Crystal structure of the essential transcription antiterminator M2-1 protein of human respiratory syncytial virus and implications of its phosphorylation

8-Oxoguanine DNA Glycosylase1 conceals oxidized guanine in nucleoprotein-associated RNA of respiratory syncytial virus

Respiratory syncytial virus (RSV), along with other prominent respiratory RNA viruses such as influenza and SARS-CoV-2, significantly contributes to the global incidence of respiratory tract infections. These pathogens induce the production of reactive oxygen species (ROS), which play a crucial role in the onset and progression of respiratory diseases. However, the mechanisms by which viral RNA manages ROS-induced base oxidation remain poorly understood. Here, we reveal that 8-oxo-7,8-dihydroguanine (8-oxoGua) is not merely an incidental byproduct of ROS activity but serves as a strategic adaptation of RSV RNA to maintain genetic fidelity by hijacking the 8-oxoguanine DNA glycosylase 1 (OGG1). Through RNA immunoprecipitation and next-generation sequencing, we discovered that OGG1 binding sites are predominantly found in the RSV antigenome, especially within guanine-rich sequences. Further investigation revealed that viral ribonucleoprotein complexes specifically exploit OGG1. Importantly, inhibiting OGG1's ability to recognize 8-oxoGua significantly decreases RSV progeny production. Our results underscore the viral replication machinery's adaptation to oxidative challenges, suggesting that inhibiting OGG1's reading function could be a novel strategy for antiviral intervention.

Direct-acting antivirals for RSV treatment, a review

Respiratory syncytial virus (RSV) causes respiratory disease and complications in infants, the elderly and the immunocompromised. While three vaccines and two prophylactic monoclonal antibodies are now available, only one antiviral, ribavirin, is currently approved for treatment. This review aims to summarize the current state of treatments directly targeting RSV. Two major viral processes are attractive for RSV-specific antiviral drug discovery and development as they play essential roles in the viral cycle: the entry/fusion process carried out by the fusion protein and the replication/transcription process carried out by the polymerase complex constituted of the L, P, N and M2-1 proteins. For each viral target resistance mutations to small molecules of different chemotypes seem to delineate definite binding pockets in the fusion proteins and in the large proteins. Elucidating the mechanism of action of these inhibitors thus helps to understand how the fusion and polymerase complexes execute their functions. While many inhibitors have been studied, few are currently in clinical development for RSV treatment: one is in phase III, three in phase II and two in phase I. Progression was halted for many others because of strategic decisions, low enrollment, safety, but also lack of efficacy. Lessons can be learnt from the halted programs to increase the success rate of the treatments currently in development.

In vitro higher-order oligomeric assembly of the respiratory syncytial virus M2-1 protein with longer RNAs

The respiratory syncytial virus (RSV) M2-1 protein is a transcriptional antitermination factor crucial for efficiently synthesizing multiple full-length viral mRNAs. During RSV infection, M2-1 exists in a complex with mRNA within cytoplasmic compartments called inclusion body-associated granules (IBAGs). Prior studies showed that M2-1 can bind along the entire length of viral mRNAs instead of just gene-end (GE) sequences, suggesting that M2-1 has more sophisticated RNA recognition and binding characteristics. Here, we analyzed the higher oligomeric complexes formed by M2-1 and RNAs in vitro using size exclusion chromatography (SEC), electrophoretic mobility shift assays (EMSA), negative stain electron microscopy (EM), and mutagenesis. We observed that the minimal RNA length for such higher oligomeric assembly is about 14 nucleotides for polyadenine sequences, and longer RNAs exhibit distinct RNA-induced binding modality to M2-1, leading to enhanced particle formation frequency and particle homogeneity as the local RNA concentration increases. We showed that particular cysteine residues of the M2-1 cysteine-cysteine-cystine-histidine (CCCH) zinc-binding motif are essential for higher oligomeric assembly. Furthermore, complexes assembled with long polyadenine sequences remain unaffected when co-incubated with ribonucleases or a zinc chelation agent. Our study provided new insights into the higher oligomeric assembly of M2-1 with longer RNA.IMPORTANCERespiratory syncytial virus (RSV) causes significant respiratory infections in infants, the elderly, and immunocompromised individuals. The virus forms specialized compartments to produce genetic material, with the M2-1 protein playing a pivotal role. M2-1 acts as an anti-terminator in viral transcription, ensuring the creation of complete viral mRNA and associating with both viral and cellular mRNA. Our research focuses on understanding M2-1's function in viral mRNA synthesis by modeling interactions in a controlled environment. This approach is crucial due to the challenges of studying these compartments in vivo. Reconstructing the system in vitro uncovers structural and biochemical aspects and reveals the potential functions of M2-1 and its homologs in related viruses. Our work may contribute to identifying targets for antiviral inhibitors and advancing RSV infection treatment.

Hardening of Respiratory Syncytial Virus Inclusion Bodies by Cyclopamine Proceeds through Perturbation of the Interactions of the M2-1 Protein with RNA and the P Protein

Respiratory syncytial virus (RSV) RNA synthesis takes place in cytoplasmic viral factories also called inclusion bodies (IBs), which are membrane-less organelles concentrating the viral RNA polymerase complex. The assembly of IBs is driven by liquid-liquid phase separation promoted by interactions between the viral nucleoprotein N and the phosphoprotein P. We recently demonstrated that cyclopamine (CPM) inhibits RSV multiplication by disorganizing and hardening IBs. Although a single mutation in the viral transcription factor M2-1 induced resistance to CPM, the mechanism of action of CPM still remains to be characterized. Here, using FRAP experiments on reconstituted pseudo-IBs both in cellula and in vitro, we first demonstrated that CPM activity depends on the presence of M2-1 together with N and P. We showed that CPM impairs the competition between P and RNA binding to M2-1. As mutations on both P and M2-1 induced resistance against CPM activity, we suggest that CPM may affect the dynamics of the M2-1-P interaction, thereby affecting the relative mobility of the proteins contained in RSV IBs. Overall, our results reveal that stabilizing viral protein-protein interactions is an attractive new antiviral approach. They pave the way for the rational chemical optimization of new specific anti-RSV molecules.

Spatial resolution of virus replication: RSV and cytoplasmic inclusion bodies

Respiratory Syncytial Virus (RSV) is a major cause of respiratory illness in young children, elderly and immunocompromised individuals worldwide representing a severe burden for health systems. The urgent development of vaccines or specific antivirals against RSV is impaired by the lack of knowledge regarding its replication mechanisms. RSV is a negative-sense single-stranded RNA (ssRNA) virus belonging to the Mononegavirales order (MNV) which includes other viruses pathogenic to humans as Rabies (RabV), Ebola (EBOV), or measles (MeV) viruses. Transcription and replication of viral genomes occur within cytoplasmatic virus-induced spherical inclusions, commonly referred as inclusion bodies (IBs). Recently IBs were shown to exhibit properties of membrane-less organelles (MLO) arising by liquid-liquid phase separation (LLPS). Compartmentalization of viral RNA synthesis steps in viral-induced MLO is indeed a common feature of MNV. Strikingly these key compartments still remain mysterious. Most of our current knowledge on IBs relies on the use of fluorescence microscopy. The ability to fluorescently label IBs in cells has been key to uncover their dynamics and nature. The generation of recombinant viruses expressing a fluorescently-labeled viral protein and the immunolabeling or the expression of viral fusion proteins known to be recruited in IBs are some of the tools used to visualize IBs in infected cells. In this chapter, microscope techniques and the most relevant studies that have shed light on RSV IBs fundamental aspects, including biogenesis, organization and dynamics are being discussed and brought to light with the investigations carried out on other MNV.

