF3 and ISG expression in Ifnb1(-/-) macrophages correlated with the failure of LPS to induce activation of STAT1 and -2 in these cells. Consistent with these findings, LPS treatment also failed to induce ISG expression in bone marrow-derived macrophages from Stat2 KO mice. Although activation of ISGF3 and induction of ISG expression by LPS was abrogated in Ifnb1(-/-) and Ifnar1(-/-) macrophages, activation of NF-κB and induction of NF-κB-responsive genes, such as Tnf (TNF-α) and Il1b (IL-1β), were not affected by deletion of either the IFN-β or IFN-αR1 genes. These findings demonstrate that induction of ISGF3 activity and ISG expression by LPS is critically dependent on intermediate production of IFN-β and autocrine signaling through type I IFN receptors.

STAT2 phosphorylation and signaling

STAT2 is an essential transcription factor in type I IFN mediated anti-viral and anti-proliferative signaling. STAT2 function is regulated by tyrosine phosphorylation, which is the trigger for STAT-dimerization, subsequent nuclear translocation, and transcriptional activation of IFN stimulated genes. Evidence of additional STAT2 phosphorylation sites has emerged as well as novel roles for STAT2 separate from the classical ISGF3-signaling. This review aims to summarize knowledge of phosphorylation-mediated STAT2-regulation and future avenues of related STAT2 research.