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Wellford SA, Moseman EA. Olfactory immunology: the missing piece in airway and CNS defence. Nat Rev Immunol 2024; 24:381-398. [PMID: 38097777 DOI: 10.1038/s41577-023-00972-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 11/03/2023] [Indexed: 12/23/2023]
Abstract
The olfactory mucosa is a component of the nasal airway that mediates the sense of smell. Recent studies point to an important role for the olfactory mucosa as a barrier to both respiratory pathogens and to neuroinvasive pathogens that hijack the olfactory nerve and invade the CNS. In particular, the COVID-19 pandemic has demonstrated that the olfactory mucosa is an integral part of a heterogeneous nasal mucosal barrier critical to upper airway immunity. However, our insufficient knowledge of olfactory mucosal immunity hinders attempts to protect this tissue from infection and other diseases. This Review summarizes the state of olfactory immunology by highlighting the unique immunologically relevant anatomy of the olfactory mucosa, describing what is known of olfactory immune cells, and considering the impact of common infectious diseases and inflammatory disorders at this site. We will offer our perspective on the future of the field and the many unresolved questions pertaining to olfactory immunity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sebastian A Wellford
- Department of Integrative Immunobiology, Duke University School of Medicine, Durham, NC, USA
| | - E Ashley Moseman
- Department of Integrative Immunobiology, Duke University School of Medicine, Durham, NC, USA.
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2
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Shiga T, Kono M, Murakami D, Sakatani H, Ogura K, Hotomi M. Traditional Japanese herbal medicine Hochuekkito protects development of sepsis after nasal colonization in mice. J Infect Chemother 2024:S1341-321X(24)00123-5. [PMID: 38677389 DOI: 10.1016/j.jiac.2024.04.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/20/2023] [Revised: 04/01/2024] [Accepted: 04/24/2024] [Indexed: 04/29/2024]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION Streptococcus pneumoniae, a commensal in the nasopharynx, can cause invasive pneumococcal diseases (IPDs). To prevent the aggravation of IPDs, it is important to enhance host immune defense against S. pneumoniae. Hochuekkito (HET) is expected to have an immunostimulatory effect against infections. METHODS HET was administrated by gavage to adult BALB/cA mice before and after intranasal inoculation of S. pneumoniae. We evaluated the effect of HET on pneumococcal nasal colonization and subsequent development of lethal pneumococcal infections. RESULTS No effect on nasal colonization was observed, but HET significantly reduced bacterial count in the blood, decreased the incidence of bacteremia, and improved survival. HET also reduced nasal tissue damage 3 days after intranasal infection. Neutrophils from HET-treated mice showed significantly higher bactericidal activity against S. pneumoniae in the presence of the serum from the HET group compared with from the control group. CONCLUSIONS The non-specific immunostimulatory effect of HET is suggested by this study to be effective in preventing the progression in IPDs and provided insights into novel strategy in the post-pneumococcal vaccine era.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tatsuya Shiga
- Department of Otorhinolaryngology-Head and Neck Surgery, Wakayama Medical University, Kimiidera 811-1 Wakayama-shi, 641-8509, Wakayama, Japan
| | - Masamitsu Kono
- Department of Otorhinolaryngology-Head and Neck Surgery, Wakayama Medical University, Kimiidera 811-1 Wakayama-shi, 641-8509, Wakayama, Japan
| | - Daichi Murakami
- Department of Otorhinolaryngology-Head and Neck Surgery, Wakayama Medical University, Kimiidera 811-1 Wakayama-shi, 641-8509, Wakayama, Japan
| | - Hideki Sakatani
- Department of Otorhinolaryngology-Head and Neck Surgery, Wakayama Medical University, Kimiidera 811-1 Wakayama-shi, 641-8509, Wakayama, Japan
| | - Keisuke Ogura
- Tsumura Kampo Research Laboratories, Kampo Research & Development Division, Tsumura & Co., 3586 Yoshiwara, Ami-machi, Inashiki-gun, 300-1192, Ibaraki, Japan
| | - Muneki Hotomi
- Department of Otorhinolaryngology-Head and Neck Surgery, Wakayama Medical University, Kimiidera 811-1 Wakayama-shi, 641-8509, Wakayama, Japan.
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3
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Gioacchini FM, Ferlito S, Ralli M, Scarpa A, La Mantia I, Re M, Romani L, Di Stadio A. Nasal Microbiota and Neuroinflammation: Relationship between Nasal Flora and Multiple Sclerosis Onset/Progression. LIFE (BASEL, SWITZERLAND) 2022; 12:life12122043. [PMID: 36556408 PMCID: PMC9788357 DOI: 10.3390/life12122043] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/12/2022] [Revised: 11/29/2022] [Accepted: 12/05/2022] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
The role of nasal microbiota in contributing to neuroinflammation is gradually emerging. Multiple sclerosis and chronic rhinosinusitis share important clinical and epidemiological similarities, and the hypothetical connection among these two pathological entities should be carefully investigated. This editorial is based on a review of available literature on this topic. The main international databases were searched using the following keywords: neuroinflammation, nasal microbiota, multiple sclerosis, chronic rhino-sinusal disorders, chronic sinusitis. Four fully-consistent articles that investigated nasal microbiota alteration and/or chronic rhinosinusitis presence in subjects affected by multiple sclerosis were identified. Overall, these studies showed a significant connection between nasal microbiota dysbiosis and the presence of multiple sclerosis. New specific studies to analyze the nasal microbiota and its metabolism in patients affected by multiple sclerosis should be performed. In fact, a series of treatments able to change this flora could improve the rhino-sinusal state with consequent reduction of recurrent episodes of neuro-inflammation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Federico Maria Gioacchini
- ENT Unit, Department of Clinical and Molecular Sciences, Polytechnic University of Marche, 60121 Ancona, Italy
| | - Salvatore Ferlito
- GF Ingrassia Department, Otolaryngology, University of Catania, 95124 Catania, Italy
| | - Massimo Ralli
- Organ of Sense Department, University La Sapienza of Rome, 00185 Roma, Italy
| | - Alfonso Scarpa
- Otolaryngology Department, University of Salerno, 84084 Fisciano, Italy
| | - Ignazio La Mantia
- GF Ingrassia Department, Otolaryngology, University of Catania, 95124 Catania, Italy
| | - Massimo Re
- ENT Unit, Department of Clinical and Molecular Sciences, Polytechnic University of Marche, 60121 Ancona, Italy
| | - Luigina Romani
- Microbiology Department, University of Perugia, 06123 Perugia, Italy
| | - Arianna Di Stadio
- GF Ingrassia Department, Otolaryngology, University of Catania, 95124 Catania, Italy
- Correspondence: or
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4
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Streptococcus pneumoniae Rapidly Translocate from the Nasopharynx through the Cribriform Plate to Invade the Outer Meninges. mBio 2022; 13:e0102422. [PMID: 35924840 PMCID: PMC9426477 DOI: 10.1128/mbio.01024-22] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
The entry routes and translocation mechanisms of microorganisms or particulate materials into the central nervous system remain obscure We report here that Streptococcus pneumoniae (pneumococcus), or polystyrene microspheres of similar size, appear in the meninges of the dorsal cortex of mice within minutes of inhaled delivery. Recovery of viable bacteria from dissected tissue and fluorescence microscopy show that up to at least 72 h, pneumococci and microspheres were predominantly found in the outer of the two meninges: the pachymeninx. No pneumococci were found in blood or cerebrospinal fluid. Intravital imaging through the skull, aligned with flow cytometry showed recruitment and activation of LysM+ cells in the dorsal pachymeninx at 5 and 10 hours following intranasal infection. Imaging of the cribriform plate suggested that both pneumococci and microspheres entered through the foramina via an inward flow of fluid connecting the nose to the pachymeninx. Our findings bring new insight into the varied mechanisms of pneumococcal invasion of the central nervous system, but they are also pertinent to the delivery of drugs to the brain and the entry of airborne particulate matter into the cranium.