Assembly of the Tripartite and RNA Condensates of the Respiratory Syncytial Virus Factory Proteins In Vitro: Role of the Transcription Antiterminator M2-1

A wide variety of viruses replicate in liquid-like viral factories. Non-segmented negative stranded RNA viruses share a nucleoprotein (N) and a phosphoprotein (P) that together emerge as the main drivers of liquid-liquid phase separation. The respiratory syncytial virus includes the transcription antiterminator M_2-1, which binds RNA and maximizes RNA transcriptase processivity. We recapitulate the assembly mechanism of condensates of the three proteins and the role played by RNA. M_2-1 displays a strong propensity for condensation by itself and with RNA through the formation of electrostatically driven protein-RNA coacervates based on the amphiphilic behavior of M_2-1 and finely tuned by stoichiometry. M_2-1 incorporates into tripartite condensates with N and P, modulating their size through an interplay with P, where M_2-1 is both client and modulator. RNA is incorporated into the tripartite condensates adopting a heterogeneous distribution, reminiscent of the M_2-1-RNA IBAG granules within the viral factories. Ionic strength dependence indicates that M_2-1 behaves differently in the protein phase as opposed to the protein-RNA phase, in line with the subcompartmentalization observed in viral factories. This work dissects the biochemical grounds for the formation and fate of the RSV condensates in vitro and provides clues to interrogate the mechanism under the highly complex infection context.

Helical ordering of envelope-associated proteins and glycoproteins in respiratory syncytial virus

Human respiratory syncytial virus (RSV) causes severe respiratory illness in children and the elderly. Here, using cryogenic electron microscopy and tomography combined with computational image analysis and three-dimensional reconstruction, we show that there is extensive helical ordering of the envelope-associated proteins and glycoproteins of RSV filamentous virions. We calculated a 16 Å resolution sub-tomogram average of the matrix protein (M) layer that forms an endoskeleton below the viral envelope. These data define a helical lattice of M-dimers, showing how M is oriented relative to the viral envelope. Glycoproteins that stud the viral envelope were also found to be helically ordered, a property that was coordinated by the M-layer. Furthermore, envelope glycoproteins clustered in pairs, a feature that may have implications for the conformation of fusion (F) glycoprotein epitopes that are the principal target for vaccine and monoclonal antibody development. We also report the presence, in authentic virus infections, of N-RNA rings packaged within RSV virions. These data provide molecular insight into the organisation of the virion and the mechanism of its assembly.

Structural Insights into the Respiratory Syncytial Virus RNA Synthesis Complexes

RNA synthesis in respiratory syncytial virus (RSV), a negative-sense (-) nonsegmented RNA virus, consists of viral gene transcription and genome replication. Gene transcription includes the positive-sense (+) viral mRNA synthesis, 5'-RNA capping and methylation, and 3' end polyadenylation. Genome replication includes (+) RNA antigenome and (-) RNA genome synthesis. RSV executes the viral RNA synthesis using an RNA synthesis ribonucleoprotein (RNP) complex, comprising four proteins, the nucleoprotein (N), the large protein (L), the phosphoprotein (P), and the M2-1 protein. We provide an overview of the RSV RNA synthesis and the structural insights into the RSV gene transcription and genome replication process. We propose a model of how the essential four proteins coordinate their activities in different RNA synthesis processes.

Respiratory syncytial virus M2-1 protein associates non-specifically with viral messenger RNA and with specific cellular messenger RNA transcripts

Respiratory syncytial virus (RSV) is a major cause of respiratory disease in infants and the elderly. RSV is a non-segmented negative strand RNA virus. The viral M2-1 protein plays a key role in viral transcription, serving as an elongation factor to enable synthesis of full-length mRNAs. M2-1 contains an unusual CCCH zinc-finger motif that is conserved in the related human metapneumovirus M2-1 protein and filovirus VP30 proteins. Previous biochemical studies have suggested that RSV M2-1 might bind to specific virus RNA sequences, such as the transcription gene end signals or poly A tails, but there was no clear consensus on what RSV sequences it binds. To determine if M2-1 binds to specific RSV RNA sequences during infection, we mapped points of M2-1:RNA interactions in RSV-infected cells at 8 and 18 hours post infection using crosslinking immunoprecipitation with RNA sequencing (CLIP-Seq). This analysis revealed that M2-1 interacts specifically with positive sense RSV RNA, but not negative sense genome RNA. It also showed that M2-1 makes contacts along the length of each viral mRNA, indicating that M2-1 functions as a component of the transcriptase complex, transiently associating with nascent mRNA being extruded from the polymerase. In addition, we found that M2-1 binds specific cellular mRNAs. In contrast to the situation with RSV mRNA, M2-1 binds discrete sites within cellular mRNAs, with a preference for A/U rich sequences. These results suggest that in addition to its previously described role in transcription elongation, M2-1 might have an additional role involving cellular RNA interactions.

Pneumoviral Phosphoprotein, a Multidomain Adaptor-Like Protein of Apparent Low Structural Complexity and High Conformational Versatility

Mononegavirales phosphoproteins (P) are essential co-factors of the viral polymerase by serving as a linchpin between the catalytic subunit and the ribonucleoprotein template. They have highly diverged, but their overall architecture is conserved. They are multidomain proteins, which all possess an oligomerization domain that separates N- and C-terminal domains. Large intrinsically disordered regions constitute their hallmark. Here, we exemplify their structural features and interaction potential, based on the Pneumoviridae P proteins. These P proteins are rather small, and their oligomerization domain is the only part with a defined 3D structure, owing to a quaternary arrangement. All other parts are either flexible or form short-lived secondary structure elements that transiently associate with the rest of the protein. Pneumoviridae P proteins interact with several viral and cellular proteins that are essential for viral transcription and replication. The combination of intrinsic disorder and tetrameric organization enables them to structurally adapt to different partners and to act as adaptor-like platforms to bring the latter close in space. Transient structures are stabilized in complex with protein partners. This class of proteins gives an insight into the structural versatility of non-globular intrinsically disordered protein domains.

Biophysical and Dynamic Characterization of Fine-Tuned Binding of the Human Respiratory Syncytial Virus M2-1 Core Domain to Long RNAs

The human respiratory syncytial virus (hRSV) M2-1 protein functions as a processivity and antitermination factor of the viral polymerase complex. Here, the first evidence that the hRSV M2-1 core domain (cdM2-1) alone has an unfolding activity for long RNAs is presented and the biophysical and dynamic characterization of the cdM2-1/RNA complex is provided. The main contact region of cdM2-1 with RNA was the α1-α2-α5-α6 helix bundle, which suffered local conformational changes and promoted the RNA unfolding activity. This activity may be triggered by base-pairing recognition. RNA molecules wrap around the whole cdM2-1, protruding their termini over the domain. The α2-α3 and α3-α4 loops of cdM2-1 were marked by an increase in picosecond internal motions upon RNA binding, even though they are not directly involved in the interaction. The results revealed that the cdM2-1/RNA complex originates from a fine-tuned binding, contributing to the unraveling interaction aspects necessary for M2-1 activity.IMPORTANCE The main outcome is the molecular description of the fine-tuned binding of the cdM2-1/RNA complex and the provision of evidence that the domain alone has unfolding activity for long RNAs. This binding mode is essential in the understanding of the function in the full-length protein. Human respiratory syncytial virus (hRSV), an orthopneumovirus, stands out for the unique role of its M2-1 protein as a transcriptional antitermination factor able to increase RNA polymerase processivity.

RSV M2-1 Protein in Complex with RNA: Old Questions Are Answered and a New One Emerges

The respiratory syncytial virus (RSV) M2-1 protein is essential for virus transcription. In this issue of Structure, Gao et al. (2020) describe the crystal structure of M2-1 in complex with RNA. This structure provides new insight into the RSV transcription mechanism but also raises an intriguing question regarding M2-1's function.

Structures of the Mononegavirales Polymerases

Mononegavirales, known as nonsegmented negative-sense (NNS) RNA viruses, are a class of pathogenic and sometimes deadly viruses that include rabies virus (RABV), human respiratory syncytial virus (HRSV), and Ebola virus (EBOV). Unfortunately, no effective vaccines and antiviral therapeutics against many Mononegavirales are currently available. Viral polymerases have been attractive and major antiviral therapeutic targets. Therefore, Mononegavirales polymerases have been extensively investigated for their structures and functions.