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Agnew HN, Brazel EB, Tikhomirova A, van der Linden M, McLean KT, Paton JC, Trappetti C. Streptococcus pneumoniae Strains Isolated From a Single Pediatric Patient Display Distinct Phenotypes. Front Cell Infect Microbiol 2022; 12:866259. [PMID: 35433506 PMCID: PMC9008571 DOI: 10.3389/fcimb.2022.866259] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/31/2022] [Accepted: 03/08/2022] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Streptococcus pneumoniae is the leading cause of bacterial paediatric meningitis after the neonatal period worldwide, but the bacterial factors and pathophysiology that drive pneumococcal meningitis are not fully understood. In this work, we have identified differences in raffinose utilization by S. pneumoniae isolates of identical serotype and sequence type from the blood and cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) of a single pediatric patient with meningitis. The blood isolate displayed defective raffinose metabolism, reduced transcription of the raffinose utilization pathway genes, and an inability to grow in vitro when raffinose was the sole carbon source. The fitness of these strains was then assessed using a murine intranasal infection model. Compared with the CSF isolate, mice infected with the blood isolate displayed higher bacterial numbers in the nose, but this strain was unable to invade the ears of infected mice. A premature stop codon was identified in the aga gene in the raffinose locus, suggesting that this protein likely displays impaired alpha-galactosidase activity. These closely related strains were assessed by Illumina sequencing, which did not identify any single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) between the two strains. However, these wider genomic analyses identified the presence of an alternative alpha-galactosidase gene that appeared to display altered sequence coverage between the strains, which may account for the observed differences in raffinose metabolic capacity. Together, these studies support previous findings that raffinose utilization capacity contributes to disease progression, and provide insight into a possible alternative means by which perturbation of this pathway may influence the behavior of pneumococci in the host environment, particularly in meningitis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hannah N. Agnew
- Research Centre for Infectious Diseases, Department of Molecular and Biomedical Science, The University of Adelaide, Adelaide, SAAustralia
| | - Erin B. Brazel
- Research Centre for Infectious Diseases, Department of Molecular and Biomedical Science, The University of Adelaide, Adelaide, SAAustralia
| | - Alexandra Tikhomirova
- Research Centre for Infectious Diseases, Department of Molecular and Biomedical Science, The University of Adelaide, Adelaide, SAAustralia
| | - Mark van der Linden
- German National Reference Center for Streptoccocci, University Hospital Rheinisch-Westfälische Technische Hochschule (RWTH) Aachen, Aachen, Germany
| | - Kimberley T. McLean
- Research Centre for Infectious Diseases, Department of Molecular and Biomedical Science, The University of Adelaide, Adelaide, SAAustralia
| | - James C. Paton
- Research Centre for Infectious Diseases, Department of Molecular and Biomedical Science, The University of Adelaide, Adelaide, SAAustralia
- *Correspondence: Claudia Trappetti, ; James C. Paton,
| | - Claudia Trappetti
- Research Centre for Infectious Diseases, Department of Molecular and Biomedical Science, The University of Adelaide, Adelaide, SAAustralia
- *Correspondence: Claudia Trappetti, ; James C. Paton,
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Xie J, Tian S, Liu J, Cao R, Yue P, Cai X, Shang Q, Yang M, Han L, Zhang DK. Dual role of the nasal microbiota in neurological diseases—An unignorable risk factor or a potential therapy carrier. Pharmacol Res 2022; 179:106189. [DOI: 10.1016/j.phrs.2022.106189] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/13/2022] [Revised: 03/06/2022] [Accepted: 03/17/2022] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
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Chacko A, Delbaz A, Choudhury IN, Eindorf T, Shah M, Godfrey C, Sullivan MJ, St John JA, Ulett GC, Ekberg JAK. Streptococcus agalactiae Infects Glial Cells and Invades the Central Nervous System via the Olfactory and Trigeminal Nerves. Front Cell Infect Microbiol 2022; 12:793416. [PMID: 35281448 PMCID: PMC8907725 DOI: 10.3389/fcimb.2022.793416] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/12/2021] [Accepted: 02/07/2022] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Streptococcus agalactiae causes neonatal meningitis and can also infect the adult central nervous system (CNS). S. agalactiae can cross the blood-brain barrier but may also reach the CNS via other paths. Several species of bacteria can directly invade the CNS via the olfactory and trigeminal nerves, which extend between the nasal cavity and brain and injury to the nasal epithelium can increase the risk/severity of infection. Preterm birth is associated with increased risk of S. agalactiae infection and with nasogastric tube feeding. The tubes, also used in adults, can cause nasal injuries and may be contaminated with bacteria, including S. agalactiae. We here investigated whether S. agalactiae could invade the CNS after intranasal inoculation in mice. S. agalactiae rapidly infected the olfactory nerve and brain. Methimazole-mediated model of nasal epithelial injury led to increased bacterial load in these tissues, as well as trigeminal nerve infection. S. agalactiae infected and survived intracellularly in cultured olfactory/trigeminal nerve- and brain-derived glia, resulting in cytokine production, with some differences between glial types. Furthermore, a non-capsulated S. agalactiae was used to understand the role of capsule on glial cells interaction. Interestingly, we found that the S. agalactiae capsule significantly altered cytokine and chemokine responses and affected intracellular survival in trigeminal glia. In summary, this study shows that S. agalactiae can infect the CNS via the nose-to-brain path with increased load after epithelial injury, and that the bacteria can survive in glia.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anu Chacko
- Menzies Health Institute Queensland and School of Pharmacy and Medical Sciences, Griffith University, Southport, QLD, Australia
- Clem Jones Centre for Neurobiology and Stem Cell Research, Griffith University, Nathan, QLD, Australia
| | - Ali Delbaz
- Menzies Health Institute Queensland and School of Pharmacy and Medical Sciences, Griffith University, Southport, QLD, Australia
- Clem Jones Centre for Neurobiology and Stem Cell Research, Griffith University, Nathan, QLD, Australia
| | - Indra N. Choudhury
- Menzies Health Institute Queensland and School of Pharmacy and Medical Sciences, Griffith University, Southport, QLD, Australia
- Clem Jones Centre for Neurobiology and Stem Cell Research, Griffith University, Nathan, QLD, Australia
| | - Tanja Eindorf
- Menzies Health Institute Queensland and School of Pharmacy and Medical Sciences, Griffith University, Southport, QLD, Australia
- Clem Jones Centre for Neurobiology and Stem Cell Research, Griffith University, Nathan, QLD, Australia
| | - Megha Shah
- Menzies Health Institute Queensland and School of Pharmacy and Medical Sciences, Griffith University, Southport, QLD, Australia
- Clem Jones Centre for Neurobiology and Stem Cell Research, Griffith University, Nathan, QLD, Australia
| | - Christopher Godfrey
- Menzies Health Institute Queensland and School of Pharmacy and Medical Sciences, Griffith University, Southport, QLD, Australia
- Clem Jones Centre for Neurobiology and Stem Cell Research, Griffith University, Nathan, QLD, Australia
| | - Matthew J. Sullivan
- Menzies Health Institute Queensland and School of Pharmacy and Medical Sciences, Griffith University, Southport, QLD, Australia
| | - James A. St John
- Menzies Health Institute Queensland and School of Pharmacy and Medical Sciences, Griffith University, Southport, QLD, Australia
- Clem Jones Centre for Neurobiology and Stem Cell Research, Griffith University, Nathan, QLD, Australia
- Griffith Institute for Drug Discovery, Griffith University, Nathan, QLD, Australia
| | - Glen C. Ulett
- Menzies Health Institute Queensland and School of Pharmacy and Medical Sciences, Griffith University, Southport, QLD, Australia
| | - Jenny A. K. Ekberg
- Menzies Health Institute Queensland and School of Pharmacy and Medical Sciences, Griffith University, Southport, QLD, Australia
- Clem Jones Centre for Neurobiology and Stem Cell Research, Griffith University, Nathan, QLD, Australia
- Griffith Institute for Drug Discovery, Griffith University, Nathan, QLD, Australia
- *Correspondence: Jenny A. K. Ekberg,
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8
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Zheng K, He FB, Liu H, He Q. Genetic variations of toll-like receptors: Impact on susceptibility, severity and prognosis of bacterial meningitis. INFECTION GENETICS AND EVOLUTION 2021; 93:104984. [PMID: 34214672 DOI: 10.1016/j.meegid.2021.104984] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/26/2021] [Revised: 06/24/2021] [Accepted: 06/27/2021] [Indexed: 01/24/2023]
Abstract
Bacterial meningitis (BM) is a serious infectious disease of the central nervous system,which is mainly caused by Streptococcus pneumoniae, Neisseria meningitidis, Haemophilus influenzae, Group B Streptococcus and Listeria monocytogenes. Throughout the world, BM has become one of the most lethal diseases that commonly occurs in children. Toll like receptors (TLRs) are one of the most important immune defense lines in infectious diseases, and play an essential role in host defense. Accumulating evidence shows that genetic variations in TLRs are associated with host responses in BM. This review aims to summarize the role of different TLRs and their genetic variations in the susceptibility, severity and prognosis of BM and discuss the identified risk factors for better treatment and improvement of the course and outcome of BM.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kai Zheng
- Department of Medical Microbiology, Capital Medical University, Beijing 100069, China; Department of Neurorehabilitation, Wuxi Tongren Rehabilitation Hospital, Wuxi 214151, Jiangsu, China
| | - Felix B He
- Institute of Biomedicine, University of Turku, 20520 Turku, Finland
| | - Hongshan Liu
- Department of Medical Microbiology, Capital Medical University, Beijing 100069, China
| | - Qiushui He
- Department of Medical Microbiology, Capital Medical University, Beijing 100069, China; Institute of Biomedicine, University of Turku, 20520 Turku, Finland.
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9
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Nazareth L, St John J, Murtaza M, Ekberg J. Phagocytosis by Peripheral Glia: Importance for Nervous System Functions and Implications in Injury and Disease. Front Cell Dev Biol 2021; 9:660259. [PMID: 33898462 PMCID: PMC8060502 DOI: 10.3389/fcell.2021.660259] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/29/2021] [Accepted: 03/17/2021] [Indexed: 12/30/2022] Open
Abstract
The central nervous system (CNS) has very limited capacity to regenerate after traumatic injury or disease. In contrast, the peripheral nervous system (PNS) has far greater capacity for regeneration. This difference can be partly attributed to variances in glial-mediated functions, such as axon guidance, structural support, secretion of growth factors and phagocytic activity. Due to their growth-promoting characteristic, transplantation of PNS glia has been trialed for neural repair. After peripheral nerve injuries, Schwann cells (SCs, the main PNS glia) phagocytose myelin debris and attract macrophages to the injury site to aid in debris clearance. One peripheral nerve, the olfactory nerve, is unique in that it continuously regenerates throughout life. The olfactory nerve glia, olfactory ensheathing cells (OECs), are the primary phagocytes within this nerve, continuously clearing axonal debris arising from the normal regeneration of the nerve and after injury. In contrast to SCs, OECs do not appear to attract macrophages. SCs and OECs also respond to and phagocytose bacteria, a function likely critical for tackling microbial invasion of the CNS via peripheral nerves. However, phagocytosis is not always effective; inflammation, aging and/or genetic factors may contribute to compromised phagocytic activity. Here, we highlight the diverse roles of SCs and OECs with the focus on their phagocytic activity under physiological and pathological conditions. We also explore why understanding the contribution of peripheral glia phagocytosis may provide us with translational strategies for achieving axonal regeneration of the injured nervous system and potentially for the treatment of certain neurological diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lynn Nazareth
- Menzies Health Institute Queensland, Griffith University, Southport, QLD, Australia.,Clem Jones Centre for Neurobiology and Stem Cell Research, Griffith University, Nathan, QLD, Australia
| | - James St John
- Menzies Health Institute Queensland, Griffith University, Southport, QLD, Australia.,Clem Jones Centre for Neurobiology and Stem Cell Research, Griffith University, Nathan, QLD, Australia.,Griffith Institute for Drug Discovery, Griffith University, Nathan, QLD, Australia
| | - Mariyam Murtaza
- Menzies Health Institute Queensland, Griffith University, Southport, QLD, Australia.,Clem Jones Centre for Neurobiology and Stem Cell Research, Griffith University, Nathan, QLD, Australia.,Griffith Institute for Drug Discovery, Griffith University, Nathan, QLD, Australia
| | - Jenny Ekberg
- Menzies Health Institute Queensland, Griffith University, Southport, QLD, Australia.,Clem Jones Centre for Neurobiology and Stem Cell Research, Griffith University, Nathan, QLD, Australia.,Griffith Institute for Drug Discovery, Griffith University, Nathan, QLD, Australia
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Abstract
Purpose of review Community-acquired bacterial meningitis is a continually changing disease. This review summarises both dynamic epidemiology and emerging data on pathogenesis. Updated clinical guidelines are discussed, new agents undergoing clinical trials intended to reduce secondary brain damage are presented. Recent findings Conjugate vaccines are effective against serotype/serogroup-specific meningitis but vaccine escape variants are rising in prevalence. Meningitis occurs when bacteria evade mucosal and circulating immune responses and invade the brain: directly, or across the blood–brain barrier. Tissue damage is caused when host genetic susceptibility is exploited by bacterial virulence. The classical clinical triad of fever, neck stiffness and headache has poor diagnostic sensitivity, all guidelines reflect the necessity for a low index of suspicion and early Lumbar puncture. Unnecessary cranial imaging causes diagnostic delays. cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) culture and PCR are diagnostic, direct next-generation sequencing of CSF may revolutionise diagnostics. Administration of early antibiotics is essential to improve survival. Dexamethasone partially mitigates central nervous system inflammation in high-income settings. New agents in clinical trials include C5 inhibitors and daptomycin, data are expected in 2025. Summary Clinicians must remain vigilant for bacterial meningitis. Constantly changing epidemiology and emerging pathogenesis data are increasing the understanding of meningitis. Prospects for better treatments are forthcoming.
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Ali MQ, Kohler TP, Burchhardt G, Wüst A, Henck N, Bolsmann R, Voß F, Hammerschmidt S. Extracellular Pneumococcal Serine Proteases Affect Nasopharyngeal Colonization. Front Cell Infect Microbiol 2021; 10:613467. [PMID: 33659218 PMCID: PMC7917122 DOI: 10.3389/fcimb.2020.613467] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/02/2020] [Accepted: 12/30/2020] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Streptococcus pneumoniae has evolved versatile strategies to colonize the nasopharynx of humans. Colonization is facilitated by direct interactions with host cell receptors or via binding to components of the extracellular matrix. In addition, pneumococci hijack host-derived extracellular proteases such as the serine protease plasmin(ogen) for ECM and mucus degradation as well as colonization. S. pneumoniae expresses strain-dependent up to four serine proteases. In this study, we assessed the role of secreted or cell-bound serine proteases HtrA, PrtA, SFP, and CbpG, in adherence assays and in a mouse colonization model. We hypothesized that the redundancy of serine proteases compensates for the deficiency of a single enzyme. Therefore, double and triple mutants were generated in serotype 19F strain EF3030 and serotype 4 strain TIGR4. Strain EF3030 produces only three serine proteases and lacks the SFP encoding gene. In adherence studies using Detroit-562 epithelial cells, we demonstrated that both TIGR4Δcps and 19F mutants without serine proteases or expressing only CbpG, HtrA, or PrtA have a reduced ability to adhere to Detroit-562 cells. Consistent with these results, we show that the mutants of strain 19F, which preferentially colonizes mice, abrogate nasopharyngeal colonization in CD-1 mice after intranasal infection. The bacterial load in the nasopharynx was monitored for 14 days. Importantly, mutants showed significantly lower bacterial numbers in the nasopharynx two days after infection. Similarly, we detected a significantly reduced pneumococcal colonization on days 3, 7, and 14 post-inoculations. To assess the impact of pneumococcal serine proteases on acute infection, we infected mice intranasally with bioluminescent and invasive TIGR4 or isogenic triple mutants expressing only CbpG, HtrA, PrtA, or SFP. We imaged the acute lung infection in real-time and determined the survival of the mice. The TIGR4lux mutant expressing only PrtA showed a significant attenuation and was less virulent in the acute pneumonia model. In conclusion, our results showed that pneumococcal serine proteases contributed significantly to pneumococcal colonization but played only a minor role in pneumonia and invasive diseases. Because colonization is a prerequisite for invasive diseases and transmission, these enzymes could be promising candidates for the development of antimicrobials to reduce pneumococcal transmission.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | - Sven Hammerschmidt
- Department of Molecular Genetics and Infection Biology, Interfaculty Institute of Genetics and Functional Genomics, Center for Functional Genomics of Microbes, University of Greifswald, Greifswald, Germany
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12
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Jacques LC, Panagiotou S, Baltazar M, Senghore M, Khandaker S, Xu R, Bricio-Moreno L, Yang M, Dowson CG, Everett DB, Neill DR, Kadioglu A. Increased pathogenicity of pneumococcal serotype 1 is driven by rapid autolysis and release of pneumolysin. Nat Commun 2020; 11:1892. [PMID: 32312961 PMCID: PMC7170840 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-020-15751-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/22/2019] [Accepted: 03/23/2020] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Streptococcus pneumoniae serotype 1 is the predominant cause of invasive pneumococcal disease in sub-Saharan Africa, but the mechanism behind its increased invasiveness is not well understood. Here, we use mouse models of lung infection to identify virulence factors associated with severe bacteraemic pneumonia during serotype-1 (ST217) infection. We use BALB/c mice, which are highly resistant to pneumococcal pneumonia when infected with other serotypes. However, we observe 100% mortality and high levels of bacteraemia within 24 hours when BALB/c mice are intranasally infected with ST217. Serotype 1 produces large quantities of pneumolysin, which is rapidly released due to high levels of bacterial autolysis. This leads to substantial levels of cellular cytotoxicity and breakdown of tight junctions between cells, allowing a route for rapid bacterial dissemination from the respiratory tract into the blood. Thus, our results offer an explanation for the increased invasiveness of serotype 1. The mechanisms behind the high invasiveness of Streptococcus pneumoniae serotype 1 are unclear. Here, Jacques et al. show that this feature is due to overproduction and rapid release of pneumolysin, which induces cytotoxicity and breakdown of tight junctions, allowing rapid bacterial dissemination from the respiratory tract into the blood.