Mononegavirales, known as nonsegmented negative-sense (NNS) RNA viruses, are a class of pathogenic and sometimes deadly viruses that include rabies virus (RABV), human respiratory syncytial virus (HRSV), and Ebola virus (EBOV). Unfortunately, no effective vaccines and antiviral therapeutics against many Mononegavirales are currently available. Viral polymerases have been attractive and major antiviral therapeutic targets. Therefore, Mononegavirales polymerases have been extensively investigated for their structures and functions. Mononegavirales mimic RNA synthesis of their eukaryotic counterparts by utilizing multifunctional RNA polymerases to replicate entire viral genomes and transcribe viral mRNAs from individual viral genes as well as synthesize 5′ methylated cap and 3′ poly(A) tail of the transcribed viral mRNAs. The catalytic subunit large protein (L) and cofactor phosphoprotein (P) constitute the Mononegavirales polymerases. In this review, we discuss the shared and unique features of RNA synthesis, the monomeric multifunctional enzyme L, and the oligomeric multimodular adapter P of Mononegavirales. We outline the structural analyses of the Mononegavirales polymerases since the first structure of the vesicular stomatitis virus (VSV) L protein determined in 2015 and highlight multiple high-resolution cryo-electron microscopy (cryo-EM) structures of the polymerases of Mononegavirales, namely, VSV, RABV, HRSV, human metapneumovirus (HMPV), and human parainfluenza virus (HPIV), that have been reported in recent months (2019 to 2020). We compare the structures of those polymerases grouped by virus family, illustrate the similarities and differences among those polymerases, and reveal the potential RNA synthesis mechanisms and models of highly conserved Mononegavirales. We conclude by the discussion of remaining questions, evolutionary perspectives, and future directions.

Two RSV Platforms for G, F, or G+F Proteins VLPs

Respiratory syncytial virus (RSV) causes substantial lower respiratory tract disease in children and at-risk adults. Though there are no effective anti-viral drugs for acute disease or licensed vaccines for RSV, palivizumab prophylaxis is available for some high risk infants. To support anti-viral and vaccine development efforts, we developed an RSV virus-like particle (VLP) platform to explore the role RSV F and G protein interactions in disease pathogenesis. Since VLPs are immunogenic and a proven platform for licensed human vaccines, we also considered these VLPs as potential vaccine candidates. We developed two RSV VLP platforms, M+P and M+M2-1 that had F and G, F and a G peptide, or a truncated F and G on their surface. Immunoblots of sucrose gradient purified particles showed co-expression of M, G, and F with both VLP platforms. Electron microscopy imaging and immunogold labeling confirmed VLP-like structures with surface exposed projections consistent with F and G proteins. In mice, the VLPs induced both anti-F and -G protein antibodies and, on challenge, reduced lung viral titer and inflammation. These data show that these RSV VLP platforms provide a tool to study the structure of F and G and their interactions and flexible platforms to develop VLP vaccines in which all components contribute to RSV-specific immune responses.

A small fragmented P protein of respiratory syncytial virus inhibits virus infection by targeting P protein

Peptide-based inhibitors hold promising potential in the development of antiviral therapy. Here, we investigated the antiviral potential of fragmented viral proteins derived from ribonucleoprotein (RNP) components of the human respiratory syncytial virus (HRSV). Based on a mimicking approach that targets the functional domains of viral proteins, we designed various fragments of nucleoprotein (N), matrix protein M2-1 and phosphoprotein (P) and tested the antiviral activity in an RSV mini-genome system. We found that the fragment comprising residues 130-180 and 212-241 in the C-terminal region of P (81 amino acid length), denoted as P Fr, significantly inhibited the polymerase activity through competitive binding to the full-length P. Further deletion analysis of P Fr suggested that three functional domains in P Fr (oligomerization, L-binding and nucleocapsid binding) are required for maximum inhibitory activity. More importantly, a purified recombinant P Fr displayed significant antiviral activity at low nanomolar range in RSV-infected HEp-2 cells. These results highlight P as an important target for the development of antiviral compounds against RSV and other paramyxoviruses.

Structure of the Human Respiratory Syncytial Virus M2-1 Protein in Complex with a Short Positive-Sense Gene-End RNA

The M2-1 protein of human respiratory syncytial virus (HRSV) is a transcription anti-terminator that regulates the processivity of the HRSV RNA-dependent RNA polymerase (RdRP). Here, we report a crystal structure of HRSV M2-1 bound to a short positive-sense gene-end RNA (SH7) at 2.7 Å resolution. We identified multiple critical residues of M2-1 involved in RNA interaction and examined their roles using mutagenesis and MicroScale Thermophoresis (MST) assay. We found that hydrophobic residue Phe23 is indispensable for M2-1 to recognize the base of RNA. We also captured spontaneous binding of RNA (SH7) to M2-1 in all-atom simulations using a robust Gaussian accelerated molecular dynamics (GaMD) method. Both experiments and simulations revealed that the interactions of RNA with two separate domains of M2-1, the zinc-binding domain (ZBD) and the core domain (CD), are independent of each other. Collectively, our results provided a structural basis for RNA recognition by HRSV M2-1.

Rational modifications, synthesis and biological evaluation of new potential antivirals for RSV designed to target the M2-1 protein

Respiratory syncytial virus (RSV) is the main cause of lower respiratory tract diseases in infants and young children, with potentially serious and fatal consequences associated with severe infections. Despite extensive research efforts invested in the identification of therapeutic measures, no vaccine is currently available, while treatment options are limited to ribavirin and palivizumab, which both present significant limitations. While clinical and pre-clinical candidates mainly target the viral fusion protein, the nucleocapsid protein or the viral polymerase, our focus has been the identification of new antiviral compounds targeting the viral M2-1 protein, thanks to the presence of a zinc-ejecting group in their chemical structure. Starting from an anti-RSV hit we had previously identified with an in silico structure-based approach, we have designed, synthesised and evaluated a new series of dithiocarbamate analogues, with which we have explored the antiviral activity of this scaffold. The findings presented in this work may provide the basis for the identification of a new antiviral lead to treat RSV infections.

Insights into Interactions of Flavanones with Target Human Respiratory Syncytial Virus M2-1 Protein from STD-NMR, Fluorescence Spectroscopy, and Computational Simulations

The human Respiratory Syncytial Virus (hRSV) is the most frequent agent of respiratory infections in infants and children with no currently approved vaccine. The M_2-1 protein is an important transcriptional antitermination factor and a potential target for viral replication inhibitor development. Hesperetin (HST) and hesperidin (HSD) are flavonoids from the flavanone group, naturally found in citrus and have, as one of their properties, antiviral activity. The present study reports on the interactions between hRSV M_2-1 and these flavanones using experimental techniques in association with computational tools. STD-NMR results showed that HST and HSD bind to M_2-1 by positioning their aromatic rings into the target protein binding site. Fluorescence quenching measurements revealed that HST had an interaction affinity greater than HSD towards M_2-1. The thermodynamic analysis suggested that hydrogen bonds and van der Waals interactions are important for the molecular stabilization of the complexes. Computational simulations corroborated with the experimental results and indicated that the possible interaction region for the flavonoids is the AMP-binding site in M_2-1. Therefore, these results point that HST and HSD bind stably to a critical region in M_2-1, which is vital for its biological function, and thus might play a possible role antiviral against hRSV.

The Interactome analysis of the Respiratory Syncytial Virus protein M2-1 suggests a new role in viral mRNA metabolism post-transcription

Human respiratory syncytial virus (RSV) is a globally prevalent negative-stranded RNA virus, which can cause life-threatening respiratory infections in young children, elderly people and immunocompromised patients. Its transcription termination factor M2-1 plays an essential role in viral transcription, but the mechanisms underpinning its function are still unclear. We investigated the cellular interactome of M2-1 using green fluorescent protein (GFP)-trap immunoprecipitation on RSV infected cells coupled with mass spectrometry analysis. We identified 137 potential cellular partners of M2-1, among which many proteins associated with mRNA metabolism, and particularly mRNA maturation, translation and stabilization. Among these, the cytoplasmic polyA-binding protein 1 (PABPC1), a candidate with a major role in both translation and mRNA stabilization, was confirmed to interact with M2-1 using protein complementation assay and specific immunoprecipitation. PABPC1 was also shown to colocalize with M2-1 from its accumulation in inclusion bodies associated granules (IBAGs) to its liberation in the cytoplasm. Altogether, these results strongly suggest that M2-1 interacts with viral mRNA and mRNA metabolism factors from transcription to translation, and imply that M2-1 may have an additional role in the fate of viral mRNA downstream of transcription.