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Affiliation(s)
- Laura C Jacques
- Department of Clinical Infection, Microbiology and Immunology, Institute of Infection and Global Health, University of Liverpool, Liverpool, UK
| | - Stavros Panagiotou
- Department of Clinical Infection, Microbiology and Immunology, Institute of Infection and Global Health, University of Liverpool, Liverpool, UK
| | - Murielle Baltazar
- Department of Clinical Infection, Microbiology and Immunology, Institute of Infection and Global Health, University of Liverpool, Liverpool, UK
| | | | - Shadia Khandaker
- Department of Clinical Infection, Microbiology and Immunology, Institute of Infection and Global Health, University of Liverpool, Liverpool, UK
| | - Rong Xu
- Department of Clinical Infection, Microbiology and Immunology, Institute of Infection and Global Health, University of Liverpool, Liverpool, UK
| | - Laura Bricio-Moreno
- Department of Clinical Infection, Microbiology and Immunology, Institute of Infection and Global Health, University of Liverpool, Liverpool, UK
| | - Marie Yang
- Department of Clinical Infection, Microbiology and Immunology, Institute of Infection and Global Health, University of Liverpool, Liverpool, UK
| | | | - Dean B Everett
- Malawi-Liverpool-Wellcome Trust Clinical Research Programme, University of Malawi, College of Medicine, Blantyre, Malawi
| | - Daniel R Neill
- Department of Clinical Infection, Microbiology and Immunology, Institute of Infection and Global Health, University of Liverpool, Liverpool, UK
| | - Aras Kadioglu
- Department of Clinical Infection, Microbiology and Immunology, Institute of Infection and Global Health, University of Liverpool, Liverpool, UK.
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13
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Abstract
BACKGROUND Polysaccharide conjugate vaccines (PCVs) target the pneumococcal capsular types that most commonly cause fatal pneumonia and sepsis. Because these types were eliminated by the vaccines, it became apparent that in immunized populations, most invasive pneumococcal diseases, including bacteremia, sepsis and complicated pneumonia, were greatly reduced. However, the protective effects of PCVs against another invasive disease, meningitis, has shown much less or no decrease in disease incidence. METHODS References were identified through searches of PubMed for articles published from January 1930 to the present by use of specific search terms. Relevant articles were also identified through searches in Google and Google Scholar. Relevant references cited in those articles were also reviewed. RESULTS Even in the presence of the PCVs, meningitis rates in children have been reported globally to be as high as 13 per 100,000 annually. Widespread use of vaccines resulted in the emergence of a broad diversity of replacement non-PCV type strains. These strains generally failed to cause sepsis, but caused meningitis of comparable severity and levels similar to, or in excess of, prior pneumococcal meningitis rates. This is probably because these non-PCV type strains do not survive well in the blood, therefore possibly entering the brain through nonhematogenous routes. CONCLUSIONS Because virtually all cases of pneumococcal meningitis lead to either permanent neurologic sequelae or death, it would be well worth the effort to develop a new vaccine capable of preventing pneumococcal meningitis regardless of capsular type. Such a vaccine would need to protect against colonization with most, if not all, pneumococci.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - David E Briles
- Department of Microbiology and Pediatrics, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, Alabama
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14
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Le Guennec L, Coureuil M, Nassif X, Bourdoulous S. Strategies used by bacterial pathogens to cross the blood-brain barrier. Cell Microbiol 2019; 22:e13132. [PMID: 31658405 DOI: 10.1111/cmi.13132] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/17/2019] [Revised: 10/11/2019] [Accepted: 10/13/2019] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
The skull, spine, meninges, and cellular barriers at the blood-brain and the blood-cerebrospinal fluid interfaces well protect the brain and meningeal spaces against microbial invasion. However, once in the bloodstream, a range of pathogenic bacteria is able to reach the brain and cause meningitis. Despite advances in antibacterial therapy, bacterial meningitis remains one of the most important infectious diseases worldwide. The most common causative bacteria in children and adults are Streptococcus pneumoniae and Neisseria meningitidis associated with high morbidity and mortality, while among neonates, most cases of bacterial meningitis are due to group B Streptococcus and Escherichia coli. Here we summarise our current knowledge on the strategies used by these bacterial pathogens to survive in the bloodstream, to colonise the brain vasculature and to cross the blood-brain barrier.
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Affiliation(s)
- Loic Le Guennec
- Inserm (Institut National de la Sante et de la Recherche Medicale), U1016, Institut Cochin, Paris, France.,CNRS (Centre National de la recherche Scientifique), UMR8104, Paris, France.,Université Paris Descartes, Sorbonne Paris Cité, Paris, France
| | - Mathieu Coureuil
- Inserm (Institut National de la Sante et de la Recherche Medicale), unité U1151, Institut-Necker-Enfants-Malades, Paris, France.,CNRS (Centre National de la recherche Scientifique), UMR 8253, Paris, France.,Université Paris Descartes, Sorbonne Paris Cité, Faculté de médecine, Paris, France
| | - Xavier Nassif
- Inserm (Institut National de la Sante et de la Recherche Medicale), unité U1151, Institut-Necker-Enfants-Malades, Paris, France.,CNRS (Centre National de la recherche Scientifique), UMR 8253, Paris, France.,Université Paris Descartes, Sorbonne Paris Cité, Faculté de médecine, Paris, France.,Assistance Publique - Hôpitaux de Paris, Hôpital Necker Enfants Malades, Paris, France
| | - Sandrine Bourdoulous
- Inserm (Institut National de la Sante et de la Recherche Medicale), U1016, Institut Cochin, Paris, France.,CNRS (Centre National de la recherche Scientifique), UMR8104, Paris, France.,Université Paris Descartes, Sorbonne Paris Cité, Paris, France
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15
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Virulence Factors of Meningitis-Causing Bacteria: Enabling Brain Entry across the Blood-Brain Barrier. Int J Mol Sci 2019; 20:ijms20215393. [PMID: 31671896 PMCID: PMC6862235 DOI: 10.3390/ijms20215393] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/26/2019] [Revised: 10/24/2019] [Accepted: 10/25/2019] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Infections of the central nervous system (CNS) are still a major cause of morbidity and mortality worldwide. Traversal of the barriers protecting the brain by pathogens is a prerequisite for the development of meningitis. Bacteria have developed a variety of different strategies to cross these barriers and reach the CNS. To this end, they use a variety of different virulence factors that enable them to attach to and traverse these barriers. These virulence factors mediate adhesion to and invasion into host cells, intracellular survival, induction of host cell signaling and inflammatory response, and affect barrier function. While some of these mechanisms differ, others are shared by multiple pathogens. Further understanding of these processes, with special emphasis on the difference between the blood-brain barrier and the blood-cerebrospinal fluid barrier, as well as virulence factors used by the pathogens, is still needed.