Biology of Infection and Disease Pathogenesis to Guide RSV Vaccine Development

Respiratory syncytial virus (RSV) is a leading cause of severe lower respiratory tract disease in young children and a substantial contributor to respiratory tract disease throughout life and as such a high priority for vaccine development. However, after nearly 60 years of research no vaccine is yet available. The challenges to developing an RSV vaccine include the young age, 2-4 months of age, for the peak of disease, the enhanced RSV disease associated with the first RSV vaccine, formalin-inactivated RSV with an alum adjuvant (FI-RSV), and difficulty achieving protection as illustrated by repeat infections with disease that occur throughout life. Understanding the biology of infection and disease pathogenesis has and will continue to guide vaccine development. In this paper, we review the roles that RSV proteins play in the biology of infection and disease pathogenesis and the corresponding contribution to live attenuated and subunit RSV vaccines. Each of RSV's 11 proteins are in the design of one or more vaccines. The G protein's contribution to disease pathogenesis through altering host immune responses as well as its role in the biology of infection suggest it can make a unique contribution to an RSV vaccine, both live attenuated and subunit vaccines. One of G's potential unique contributions to a vaccine is the potential for anti-G immunity to have an anti-inflammatory effect independent of virus replication. Though an anti-viral effect is essential to an effective RSV vaccine, it is important to remember that the goal of a vaccine is to prevent disease. Thus, other effects of the infection, such as G's alteration of the host immune response may provide opportunities to induce responses that block this effect and improve an RSV vaccine. Keeping in mind the goal of a vaccine is to prevent disease and not virus replication may help identify new strategies for other vaccine challenges, such as improving influenza vaccines and developing HIV vaccines.

Mechanism of Tetramer Dissociation, Unfolding, and Oligomer Assembly of Pneumovirus M2-1 Transcription Antiterminators

Among Mononegavirales, the Pneumovirus family stands out by its RNA polymerase processivity that relies on a transcription antiterminator, the M2-1 protein, which also plays a key role in viral particle assembly. Biophysical and structural evidence shows that this RNA-binding tetramer is strongly modulated by a CCCH Zn²⁺ binding motif. We show that while the global dissociation/unfolding free energy is 10 kcal mol^-1, more stable for the respiratory syncytial virus M2-1, the human metapneumovirus (HMPV) counterpart shows a 7 kcal mol^-1 higher intersubunit affinity. Removal of Zn²⁺ from both homologues leads to an apo-monomer of identical secondary structure that further undergoes a slow irreversible oligomerization. Mutation of the histidine residue of the Zn²⁺ motif to cysteine or alanine leads directly to large oligomers, strongly suggesting that metal coordination has an exquisite precision for modulating the quaternary arrangement. Zn²⁺ removal is very slow and requires subdenaturing concentrations of guanidine chloride, suggesting a likely local folding energy barrier. Exploring a broad combination of denaturant and ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid conditions, we showed that the metapneumovirus protein has to overcome a higher energy barrier to trigger Zn²⁺ removal-driven dissociation, in concordance with a slower dissociation kinetics. In silico modeling of open and close conformations for both M2-1 tetramers together with interaction energy calculations reveals that the gradual opening of protomers decreases the number of intersubunit contacts. Half of the interaction energy holding each protomer in the tetramer comes from the CCCH motif, while HMPV-M2-1 harbors additional contacts between the CCCH motif of one subunit and the core domain of a protomer located in trans, allowing the rationalization of the experimental data obtained. Overall, the evidence points at a key role of the CCCH motif in switching between structural and consequently functional alternatives of the M2-1 protein.

The Structure of the Human Respiratory Syncytial Virus M2-1 Protein Bound to the Interaction Domain of the Phosphoprotein P Defines the Orientation of the Complex

Human respiratory syncytial virus (HRSV) is a negative-stranded RNA virus that causes a globally prevalent respiratory infection, which can cause life-threatening illness, particularly in the young, elderly, and immunocompromised. HRSV multiplication depends on replication and transcription of the HRSV genes by the virus-encoded RNA-dependent RNA polymerase (RdRp). For replication, this complex comprises the phosphoprotein (P) and the large protein (L), whereas for transcription, the M2-1 protein is also required. M2-1 is recruited to the RdRp by interaction with P and also interacts with RNA at overlapping binding sites on the M2-1 surface, such that binding of these partners is mutually exclusive. The molecular basis for the transcriptional requirement of M2-1 is unclear, as is the consequence of competition between P and RNA for M2-1 binding, which is likely a critical step in the transcription mechanism. Here, we report the crystal structure at 2.4 Å of M2-1 bound to the P interaction domain, which comprises P residues 90 to 110. The P90-110 peptide is alpha helical, and its position on the surface of M2-1 defines the orientation of the three transcriptase components within the complex. The M2-1/P interface includes ionic, hydrophobic, and hydrogen bond interactions, and the critical contribution of these contacts to complex formation was assessed using a minigenome assay. The affinity of M2-1 for RNA and P ligands was quantified using fluorescence anisotropy, which showed high-affinity RNAs could outcompete P. This has important implications for the mechanism of transcription, particularly the events surrounding transcription termination and synthesis of poly(A) sequences.IMPORTANCE Human respiratory syncytial virus (HRSV) is a leading cause of respiratory illness, particularly in the young, elderly, and immunocompromised, and has also been linked to the development of asthma. HRSV replication depends on P and L, whereas transcription also requires M2-1. M2-1 interacts with P and RNA at overlapping binding sites; while these interactions are necessary for transcriptional activity, the mechanism of M2-1 action is unclear. To better understand HRSV transcription, we solved the crystal structure of M2-1 in complex with the minimal P interaction domain, revealing molecular details of the M2-1/P interface and defining the orientation of M2-1 within the tripartite complex. The M2-1/P interaction is relatively weak, suggesting high-affinity RNAs may displace M2-1 from the complex, providing the basis for a new model describing the role of M2-1 in transcription. Recently, the small molecules quercetin and cyclopamine have been used to validate M2-1 as a drug target.

The Morphology and Assembly of Respiratory Syncytial Virus Revealed by Cryo-Electron Tomography

Human respiratory syncytial virus (RSV) is the leading cause of lower respiratory tract disease in young children. With repeat infections throughout life, it can also cause substantial disease in the elderly and in adults with compromised cardiac, pulmonary and immune systems. RSV is a pleomorphic enveloped RNA virus in the Pneumoviridae family. Recently, the three-dimensional (3D) structure of purified RSV particles has been elucidated, revealing three distinct morphological categories: spherical, asymmetric, and filamentous. However, the native 3D structure of RSV particles associated with or released from infected cells has yet to be investigated. In this study, we have established an optimized system for studying RSV structure by imaging RSV-infected cells on transmission electron microscopy (TEM) grids by cryo-electron tomography (cryo-ET). Our results demonstrate that RSV is filamentous across several virus strains and cell lines by cryo-ET, cryo-immuno EM, and thin section TEM techniques. The viral filament length varies from 0.5 to 12 μm and the average filament diameter is approximately 130 nm. Taking advantage of the whole cell tomography technique, we have resolved various stages of RSV assembly. Collectively, our results can facilitate the understanding of viral morphogenesis in RSV and other pleomorphic enveloped viruses.

RSV hijacks cellular protein phosphatase 1 to regulate M2-1 phosphorylation and viral transcription

Respiratory syncytial virus (RSV) RNA synthesis occurs in cytoplasmic inclusion bodies (IBs) in which all the components of the viral RNA polymerase are concentrated. In this work, we show that RSV P protein recruits the essential RSV transcription factor M2-1 to IBs independently of the phosphorylation state of M2-1. We also show that M2-1 dephosphorylation is achieved by a complex formed between P and the cellular phosphatase PP1. We identified the PP1 binding site of P, which is an RVxF-like motif located nearby and upstream of the M2-1 binding region. NMR confirmed both P-M2-1 and P-PP1 interaction regions in P. When the P-PP1 interaction was disrupted, M2-1 remained phosphorylated and viral transcription was impaired, showing that M2-1 dephosphorylation is required, in a cyclic manner, for efficient viral transcription. IBs contain substructures called inclusion bodies associated granules (IBAGs), where M2-1 and neo-synthesized viral mRNAs concentrate. Disruption of the P-PP1 interaction was correlated with M2-1 exclusion from IBAGs, indicating that only dephosphorylated M2-1 is competent for viral mRNA binding and hence for a previously proposed post-transcriptional function.

Cooperative RNA Recognition by a Viral Transcription Antiterminator

RNA transcription of mononegavirales decreases gradually from the 3' leader promoter toward the 5' end of the genome, due to a decay in polymerase processivity. In the respiratory syncytial virus and metapneumovirus, the M_2-1 protein ensures transcription anti-termination. Despite being a homotetramer, respiratory syncytial virus M_2-1 binds two molecules of RNA of 13mer or longer per tetramer, and temperature-sensitive secondary structure in the RNA ligand is unfolded by stoichiometric interaction with M_2-1. Fine quantitative analysis shows positive cooperativity, indicative of conformational asymmetry in the tetramer. RNA binds to M_2-1 through a fast bimolecular association followed by slow rearrangements corresponding to an induced-fit mechanism, providing a sequential description of the time events of cooperativity. The first binding event of half of the RNA molecule to one of the sites increases the affinity of the second binding event on the adjacent contacting protomer by 15-fold, product of increased effective concentration caused by the entropic link. This mechanism allows for high-affinity binding with an otherwise relaxed sequence specificity, and instead suggests a yet undefined structural recognition signature in the RNA for modulating gene transcription. This work provides a basis for an essential event for understanding transcription antitermination in pneumoviruses and its counterpart Ebola virus VP30.

Structure and Function of the Human Respiratory Syncytial Virus M2-1 Protein

Human respiratory syncytial virus (HRSV) is a non-segmented negative stranded RNA virus and is recognized as the most important viral agent of lower respiratory tract infection worldwide, responsible for up to 199,000 deaths each year. The only FDA-approved regime to prevent HRSV-mediated disease is pre-exposure administration of a humanized HRSV-specific monoclonal antibody, which although being effective, is not in widespread usage due to its cost. No HRSV vaccine exists and so there remains a strong need for alternative and complementary anti-HRSV therapies. The HRSV M2-1 protein is a transcription factor and represents an attractive target for the development of antiviral compounds, based on its essential role in the viral replication cycle. To this end, a detailed analysis of M2-1 structure and functions will aid in identifying rational targets for structure-based antiviral drug design that can be developed in future translational research. Here we present an overview of the current understanding of the structure and function of HRSV M2-1, drawing on additional information derived from its structural homologues from other related viruses.

Structure and stability of the Human respiratory syncytial virus M2-1 RNA-binding core domain reveals a compact and cooperative folding unit

Human syncytial respiratory virus is a nonsegmented negative-strand RNA virus with serious implications for respiratory disease in infants, and has recently been reclassified into a new family, Pneumoviridae. One of the main reasons for this classification is the unique presence of a transcriptional antiterminator, called M2-1. The puzzling mechanism of action of M2-1, which is a rarity among antiterminators in viruses and is part of the RNA polymerase complex, relies on dissecting the structure and function of this multidomain tetramer. The RNA-binding activity is located in a monomeric globular `core' domain, a high-resolution crystal structure of which is now presented. The structure reveals a compact domain which is superimposable on the full-length M2-1 tetramer, with additional electron density for the C-terminal tail that was not observed in the previous models. Moreover, its folding stability was determined through chemical denaturation, which shows that the secondary and tertiary structure unfold concomitantly, which is indicative of a two-state equilibrium. These results constitute a further step in the understanding of this unique RNA-binding domain, for which there is no sequence or structural counterpart outside this virus family, in addition to its implications in transcription regulation and its likeliness as an antiviral target.

Structural dissection of human metapneumovirus phosphoprotein using small angle x-ray scattering

The phosphoprotein (P) is the main and essential cofactor of the RNA polymerase (L) of non-segmented, negative‐strand RNA viruses. P positions the viral polymerase onto its nucleoprotein–RNA template and acts as a chaperone of the nucleoprotein (N), thereby preventing nonspecific encapsidation of cellular RNAs. The phosphoprotein of human metapneumovirus (HMPV) forms homotetramers composed of a stable oligomerization domain (P_core) flanked by large intrinsically disordered regions (IDRs). Here we combined x-ray crystallography of P_core with small angle x-ray scattering (SAXS)-based ensemble modeling of the full-length P protein and several of its fragments to provide a structural description of P that captures its dynamic character, and highlights the presence of varyingly stable structural elements within the IDRs. We discuss the implications of the structural properties of HMPV P for the assembly and functioning of the viral transcription/replication machinery.

Functional organization of cytoplasmic inclusion bodies in cells infected by respiratory syncytial virus

Infection of cells by respiratory syncytial virus induces the formation of cytoplasmic inclusion bodies (IBs) where all the components of the viral RNA polymerase complex are concentrated. However, the exact organization and function of these IBs remain unclear. In this study, we use conventional and super-resolution imaging to dissect the internal structure of IBs. We observe that newly synthetized viral mRNA and the viral transcription anti-terminator M2-1 concentrate in IB sub-compartments, which we term “IB-associated granules” (IBAGs). In contrast, viral genomic RNA, the nucleoprotein, the L polymerase and its cofactor P are excluded from IBAGs. Live imaging reveals that IBAGs are highly dynamic structures. Our data show that IBs are the main site of viral RNA synthesis. They further suggest that shortly after synthesis in IBs, viral mRNAs and M2-1 transiently concentrate in IBAGs before reaching the cytosol and suggest a novel post-transcriptional function for M2-1.

Respiratory syncytial virus (RSV) induces formation of inclusion bodies (IBs) sheltering viral RNA synthesis. Here, Rincheval et al. identify highly dynamic IB-associated granules (IBAGs) that accumulate newly synthetized viral mRNA and the viral M2-1 protein but exclude viral genomic RNA and RNA polymerase complexes.

Functional correlations of respiratory syncytial virus proteins to intrinsic disorder

Protein intrinsic disorder is an important characteristic demonstrated by the absence of higher order structure, and is commonly detected in multifunctional proteins encoded by RNA viruses. Intrinsically disordered regions (IDRs) of proteins exhibit high flexibility and solvent accessibility, which permit several distinct protein functions, including but not limited to binding of multiple partners and accessibility for post-translational modifications. IDR-containing viral proteins can therefore execute various functional roles to enable productive viral replication. Respiratory syncytial virus (RSV) is a globally circulating, non-segmented, negative sense (NNS) RNA virus that causes severe lower respiratory infections. In this study, we performed a comprehensive evaluation of predicted intrinsic disorder of the RSV proteome to better understand the functional role of RSV protein IDRs. We included 27 RSV strains to sample major RSV subtypes and genotypes, as well as geographic and temporal isolate differences. Several types of disorder predictions were applied to the RSV proteome, including per-residue (PONDR®-FIT and PONDR® VL-XT), binary (CH, CDF, CH-CDF), and disorder-based interactions (ANCHOR and MoRFpred). We classified RSV IDRs by size, frequency and function. Finally, we determined the functional implications of RSV IDRs by mapping predicted IDRs to known functional domains of each protein. Identification of RSV IDRs within functional domains improves our understanding of RSV pathogenesis in addition to providing potential therapeutic targets. Furthermore, this approach can be applied to other NNS viruses that encode essential multifunctional proteins for the elucidation of viral protein regions that can be manipulated for attenuation of viral replication.