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16
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Gres V, Kolter J, Erny D, Henneke P. The role of CNS macrophages in streptococcal meningoencephalitis. J Leukoc Biol 2019; 106:209-218. [PMID: 30762892 DOI: 10.1002/jlb.4mr1118-419r] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/01/2018] [Revised: 01/14/2019] [Accepted: 01/15/2019] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
In the healthy brain, microglia and other CNS macrophages are the most abundant immune cell type. Thus, they form the natural immune cell interface with streptococci, which are the leading cause of bacterial meningitis and encephalitis in infants and young children. In homeostasis, the blood-brain barrier allows for very limited access of immune cells circulating in the periphery. During bacterial meningoencephalitis, however, origin and fate of CNS macrophages are massively altered. This review summarizes the emerging knowledge on the sequence of reciprocal events between streptococci and CNS macrophages leading to host resistance, acute inflammation, changes in resident innate immune cells of the brain, and long-term neuronal damage.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vitka Gres
- Institute for Immunodeficiency, Center for Chronic Immunodeficiency (CCI), Medical Center and Faculty of Medicine, University of Freiburg, Freiburg, Germany.,Faculty of Biology, University of Freiburg, Freiburg, Germany
| | - Julia Kolter
- Institute for Immunodeficiency, Center for Chronic Immunodeficiency (CCI), Medical Center and Faculty of Medicine, University of Freiburg, Freiburg, Germany.,Faculty of Biology, University of Freiburg, Freiburg, Germany
| | - Daniel Erny
- Institute of Neuropathology, Medical Center and Faculty of Medicine, University of Freiburg, Freiburg, Germany.,Berta-Ottenstein-Programme, Faculty of Medicine, University of Freiburg, Freiburg, Germany
| | - Philipp Henneke
- Institute for Immunodeficiency, Center for Chronic Immunodeficiency (CCI), Medical Center and Faculty of Medicine, University of Freiburg, Freiburg, Germany.,Center for Pediatrics and Adolescent Medicine, Medical Center and Faculty of Medicine, University of Freiburg, Freiburg, Germany
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17
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Blood‒Brain Barrier Pathology and CNS Outcomes in Streptococcus pneumoniae Meningitis. Int J Mol Sci 2018; 19:ijms19113555. [PMID: 30423890 PMCID: PMC6275034 DOI: 10.3390/ijms19113555] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/19/2018] [Revised: 11/05/2018] [Accepted: 11/09/2018] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Streptococcus pneumoniae is a major meningitis-causing pathogen globally, bringing about significant morbidity and mortality, as well as long-term neurological sequelae in almost half of the survivors. Subsequent to nasopharyngeal colonisation and systemic invasion, translocation across the blood‒brain barrier (BBB) by S. pneumoniae is a crucial early step in the pathogenesis of meningitis. The BBB, which normally protects the central nervous system (CNS) from deleterious molecules within the circulation, becomes dysfunctional in S. pneumoniae invasion due to the effects of pneumococcal toxins and a heightened host inflammatory environment of cytokines, chemokines and reactive oxygen species intracranially. The bacteria‒host interplay within the CNS likely determines not only the degree of BBB pathological changes, but also host survival and the extent of neurological damage. This review explores the relationship between S. pneumoniae bacteria and the host inflammatory response, with an emphasis on the BBB and its roles in CNS protection, as well as both the acute and long-term pathogenesis of meningitis.
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18
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19
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Totten AH, Xiao L, Luo D, Briles D, Hale JY, Crabb DM, Schoeb TR, Alishlash AS, Waites KB, Atkinson TP. Allergic airway sensitization impairs antibacterial IgG antibody responses during bacterial respiratory tract infections. J Allergy Clin Immunol 2018; 143:1183-1197.e7. [PMID: 30092287 DOI: 10.1016/j.jaci.2018.07.021] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/01/2017] [Revised: 06/02/2018] [Accepted: 07/24/2018] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Mycoplasma pneumoniae, an atypical human pathogen, has been associated with asthma initiation and exacerbation. Asthmatic patients have been reported to have higher carriage rates of M pneumoniae compared with nonasthmatic subjects and are at greater risk for invasive respiratory infections. OBJECTIVE We sought to study whether prior allergen sensitization affects the host response to chronic bacterial infection. METHODS BALB/cJ and IL-4 receptor α-/- mice were sensitized with ovalbumin (OVA) and then infected with M pneumoniae or Streptococcus pneumoniae. Immune parameters were analyzed at 30 days postinfection and included cellular profiles in bronchoalveolar lavage fluid (BALF) and serum IgG and IgE antibody levels to whole bacterial lysate, recombinant P1 adhesin, and OVA. Total lung RNA was examined for transcript levels, and BALF was examined for cytokine protein profiles. RESULTS Anti-M pneumoniae antibody responses were decreased in allergen-sensitized, M pneumoniae-infected animals compared with control animals, but OVA-specific IgG responses were unaffected. Similar decreases in anti-S pneumoniae antibody levels were found in OVA-sensitized animals. However, M pneumoniae, but not S pneumoniae, infection augmented anti-OVA IgE antibody responses. Loss of IL-4 receptor signaling partially restored anti-M pneumoniae antibody responses in IgG2a and IgG2b subclasses. Inflammatory cytokine levels in BALF from OVA-sensitized, M pneumoniae-infected or S pneumoniae-infected animals were reduced compared with those in uninfected OVA-sensitized control animals. Unexpectedly, airway hyperreactivity to methacholine was essentially ablated in M pneumoniae-infected, OVA-sensitized animals. CONCLUSIONS An established type 2-biased host immune response impairs the host immune response to respiratory bacterial infection in a largely pathogen-independent manner. Some pathogens, such as M pneumoniae, can augment ongoing allergic responses and inhibit pulmonary type 2 cytokine responses and allergic airway hyperreactivity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Arthur H Totten
- Department of Pediatrics, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, Ala
| | - Li Xiao
- Department of Medicine, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, Ala
| | - Danlin Luo
- Department of Pediatrics, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, Ala
| | - David Briles
- Department of Microbiology, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, Ala
| | - Joanetha Y Hale
- Department of Microbiology, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, Ala
| | - Donna M Crabb
- Department of Pathology, Diagnostic Mycoplasma Laboratory, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, Ala
| | - Trenton R Schoeb
- Department of Genetics, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, Ala
| | | | - Ken B Waites
- Department of Pathology, Diagnostic Mycoplasma Laboratory, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, Ala
| | - T Prescott Atkinson
- Department of Pediatrics, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, Ala.
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20
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Weiser JN, Ferreira DM, Paton JC. Streptococcus pneumoniae: transmission, colonization and invasion. Nat Rev Microbiol 2018; 16:355-367. [PMID: 29599457 PMCID: PMC5949087 DOI: 10.1038/s41579-018-0001-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 507] [Impact Index Per Article: 84.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
Streptococcus pneumoniae has a complex relationship with its obligate human host. On the one hand, the pneumococci are highly adapted commensals, and their main reservoir on the mucosal surface of the upper airways of carriers enables transmission. On the other hand, they can cause severe disease when bacterial and host factors allow them to invade essentially sterile sites, such as the middle ear spaces, lungs, bloodstream and meninges. Transmission, colonization and invasion depend on the remarkable ability of S. pneumoniae to evade or take advantage of the host inflammatory and immune responses. The different stages of pneumococcal carriage and disease have been investigated in detail in animal models and, more recently, in experimental human infection. Furthermore, widespread vaccination and the resulting immune pressure have shed light on pneumococcal population dynamics and pathogenesis. Here, we review the mechanistic insights provided by these studies on the multiple and varied interactions of the pneumococcus and its host.
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21
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Pneumococcal Capsular Polysaccharide Immunity in the Elderly. CLINICAL AND VACCINE IMMUNOLOGY : CVI 2017; 24:CVI.00004-17. [PMID: 28424198 DOI: 10.1128/cvi.00004-17] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
Immunity to pneumococcal infections is impaired in older people, and current vaccines are poorly protective against pneumococcal disease in this population. Naturally acquired immunity to pneumococcal capsular polysaccharides develops during childhood and is robust in young adults but deteriorates with advanced age. In particular, antibody levels and function are reduced in older people. Pneumococcal vaccines are recommended for people >65 years old. However, the benefits of polysaccharide and protein-conjugated vaccines in this population are small, because of both serotype replacement and incomplete protection against vaccine serotype pneumococcal disease. In this review, we overview the immune mechanisms by which naturally acquired and vaccine-induced pneumococcal capsular polysaccharide immunity declines with age, including altered colonization dynamics, reduced opsonic activity of antibodies (particularly IgM), and impaired mucosal immunity.