Filovirus proteins for antiviral drug discovery: Structure/function bases of the replication cycle

Filoviruses are important pathogens that cause severe and often fatal hemorrhagic fever in humans, for which no approved vaccines and antiviral treatments are yet available. In an earlier article (Martin et al., Antiviral Research, 2016), we reviewed the role of the filovirus surface glycoprotein in replication and as a target for drugs and vaccines. In this review, we focus on recent findings on the filovirus replication machinery and how they could be used for the identification of new therapeutic targets and the development of new antiviral compounds. First, we summarize the recent structural and functional advances on the molecules involved in filovirus replication/transcription cycle, particularly the NP, VP30, VP35 proteins, and the "large" protein L, which harbors the RNA-dependent RNA polymerase (RdRp) and mRNA capping activities. These proteins are essential for viral mRNA synthesis and genome replication, and consequently they constitute attractive targets for drug design. We then describe how these insights into filovirus replication mechanisms and the structure/function characterization of the involved proteins have led to the development of new and innovative antiviral strategies that may help reduce the filovirus disease case fatality rate through post-exposure or prophylactic treatments.

Genetic stability of genome-scale deoptimized RNA virus vaccine candidates under selective pressure

Recoding viral genomes by numerous synonymous but suboptimal substitutions provides live attenuated vaccine candidates. These vaccine candidates should have a low risk of deattenuation because of the many changes involved. However, their genetic stability under selective pressure is largely unknown. We evaluated phenotypic reversion of deoptimized human respiratory syncytial virus (RSV) vaccine candidates in the context of strong selective pressure. Codon pair deoptimized (CPD) versions of RSV were attenuated and temperature-sensitive. During serial passage at progressively increasing temperature, a CPD RSV containing 2,692 synonymous mutations in 9 of 11 ORFs did not lose temperature sensitivity, remained genetically stable, and was restricted at temperatures of 34 °C/35 °C and above. However, a CPD RSV containing 1,378 synonymous mutations solely in the polymerase L ORF quickly lost substantial attenuation. Comprehensive sequence analysis of virus populations identified many different potentially deattenuating mutations in the L ORF as well as, surprisingly, many appearing in other ORFs. Phenotypic analysis revealed that either of two competing mutations in the virus transcription antitermination factor M2-1, outside of the CPD area, substantially reversed defective transcription of the CPD L gene and substantially restored virus fitness in vitro and in case of one of these two mutations, also in vivo. Paradoxically, the introduction into Min L of one mutation each in the M2-1, N, P, and L proteins resulted in a virus with increased attenuation in vivo but increased immunogenicity. Thus, in addition to providing insights on the adaptability of genome-scale deoptimized RNA viruses, stability studies can yield improved synthetic RNA virus vaccine candidates.

Biophysical characterization of the interaction between M2-1 protein of hRSV and quercetin

hRSV is the major causative agent of acute respiratory infections. Among its eleven proteins, M2-1 is a transcription antiterminator, making it an interesting target for antivirals. Quercetin is a flavonol which inhibits some virus infectivity and replication. In the present work, the M2-1 gene was cloned, expressed and the protein was purified. Thermal stability and secondary structure were analyzed by circular dichroism and the interaction with Quercetin was evaluated by fluorescence spectroscopy. Molecular docking experiments were performed to understand this mechanism of interaction. The purified protein is mainly composed of α-helix, with a melting temperature of 328.6K (≈55°C). M2-1 titration with Quercetin showed it interacts with two sites, one with a strong constant association K1 (site 1≈1.5×10⁶M^-1) by electrostatic interactions, and another with a weak constant association K2 (site 2≈1.1×10⁵M^-1) by a hydrophobic interaction. Ligand's docking shows it interacts with the N-terminus face in a more polar pocket and, between the domains of oligomerization and RNA and P protein interaction, in a more hydrophobic pocket, as predicted by experimental data. Therefore, we postulated this ligand could be interacting with important domains of the protein, avoiding viral replication and budding.

Viruslike Particles Encapsidating Respiratory Syncytial Virus M and M2 Proteins Induce Robust T Cell Responses

Subunit vaccines provide a safe, focused alternative to conventional vaccines. However, these vaccines often require significant adjuvants and are particularly hard to target toward cytotoxic T lymphocyte (CTL) immunity. Viruslike particles (VLPs) provide biomaterial scaffolds with pathogen-like polyvalent structures making them useful platforms for biomimetic antigen delivery to the immune system. Encapsidation of antigens within VLPs has been shown to enhance antigen availability for CD8 T cell responses. Here, we examine the potential to generate complex responses to multiple subunit antigens localized within the same VLP particle. Two proteins of respiratory syncytial virus (RSV) with well-characterized CD8 T cell responses, the matrix (M) and matrix 2 (M2) proteins, were successfully coencapsidated within the P22 VLP. Upon intranasal administration in mice, the particles stimulated CD8 T cell memory responses against both antigens. In addition, vaccination elicited tissue-resident T cell populations. Upon subsequent RSV challenge, P22-M/M2-treated mice displayed significantly reduced lung viral titers. This demonstrates the utility of the P22 VLP in directing immune responses to multiple encapsidated viral antigens, demonstrating the potential of this technology to facilitate immunity to multiple targets simultaneously.

Nonsegmented Negative-Sense RNA Viruses-Structural Data Bring New Insights Into Nucleocapsid Assembly

Viruses with a nonsegmented negative-sense RNA genome (NNVs) include important human pathogens as well as life-threatening zoonotic viruses. These viruses share a common RNA replication complex, including the genomic RNA and three proteins, the nucleoprotein (N), the phosphoprotein (P), and the RNA-dependent RNA polymerase (L). During genome replication, the RNA polymerase complex first synthesizes positive-sense antigenomes, which in turn serve as template for the production of negative-sense progeny genomes. These newly synthesized antigenomic and genomic RNAs must be encapsidated by N, and the source of soluble, RNA-free N, competent for the encapsidation is a complex between N and P, named the N⁰-P complex. In this review, we summarize recent progress made in the structural characterization of the different components of this peculiar RNA polymerase machinery. We discuss common features and replication strategies and highlight idiosyncrasies encountered in different viruses, along with the key role of the dual ordered/disordered architecture of protein components and the dynamics of the viral polymerase machinery. In particular, we focus on the N⁰-P complex and its role in the nucleocapsid assembly process. These new results provide evidence that the mechanism of NC assembly is conserved between the different families and thus support a divergent evolution from a common ancestor. In addition, the successful inhibition of infection due to different NNVs by peptides derived from P suggests that the mechanism of NC assembly is a potential target for antiviral development.

New antiviral approaches for respiratory syncytial virus and other mononegaviruses: Inhibiting the RNA polymerase

Worldwide, respiratory syncytial virus (RSV) causes severe disease in infants, the elderly, and immunocompromised people. No vaccine or effective antiviral treatment is available. RSV is a member of the non-segmented, negative-strand (NNS) group of RNA viruses and relies on its RNA-dependent RNA polymerase to transcribe and replicate its genome. Because of its essential nature and unique properties, the RSV polymerase has proven to be a good target for antiviral drugs, with one compound, ALS-8176, having already achieved clinical proof-of-concept efficacy in a human challenge study. In this article, we first provide an overview of the role of the RSV polymerase in viral mRNA transcription and genome replication. We then review past and current approaches to inhibiting the RSV polymerase, including use of nucleoside analogs and non-nucleoside inhibitors. Finally, we consider polymerase inhibitors that hold promise for treating infections with other NNS RNA viruses, including measles and Ebola.