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22
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Chai MH, Weiland F, Harvey RM, Hoffmann P, Ogunniyi AD, Paton JC. Proteomic comparisons of opaque and transparent variants of Streptococcus pneumoniae by two dimensional-differential gel electrophoresis. Sci Rep 2017; 7:2453. [PMID: 28550292 PMCID: PMC5446427 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-017-02465-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/06/2016] [Accepted: 04/11/2017] [Indexed: 11/09/2022] Open
Abstract
Streptococcus pneumoniae (the pneumococcus) is a human pathogen, accounting for massive global morbidity and mortality. Although asymptomatic colonization of the nasopharynx almost invariably precedes disease, the critical determinants enabling pneumococcal progression from this niche to cause invasive disease are poorly understood. One mechanism proposed to be central to this transition involves opacity phase variation, whereby pneumococci harvested from the nasopharynx are typically transparent, while those simultaneously harvested from the blood are opaque. Here, we used two dimensional-differential gel electrophoresis (2D-DIGE) to compare protein expression profiles of transparent and opaque variants of 3 pneumococcal strains, D39 (serotype 2), WCH43 (serotype 4) and WCH16 (serotype 6A) in vitro. One spot comprising a mixture of capsular polysaccharide biosynthesis protein and other proteins was significantly up-regulated in the opaque phenotype in all 3 strains; other proteins were differentially regulated in a strain-specific manner. We conclude that pneumococcal phase variation is a complex and multifactorial process leading to strain-specific pathogenicity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Melissa H Chai
- Research Centre for Infectious Diseases, School of Biological Sciences, The University of Adelaide, Adelaide, South Australia, 5005, Australia
| | - Florian Weiland
- Adelaide Proteomics Centre, School of Biological Sciences, The University of Adelaide, Adelaide, South Australia, 5005, Australia.,Institute for Photonics and Advanced Sensing (IPAS), The University of Adelaide, Adelaide, South Australia, 5005, Australia.,Medical Research Council Protein Phosphorylation and Ubiquitylation Unit, School of Life Sciences, University of Dundee, Dundee, DD1 5EH, United Kingdom
| | - Richard M Harvey
- Research Centre for Infectious Diseases, School of Biological Sciences, The University of Adelaide, Adelaide, South Australia, 5005, Australia
| | - Peter Hoffmann
- Adelaide Proteomics Centre, School of Biological Sciences, The University of Adelaide, Adelaide, South Australia, 5005, Australia.,Institute for Photonics and Advanced Sensing (IPAS), The University of Adelaide, Adelaide, South Australia, 5005, Australia
| | - Abiodun D Ogunniyi
- Research Centre for Infectious Diseases, School of Biological Sciences, The University of Adelaide, Adelaide, South Australia, 5005, Australia. .,Australian Centre for Antimicrobial Resistance Ecology, School of Animal and Veterinary Sciences, The University of Adelaide, Roseworthy, South Australia, 5371, Australia.
| | - James C Paton
- Research Centre for Infectious Diseases, School of Biological Sciences, The University of Adelaide, Adelaide, South Australia, 5005, Australia
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23
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Mahdi LK, Higgins MA, Day CJ, Tiralongo J, Hartley-Tassell LE, Jennings MP, Gordon DL, Paton AW, Paton JC, Ogunniyi AD. The Pneumococcal Alpha-Glycerophosphate Oxidase Enhances Nasopharyngeal Colonization through Binding to Host Glycoconjugates. EBioMedicine 2017; 18:236-243. [PMID: 28330602 PMCID: PMC5405170 DOI: 10.1016/j.ebiom.2017.03.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/20/2016] [Revised: 02/20/2017] [Accepted: 03/02/2017] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Streptococcus pneumoniae (the pneumococcus) is a major human pathogen, causing a broad spectrum of diseases including otitis media, pneumonia, bacteraemia and meningitis. Here we examined the role of a potential pneumococcal meningitis vaccine antigen, alpha-glycerophosphate oxidase (SpGlpO), in nasopharyngeal colonization. We found that serotype 4 and serotype 6A strains deficient in SpGlpO have significantly reduced capacity to colonize the nasopharynx of mice, and were significantly defective in adherence to human nasopharyngeal carcinoma cells in vitro. We also demonstrate that intranasal immunization with recombinant SpGlpO significantly protects mice against subsequent nasal colonization by wild type serotype 4 and serotype 6A strains. Furthermore, we show that SpGlpO binds strongly to lacto/neolacto/ganglio host glycan structures containing the GlcNAcβ1-3Galβ disaccharide, suggesting that SpGlpO enhances colonization of the nasopharynx through its binding to host glycoconjugates. We propose that SpGlpO is a promising vaccine candidate against pneumococcal carriage, and warrants inclusion in a multi-component protein vaccine formulation that can provide robust, serotype-independent protection against all forms of pneumococcal disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Layla K Mahdi
- Research Centre for Infectious Diseases, Department of Molecular and Cellular Biology, School of Biological Sciences, The University of Adelaide, SA 5005, Australia
| | - Melanie A Higgins
- Research Centre for Infectious Diseases, Department of Molecular and Cellular Biology, School of Biological Sciences, The University of Adelaide, SA 5005, Australia
| | - Christopher J Day
- Institute For Glycomics, Griffith University, Gold Coast, QLD, 4222, Australia
| | - Joe Tiralongo
- Institute For Glycomics, Griffith University, Gold Coast, QLD, 4222, Australia
| | | | - Michael P Jennings
- Institute For Glycomics, Griffith University, Gold Coast, QLD, 4222, Australia
| | - David L Gordon
- Department of Microbiology and Infectious Diseases, Flinders University, Bedford Park, SA 5042, Australia
| | - Adrienne W Paton
- Research Centre for Infectious Diseases, Department of Molecular and Cellular Biology, School of Biological Sciences, The University of Adelaide, SA 5005, Australia
| | - James C Paton
- Research Centre for Infectious Diseases, Department of Molecular and Cellular Biology, School of Biological Sciences, The University of Adelaide, SA 5005, Australia.
| | - Abiodun D Ogunniyi
- Research Centre for Infectious Diseases, Department of Molecular and Cellular Biology, School of Biological Sciences, The University of Adelaide, SA 5005, Australia.
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24
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A journey into the brain: insight into how bacterial pathogens cross blood-brain barriers. Nat Rev Microbiol 2017; 15:149-159. [PMID: 28090076 DOI: 10.1038/nrmicro.2016.178] [Citation(s) in RCA: 155] [Impact Index Per Article: 22.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
The blood-brain barrier, which is one of the tightest barriers in the body, protects the brain from insults, such as infections. Indeed, only a few of the numerous blood-borne bacteria can cross the blood-brain barrier to cause meningitis. In this Review, we focus on invasive extracellular pathogens, such as Neisseria meningitidis, Streptococcus pneumoniae, group B Streptococcus and Escherichia coli, to review the obstacles that bacteria have to overcome in order to invade the meninges from the bloodstream, and the specific skills they have developed to bypass the blood-brain barrier. The medical importance of understanding how these barriers can be circumvented is underlined by the fact that we need to improve drug delivery into the brain.
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25
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Branton WG, Lu JQ, Surette MG, Holt RA, Lind J, Laman JD, Power C. Brain microbiota disruption within inflammatory demyelinating lesions in multiple sclerosis. Sci Rep 2016; 6:37344. [PMID: 27892518 PMCID: PMC5125007 DOI: 10.1038/srep37344] [Citation(s) in RCA: 63] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/23/2016] [Accepted: 10/26/2016] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Microbial communities reside in healthy tissues but are often disrupted during disease. Bacterial genomes and proteins are detected in brains from humans, nonhuman primates, rodents and other species in the absence of neurological disease. We investigated the composition and abundance of microbiota in frozen and fixed autopsied brain samples from patients with multiple sclerosis (MS) and age- and sex-matched nonMS patients as controls, using neuropathological, molecular and bioinformatics tools. 16s rRNA sequencing revealed Proteobacteria to be the dominant phylum with restricted diversity in cerebral white matter (WM) from MS compared to nonMS patients. Both clinical groups displayed 1,200–1,400 bacterial genomes/cm3 and low bacterial rRNA:rDNA ratios in WM. RNAseq analyses showed a predominance of Proteobacteria in progressive MS patients’ WM, associated with increased inflammatory gene expression, relative to a broader range of bacterial phyla in relapsing-remitting MS patients’ WM. Although bacterial peptidoglycan (PGN) and RNA polymerase beta subunit immunoreactivities were observed in all patients, PGN immunodetection was correlated with demyelination and neuroinflammation in MS brains. Principal component analysis revealed that demyelination, PGN and inflammatory gene expression accounted for 86% of the observed variance. Thus, inflammatory demyelination is linked to an organ-specific dysbiosis in MS that could contribute to underlying disease mechanisms.
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Affiliation(s)
- W G Branton
- Department of Medicine, University of Alberta, Edmonton AB Canada.,Department of Laboratory Medicine &Pathology, University of Alberta, Edmonton AB Canada
| | - J Q Lu
- Department of Laboratory Medicine &Pathology, University of Alberta, Edmonton AB Canada.,Department of Psychiatry, University of Alberta, Edmonton AB Canada
| | - M G Surette
- Department of Medicine, McMaster University, Hamilton ON Canada
| | - R A Holt
- Genome Sciences Centre, Vancouver BC, Canada
| | - J Lind
- Department of Neurosciences, Section of Medical Physiology, Faculty of Medical Sciences, University Medical Center Groningen, University of Groningen, Groningen Netherlands
| | - J D Laman
- Multiple Sclerosis Centre, University of Alberta, Edmonton AB Canada
| | - C Power
- Department of Medicine, University of Alberta, Edmonton AB Canada.,Department of Laboratory Medicine &Pathology, University of Alberta, Edmonton AB Canada.,Department of Neurosciences, Section of Medical Physiology, Faculty of Medical Sciences, University Medical Center Groningen, University of Groningen, Groningen Netherlands
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Macedo-Ramos H, Ruiz-Mendoza S, Mariante RM, Guimarães EV, Quadros-de-Souza LC, Paiva MM, Ferreira EDO, Pinto TCA, Teixeira LM, Allodi S, Baetas-da-Cruz W. Streptococcus pneumoniae resists intracellular killing by olfactory ensheathing cells but not by microglia. Sci Rep 2016; 6:36813. [PMID: 27827453 PMCID: PMC5101813 DOI: 10.1038/srep36813] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/17/2016] [Accepted: 10/10/2016] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Olfactory ensheathing cells (OECs) are a type of specialized glial cell currently considered as having a double function in the nervous system: one regenerative, and another immune. Streptococcus pneumoniae is a major agent of severe infections in humans, including meningitis. It is commonly found in the nasopharynx of asymptomatic carriers, and, under certain still unknown conditions, can invade the brain. We evaluated whether pneumococcal cells recovered from lysed OECs and microglia are able to survive by manipulating the host cell activation. An intracellular-survival assay of S. pneumoniae in OECs showed a significant number of bacterial CFU recovered after 3 h of infection. In contrast, microglia assays resulted in a reduced number of CFU. Electron-microscopy analysis revealed a large number of pneumococci with apparently intact morphology. However, microglia cells showed endocytic vesicles containing only bacterial cell debris. Infection of OEC cultures resulted in continuous NF-κB activation. The IFN-γ-induced increase of iNOS expression was reversed in infected OECs. OECs are susceptible to S. pneumoniae infection, which can suppress their cytotoxic mechanisms in order to survive. We suggest that, in contrast to microglia, OECs might serve as safe targets for pneumococci, providing a more stable environment for evasion of the immune system.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hugo Macedo-Ramos
- Laboratório Translacional em Fisiologia Molecular, Centro de Cirurgia Experimental, Faculdade de Medicina, Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, RJ, Brazil.,Programa de Pós-Graduação em Ciências Biológicas (Fisiologia), Instituto de Biofísica Carlos Chagas Filho, Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, RJ, Brazil.,Laboratório de Neurobiologia Comparativa e do Desenvolvimento, Instituto de Biofísica Carlos Chagas Filho, Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, RJ, Brazil
| | - Susana Ruiz-Mendoza
- Laboratório Translacional em Fisiologia Molecular, Centro de Cirurgia Experimental, Faculdade de Medicina, Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, RJ, Brazil.,Programa de Pós-Graduação em Ciências Biológicas (Fisiologia), Instituto de Biofísica Carlos Chagas Filho, Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, RJ, Brazil
| | - Rafael M Mariante
- Laboratório de Neurogênese, Instituto de Biofísica Carlos Chagas Filho, Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, RJ, Brazil.,Laboratório de Biologia Estrutural, Instituto Oswaldo Cruz, Fiocruz, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
| | - Erick V Guimarães
- Laboratório de Biologia Estrutural, Instituto Oswaldo Cruz, Fiocruz, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
| | - Lucas C Quadros-de-Souza
- Laboratório Translacional em Fisiologia Molecular, Centro de Cirurgia Experimental, Faculdade de Medicina, Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, RJ, Brazil
| | | | - Eliane de O Ferreira
- Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro - Polo Xerém, Duque de Caxias, Rio de Janeiro, RJ, Brazil
| | - Tatiana C A Pinto
- Instituto de Microbiologia Paulo de Góes, Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, RJ, Brazil
| | - Lucia M Teixeira
- Instituto de Microbiologia Paulo de Góes, Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, RJ, Brazil
| | - Silvana Allodi
- Programa de Pós-Graduação em Ciências Biológicas (Fisiologia), Instituto de Biofísica Carlos Chagas Filho, Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, RJ, Brazil.,Laboratório de Neurobiologia Comparativa e do Desenvolvimento, Instituto de Biofísica Carlos Chagas Filho, Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, RJ, Brazil
| | - Wagner Baetas-da-Cruz
- Laboratório Translacional em Fisiologia Molecular, Centro de Cirurgia Experimental, Faculdade de Medicina, Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, RJ, Brazil.,Programa de Pós-Graduação em Ciências Biológicas (Fisiologia), Instituto de Biofísica Carlos Chagas Filho, Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, RJ, Brazil
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St John JA, Walkden H, Nazareth L, Beagley KW, Ulett GC, Batzloff MR, Beacham IR, Ekberg JAK. Burkholderia pseudomallei Rapidly Infects the Brain Stem and Spinal Cord via the Trigeminal Nerve after Intranasal Inoculation. Infect Immun 2016; 84:2681-8. [PMID: 27382023 PMCID: PMC4995904 DOI: 10.1128/iai.00361-16] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/29/2016] [Accepted: 06/27/2016] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Infection with Burkholderia pseudomallei causes melioidosis, a disease with a high mortality rate (20% in Australia and 40% in Southeast Asia). Neurological melioidosis is particularly prevalent in northern Australian patients and involves brain stem infection, which can progress to the spinal cord; however, the route by which the bacteria invade the central nervous system (CNS) is unknown. We have previously demonstrated that B. pseudomallei can infect the olfactory and trigeminal nerves within the nasal cavity following intranasal inoculation. As the trigeminal nerve projects into the brain stem, we investigated whether the bacteria could continue along this nerve to penetrate the CNS. After intranasal inoculation of mice, B. pseudomallei caused low-level localized infection within the nasal cavity epithelium, prior to invasion of the trigeminal nerve in small numbers. B. pseudomallei rapidly invaded the trigeminal nerve and crossed the astrocytic barrier to enter the brain stem within 24 h and then rapidly progressed over 2,000 μm into the spinal cord. To rule out that the bacteria used a hematogenous route, we used a capsule-deficient mutant of B. pseudomallei that does not survive in the blood and found that it also entered the CNS via the trigeminal nerve. This suggests that the primary route of entry is via the nerves that innervate the nasal cavity. We found that actin-mediated motility could facilitate initial infection of the olfactory epithelium. Thus, we have demonstrated that B. pseudomallei can rapidly infect the brain and spinal cord via the trigeminal nerve branches that innervate the nasal cavity.
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Affiliation(s)
- James A St John
- Eskitis Institute for Drug Discovery, Griffith University, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia Institute for Glycomics, Griffith University, Gold Coast, Queensland, Australia
| | - Heidi Walkden
- Eskitis Institute for Drug Discovery, Griffith University, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia Faculty of Health Sciences and Medicine, Bond University, Gold Coast, Queensland, Australia
| | - Lynn Nazareth
- Eskitis Institute for Drug Discovery, Griffith University, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia Faculty of Health Sciences and Medicine, Bond University, Gold Coast, Queensland, Australia
| | - Kenneth W Beagley
- Institute for Health and Biomedical Innovation, Queensland University of Technology, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia
| | - Glen C Ulett
- School of Medical Science, Griffith University, Gold Coast, Queensland, Australia Institute for Glycomics, Griffith University, Gold Coast, Queensland, Australia
| | - Michael R Batzloff
- Institute for Glycomics, Griffith University, Gold Coast, Queensland, Australia
| | - Ifor R Beacham
- Institute for Glycomics, Griffith University, Gold Coast, Queensland, Australia
| | - Jenny A K Ekberg
- Eskitis Institute for Drug Discovery, Griffith University, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia Faculty of Health Sciences and Medicine, Bond University, Gold Coast, Queensland, Australia Institute for Health and Biomedical Innovation, Queensland University of Technology, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia
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Free Sialic Acid Acts as a Signal That Promotes Streptococcus pneumoniae Invasion of Nasal Tissue and Nonhematogenous Invasion of the Central Nervous System. Infect Immun 2016; 84:2607-15. [PMID: 27354445 DOI: 10.1128/iai.01514-15] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/14/2015] [Accepted: 06/18/2016] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Streptococcus pneumoniae (pneumococcus) is a leading cause of bacterial meningitis and neurological sequelae in children worldwide. Acute bacterial meningitis is widely considered to result from bacteremia that leads to blood-brain barrier breakdown and bacterial dissemination throughout the central nervous system (CNS). Previously, we showed that pneumococci can gain access to the CNS through a nonhematogenous route without peripheral blood infection. This access is thought to occur when the pneumococci in the upper sinus follow the olfactory nerves and enter the CNS through the olfactory bulbs. In this study, we determined whether the addition of exogenous sialic acid postcolonization promotes nonhematogenous invasion of the CNS. Previously, others showed that treatment with exogenous sialic acid post-pneumococcal infection increased the numbers of CFU recovered from an intranasal mouse model of infection. Using a pneumococcal colonization model, an in vivo imaging system, and a multiplex assay for cytokine expression, we demonstrated that sialic acid can increase the number of pneumococci recovered from the olfactory bulbs and brains of infected animals. We also show that pneumococci primarily localize to the olfactory bulb, leading to increased expression levels of proinflammatory cytokines and chemokines. These findings provide evidence that sialic acid can enhance the ability of pneumococci to disseminate into the CNS and provide details about the environment needed to establish nonhematogenous pneumococcal meningitis.