RNA Binding of Ebola Virus VP30 Is Essential for Activating Viral Transcription

The template for Ebola virus (EBOV) transcription and replication is the helical viral nucleocapsid composed of the viral negative-sense (-) RNA genome, which is complexed by the nucleoprotein (NP), VP35, polymerase L, VP24, and VP30. While viral replication is exerted by polymerase L and its cofactor VP35, EBOV mRNA synthesis is regulated by the viral nucleocapsid protein VP30, an essential EBOV-specific transcription factor. VP30 is a homohexameric phosphoprotein containing a nonconventional zinc finger. The transcriptional support activity of VP30 is strongly influenced by its phosphorylation state. We studied here how RNA binding contributed to VP30's function in transcriptional activation. Using a novel mobility shift assay and the 3'-terminal 154 nucleotides of the EBOV genome as a standard RNA substrate, we detected that RNA binding of VP30 was severely impaired by VP30 mutations that (i) destroy the protein's capability to form homohexamers, (ii) disrupt the integrity of its zinc finger domain, (iii) mimic its fully phosphorylated state, or (iv) alter the putative RNA binding region. RNA binding of the mutant VP30 proteins correlated strongly with their transcriptional support activity. Furthermore, we showed that the interaction between VP30 and the polymerase cofactor VP35 is RNA dependent, while formation of VP30 homohexamers and VP35 homotetramers is not. Our data indicate that RNA binding of VP30 is essential for its transcriptional support activity and stabilizes complexes of VP35/L polymerase with the (-) RNA template to favor productive transcriptional initiation in the presence of termination-active RNA secondary structures.

IMPORTANCE

Ebola virus causes severe fevers with unusually high case fatality rates. The recent outbreak of Ebola virus in West Africa claimed more than 11,000 lives and threatened to destabilize a whole region because of its dramatic effects on the public health systems. It is currently not completely understood how Ebola virus manages to balance viral transcription and replication in the infected cells. This study shows that transcriptional support activity of the Ebola virus transcription factor VP30 is highly correlated with its ability to bind viral RNA. The interaction between VP30 and VP35, the Ebola virus polymerase cofactor, is dependent on the presence of RNA as well. Our data contribute to the understanding of the dynamic interplay between nucleocapsid proteins and the viral RNA template in order to promote viral RNA synthesis.

Phosphorylation of Human Metapneumovirus M2-1 Protein Upregulates Viral Replication and Pathogenesis

Human metapneumovirus (hMPV) is a major causative agent of upper- and lower-respiratory-tract infections in infants, the elderly, and immunocompromised individuals worldwide. Like all pneumoviruses, hMPV encodes the zinc binding protein M2-1, which plays important regulatory roles in RNA synthesis. The M2-1 protein is phosphorylated, but the specific role(s) of the phosphorylation in viral replication and pathogenesis remains unknown. In this study, we found that hMPV M2-1 is phosphorylated at amino acid residues S57 and S60. Subsequent mutagenesis found that phosphorylation is not essential for zinc binding activity and oligomerization, whereas inhibition of zinc binding activity abolished the phosphorylation and oligomerization of the M2-1 protein. Using a reverse genetics system, recombinant hMPVs (rhMPVs) lacking either one or both phosphorylation sites in the M2-1 protein were recovered. These recombinant viruses had a significant decrease in both genomic RNA replication and mRNA transcription. In addition, these recombinant viruses were highly attenuated in cell culture and cotton rats. Importantly, rhMPVs lacking phosphorylation in the M2-1 protein triggered high levels of neutralizing antibody and provided complete protection against challenge with wild-type hMPV. Collectively, these data demonstrated that phosphorylation of the M2-1 protein upregulates hMPV RNA synthesis, replication, and pathogenesis in vivo

IMPORTANCE

The pneumoviruses include many important human and animal pathogens, such as human respiratory syncytial virus (hRSV), hMPV, bovine RSV, and avian metapneumovirus (aMPV). Among these viruses, hRSV and hMPV are the leading causes of acute respiratory tract infection in infants and children. Currently, there is no antiviral or vaccine to combat these diseases. All known pneumoviruses encode a zinc binding protein, M2-1, which is a transcriptional antitermination factor. In this work, we found that phosphorylation of M2-1 is essential for virus replication and pathogenesis in vivo Recombinant hMPVs lacking phosphorylation in M2-1 exhibited limited replication in the upper and lower respiratory tract and triggered strong protective immunity in cotton rats. This work highlights the important role of M2-1 phosphorylation in viral replication and that inhibition of M2-1 phosphorylation may serve as a novel approach to develop live attenuated vaccines as well as antiviral drugs for pneumoviruses.

RNA binding specificity of Ebola virus transcription factor VP30

The transcription factor VP30 of the non-segmented RNA negative strand Ebola virus balances viral transcription and replication. Here, we comprehensively studied RNA binding by VP30. Using a novel VP30:RNA electrophoretic mobility shift assay, we tested truncated variants of 2 potential natural RNA substrates of VP30 - the genomic Ebola viral 3'-leader region and its complementary antigenomic counterpart (each ∼155 nt in length) - and a series of other non-viral RNAs. Based on oligonucleotide interference, the major VP30 binding region on the genomic 3'-leader substrate was assigned to the internal expanded single-stranded region (∼ nt 125-80). Best binding to VP30 was obtained with ssRNAs of optimally ∼ 40 nt and mixed base composition; underrepresentation of purines or pyrimidines was tolerated, but homopolymeric sequences impaired binding. A stem-loop structure, particularly at the 3'-end or positioned internally, supports stable binding to VP30. In contrast, dsRNA or RNAs exposing large internal loops flanked by entirely helical arms on both sides are not bound. Introduction of a 5´-Cap(0) structure impaired VP30 binding. Also, ssDNAs bind substantially weaker than isosequential ssRNAs and heparin competes with RNA for binding to VP30, indicating that ribose 2'-hydroxyls and electrostatic contacts of the phosphate groups contribute to the formation of VP30:RNA complexes. Our results indicate a rather relaxed RNA binding specificity of filoviral VP30, which largely differs from that of the functionally related transcription factor of the Paramyxoviridae which binds to ssRNAs as short as 13 nt with a preference for oligo(A) sequences.

Targeting human respiratory syncytial virus transcription anti-termination factor M2-1 to inhibit in vivo viral replication

Human respiratory syncytial virus (hRSV) is a leading cause of acute lower respiratory tract infection in infants, elderly and immunocompromised individuals. To date, no specific antiviral drug is available to treat or prevent this disease. Here, we report that the Smoothened receptor (Smo) antagonist cyclopamine acts as a potent and selective inhibitor of in vitro and in vivo hRSV replication. Cyclopamine inhibits hRSV through a novel, Smo-independent mechanism. It specifically impairs the function of the hRSV RNA-dependent RNA polymerase complex notably by reducing expression levels of the viral anti-termination factor M2-1. The relevance of these findings is corroborated by the demonstration that a single R151K mutation in M2-1 is sufficient to confer virus resistance to cyclopamine in vitro and that cyclopamine is able to reduce virus titers in a mouse model of hRSV infection. The results of our study open a novel avenue for the development of future therapies against hRSV infection.

Dynamic Phosphorylation of VP30 Is Essential for Ebola Virus Life Cycle

Ebola virus is the causative agent of a severe fever with high fatality rates in humans and nonhuman primates. The regulation of Ebola virus transcription and replication currently is not well understood. An important factor regulating viral transcription is VP30, an Ebola virus-specific transcription factor associated with the viral nucleocapsid. Previous studies revealed that the phosphorylation status of VP30 impacts viral transcription. Together with NP, L, and the polymerase cofactor VP35, nonphosphorylated VP30 supports viral transcription. Upon VP30 phosphorylation, viral transcription ceases. Phosphorylation weakens the interaction between VP30 and the polymerase cofactor VP35 and/or the viral RNA. VP30 thereby is excluded from the viral transcription complex, simultaneously leading to increased viral replication which is supported by NP, L, and VP35 alone. Here, we use an infectious virus-like particle assay and recombinant viruses to show that the dynamic phosphorylation of VP30 is critical for the cotransport of VP30 with nucleocapsids to the sites of viral RNA synthesis, where VP30 is required to initiate primary viral transcription. We further demonstrate that a single serine residue at amino acid position 29 was sufficient to render VP30 active in primary transcription and to generate a recombinant virus with characteristics comparable to those of wild-type virus. In contrast, the rescue of a recombinant virus with a single serine at position 30 in VP30 was unsuccessful. Our results indicate critical roles for phosphorylated and dephosphorylated VP30 during the viral life cycle.

IMPORTANCE

The current Ebola virus outbreak in West Africa has caused more than 28,000 cases and 11,000 fatalities. Very little is known regarding the molecular mechanisms of how the Ebola virus transcribes and replicates its genome. Previous investigations showed that the transcriptional support activity of VP30 is activated upon VP30 dephosphorylation. The current study reveals that the situation is more complex and that primary transcription as well as the rescue of recombinant Ebola virus also requires the transient phosphorylation of VP30. VP30 encodes six N-proximal serine residues that serve as phosphorylation acceptor sites. The present study shows that the dynamic phosphorylation of serine at position 29 alone is sufficient to activate primary viral transcription. Our results indicate a series of phosphorylation/dephosphorylation events that trigger binding to and release from the nucleocapsid and transcription complex to be essential for the full activity of VP30.

Structure-guided design of small-molecule therapeutics against RSV disease

INTRODUCTION

In the United States, respiratory syncytial virus (RSV) is responsible for the majority of infant hospitalizations resulting from viral infections, as well as a leading source of pneumonia and bronchiolitis in young children and the elderly. In the absence of vaccine prophylaxis or an effective antiviral for improved disease management, the development of novel anti-RSV therapeutics is critical. Several advanced drug development campaigns of the past decade have focused on blocking viral infection. These efforts have returned a chemically distinct panel of small-molecule RSV entry inhibitors, but binding sites and molecular mechanism of action appeared to share a common mechanism, resulting in comprehensive cross-resistance and calling for alternative druggable targets such as viral RNA-dependent RNA-polymerase complex. Areas Covered: In this review, the authors discuss the current status of the mechanism of action of RSV entry inhibitors. They also provide the recent structural insight into the organization of the polymerase complex that have revealed novel drug targets sites, and outline a path towards the discovery of next-generation RSV therapeutics. Expert opinion: Considering the tremendous progress experienced in our structural understanding of RSV biology in recent years and encouraging early results of a nucleoside analog inhibitor in clinical trials, there is high prospect that new generations of much needed effective anti-RSV therapeutics will become available for clinical use in the foreseeable future.

In silico structure-based design and synthesis of novel anti-RSV compounds

Respiratory syncytial virus (RSV) is the major cause for respiratory tract disease in infants and young children. Currently, no licensed vaccine or a selective antiviral drug against RSV infections are available. Here, we describe a structure-based drug design approach that led to the synthesis of a novel series of zinc-ejecting compounds active against RSV replication. 30 compounds, sharing a common dithiocarbamate moiety, were designed and prepared to target the zinc finger motif of the M2-1 protein. A library of ∼ 12,000 small fragments was docked to explore the area surrounding the zinc ion. Among these, seven ligands were selected and used for the preparation of the new derivatives. The results reported here may help the development of a lead compound for the treatment of RSV infections.

Predictive and comparative analysis of Ebolavirus proteins

Ebolavirus is the pathogen for Ebola Hemorrhagic Fever (EHF). This disease exhibits a high fatality rate and has recently reached a historically epidemic proportion in West Africa. Out of the 5 known Ebolavirus species, only Reston ebolavirus has lost human pathogenicity, while retaining the ability to cause EHF in long-tailed macaque. Significant efforts have been spent to determine the three-dimensional (3D) structures of Ebolavirus proteins, to study their interaction with host proteins, and to identify the functional motifs in these viral proteins. Here, in light of these experimental results, we apply computational analysis to predict the 3D structures and functional sites for Ebolavirus protein domains with unknown structure, including a zinc-finger domain of VP30, the RNA-dependent RNA polymerase catalytic domain and a methyltransferase domain of protein L. In addition, we compare sequences of proteins that interact with Ebolavirus proteins from RESTV-resistant primates with those from RESTV-susceptible monkeys. The host proteins that interact with GP and VP35 show an elevated level of sequence divergence between the RESTV-resistant and RESTV-susceptible species, suggesting that they may be responsible for host specificity. Meanwhile, we detect variable positions in protein sequences that are likely associated with the loss of human pathogenicity in RESTV, map them onto the 3D structures and compare their positions to known functional sites. VP35 and VP30 are significantly enriched in these potential pathogenicity determinants and the clustering of such positions on the surfaces of VP35 and GP suggests possible uncharacterized interaction sites with host proteins that contribute to the virulence of Ebolavirus.

Zinc binding activity of human metapneumovirus M2-1 protein is indispensable for viral replication and pathogenesis in vivo

Human metapneumovirus (hMPV) is a member of the Pneumovirinae subfamily in the Paramyxoviridae family that causes respiratory tract infections in humans. Unlike members of the Paramyxovirinae subfamily, the polymerase complex of pneumoviruses requires an additional cofactor, the M2-1 protein, which functions as a transcriptional antitermination factor. The M2-1 protein was found to incorporate zinc ions, although the specific role(s) of the zinc binding activity in viral replication and pathogenesis remains unknown. In this study, we found that the third cysteine (C21) and the last histidine (H25) in the zinc binding motif (CCCH) of hMPV M2-1 were essential for zinc binding activity, whereas the first two cysteines (C7 and C15) play only minor or redundant roles in zinc binding. In addition, the zinc binding motif is essential for the oligomerization of M2-1. Subsequently, recombinant hMPVs (rhMPVs) carrying mutations in the zinc binding motif were recovered. Interestingly, rhMPV-C21S and -H25L mutants, which lacked zinc binding activity, had delayed replication in cell culture and were highly attenuated in cotton rats. In contrast, rhMPV-C7S and -C15S strains, which retained 60% of the zinc binding activity, replicated as efficiently as rhMPV in cotton rats. Importantly, rhMPVs that lacked zinc binding activity triggered high levels of neutralizing antibody and provided complete protection against challenge with rhMPV. Taken together, these results demonstrate that zinc binding activity is indispensable for viral replication and pathogenesis in vivo. These results also suggest that inhibition of zinc binding activity may serve as a novel approach to rationally attenuate hMPV and perhaps other pneumoviruses for vaccine purposes.

IMPORTANCE

The pneumoviruses include many important human and animal pathogens, such as human respiratory syncytial virus (hRSV), hMPV, bovine RSV, and avian metapneumovirus (aMPV). Among these viruses, hRSV and hMPV are the leading causes of acute respiratory tract infection in infants and children. Despite major efforts, there is no antiviral or vaccine to combat these diseases. All known pneumoviruses encode a zinc binding protein, M2-1, which is a transcriptional antitermination factor. In this work, we found that the zinc binding activity of M2-1 is essential for virus replication and pathogenesis in vivo. Recombinant hMPVs that lacked zinc binding activity were not only defective in replication in the upper and lower respiratory tract but also triggered a strong protective immunity in cotton rats. Thus, inhibition of M2-1 zinc binding activity can lead to the development of novel, live attenuated vaccines, as well as antiviral drugs for pneumoviruses.

Impact of phosphomimetic and non-phosphorylatable mutations of phospholemman on L-type calcium channels gating in HEK 293T cells

BACKGROUND

Phospholemman (PLM) is an important phosphorylation substrate for protein kinases A and C in the heart. Until now, the association between PLM phosphorylation status and L-type calcium channels (LTCCs) gating has not been fully understood. We investigated the kinetics of LTCCs in HEK 293T cells expressing phosphomimetic or nonphosphorylatable PLM mutants.

METHODS

The LTCCs gating was measured in HEK 293T cells transfected with LTCC and wild-type (WT) PLM, phosphomimetic or nonphosphorylatable PLM mutants: 6263AA, 6869AA, AAAA, 6263DD, 6869DD or DDDD.

RESULTS

WT PLM significantly slowed LTCCs activation and deactivation while enhanced voltage-dependent inactivation (VDI). PLM mutants 6869DD and DDDD significantly increased the peak of the currents. 6263DD accelerated channel activation, while 6263AA slowed it more than WT PLM. 6869DD significantly enhanced PLM-induced increase of VDI. AAAA slowed the channel activation more than 6263AA, and DDDD accelerated the channel VDI more than 6869DD.

CONCLUSIONS

Our results demonstrate that phosphomimetic PLM could stimulate LTCCs and alter their dynamics, while PLM nonphosphorylatable mutant produced the opposite effects.