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Cigarette Smoke Attenuates the Nasal Host Response to Streptococcus pneumoniae and Predisposes to Invasive Pneumococcal Disease in Mice. Infect Immun 2016; 84:1536-1547. [PMID: 26930709 DOI: 10.1128/iai.01504-15] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/11/2015] [Accepted: 02/25/2016] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Streptococcus pneumoniae is a leading cause of invasive bacterial infections, with nasal colonization an important first step in disease. While cigarette smoking is a strong risk factor for invasive pneumococcal disease, the underlying mechanisms remain unknown. This is partly due to a lack of clinically relevant animal models investigating nasal pneumococcal colonization in the context of cigarette smoke exposure. We present a model of nasal pneumococcal colonization in cigarette smoke-exposed mice and document, for the first time, that cigarette smoke predisposes to invasive pneumococcal infection and mortality in an animal model. Cigarette smoke increased the risk of bacteremia and meningitis without prior lung infection. Mechanistically, deficiency in interleukin 1α (IL-1α) or platelet-activating factor receptor (PAFR), an important host receptor thought to bind and facilitate pneumococcal invasiveness, did not rescue cigarette smoke-exposed mice from invasive pneumococcal disease. Importantly, we observed cigarette smoke to attenuate nasal inflammatory mediator expression, particularly that of neutrophil-recruiting chemokines, normally elicited by pneumococcal colonization. Smoking cessation during nasal pneumococcal colonization rescued nasal neutrophil recruitment and prevented invasive disease in mice. We propose that cigarette smoke predisposes to invasive pneumococcal disease by suppressing inflammatory processes of the upper respiratory tract. Given that smoking prevalence remains high worldwide, these findings are relevant to the continued efforts to reduce the invasive pneumococcal disease burden.
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30
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How Does Streptococcus pneumoniae Invade the Brain? Trends Microbiol 2016; 24:307-315. [DOI: 10.1016/j.tim.2015.12.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/05/2015] [Revised: 12/18/2015] [Accepted: 12/28/2015] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
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31
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Doran KS, Fulde M, Gratz N, Kim BJ, Nau R, Prasadarao N, Schubert-Unkmeir A, Tuomanen EI, Valentin-Weigand P. Host-pathogen interactions in bacterial meningitis. Acta Neuropathol 2016; 131:185-209. [PMID: 26744349 PMCID: PMC4713723 DOI: 10.1007/s00401-015-1531-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 112] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/10/2015] [Revised: 12/21/2015] [Accepted: 12/22/2015] [Indexed: 12/26/2022]
Abstract
Bacterial meningitis is a devastating disease occurring worldwide with up to half of the survivors left with permanent neurological sequelae. Due to intrinsic properties of the meningeal pathogens and the host responses they induce, infection can cause relatively specific lesions and clinical syndromes that result from interference with the function of the affected nervous system tissue. Pathogenesis is based on complex host–pathogen interactions, some of which are specific for certain bacteria, whereas others are shared among different pathogens. In this review, we summarize the recent progress made in understanding the molecular and cellular events involved in these interactions. We focus on selected major pathogens, Streptococcus pneumonia, S. agalactiae (Group B Streptococcus), Neisseria meningitidis, and Escherichia coli K1, and also include a neglected zoonotic pathogen, Streptococcus suis. These neuroinvasive pathogens represent common themes of host–pathogen interactions, such as colonization and invasion of mucosal barriers, survival in the blood stream, entry into the central nervous system by translocation of the blood–brain and blood–cerebrospinal fluid barrier, and induction of meningeal inflammation, affecting pia mater, the arachnoid and subarachnoid spaces.
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32
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Ruiz-Mendoza S, Macedo-Ramos H, Santos FA, Quadros-de-Souza LC, Paiva MM, Pinto TCA, Teixeira LM, Baetas-da-Cruz W. Streptococcus pneumoniae infection regulates expression of neurotrophic factors in the olfactory bulb and cultured olfactory ensheathing cells. Neuroscience 2016; 317:149-61. [PMID: 26791522 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuroscience.2016.01.016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/18/2015] [Revised: 12/31/2015] [Accepted: 01/05/2016] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
Streptococcus pneumoniae is the causative agent of numerous diseases including severe invasive infections such as bacteremia and meningitis. It has been previously shown that strains of S. pneumoniae that are unable to survive in the bloodstream may colonize the CNS. However, information on cellular components and pathways involved in the neurotropism of these strains is still scarce. The olfactory system is a specialized tissue in which olfactory receptor neurons (ORNs) are interfacing with the external environment through several microvilli. Olfactory ensheathing cells (OECs) which also form the glial limiting membrane at the surface of the olfactory bulb (OB) are the only cells that ensheathe the ORNs axons. Since previous data from our group showed that OECs may harbor S. pneumoniae, we decided to test whether infection of the OB or OEC cultures modulates the expression levels of neurotrophic factor's mRNA and its putative effects on the activation and viability of microglia. We observed that neurotrophin-3 (NT-3) and glial cell-line-derived neurotrophic factor (GDNF) expression was significantly higher in the OB from uninfected mice than in infected mice. A similar result was observed when we infected OEC cultures. Brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BNDF) expression was significantly lower in the OB from infected mice than in uninfected mice. In contrast, in vitro infection of OECs resulted in a significant increase of BDNF mRNA expression. An upregulation of high-mobility group box 1 (HMGB1) expression was observed in both OB and OEC cultures infected with S. pneumoniae. Moreover, we found that conditioned medium from infected OEC cultures induced the expression of the pro-apoptotic protein cleaved-caspase-3 and an apparently continuous nuclear factor-kappa B (NF-κB) p65 activation in the N13 microglia. Altogether, our data suggest the possible existence of an OEC-pathogen molecular interface, through which the OECs could interfere on the activation and viability of microglia, favoring the access of non-hematogenous S. pneumoniae strains to the CNS in the absence of bacteremia.
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Affiliation(s)
- S Ruiz-Mendoza
- Laboratório Translacional em Fisiologia Molecular, Centro de Cirurgia Experimental, Faculdade de Medicina, Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, RJ, Brazil; Instituto de Biofísica Carlos Chagas Filho, Programa de Pós-Graduação em Ciências Biológicas (Fisiologia), Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, RJ, Brazil
| | - H Macedo-Ramos
- Laboratório Translacional em Fisiologia Molecular, Centro de Cirurgia Experimental, Faculdade de Medicina, Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, RJ, Brazil; Instituto de Biofísica Carlos Chagas Filho, Programa de Pós-Graduação em Ciências Biológicas (Fisiologia), Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, RJ, Brazil
| | - F A Santos
- Laboratório Translacional em Fisiologia Molecular, Centro de Cirurgia Experimental, Faculdade de Medicina, Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, RJ, Brazil
| | - L C Quadros-de-Souza
- Laboratório Translacional em Fisiologia Molecular, Centro de Cirurgia Experimental, Faculdade de Medicina, Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, RJ, Brazil
| | - M M Paiva
- Instituto Nacional de Tecnologia, Rio de Janeiro, RJ, Brazil
| | - T C A Pinto
- Instituto de Microbiologia Paulo de Góes, Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, RJ, Brazil
| | - L M Teixeira
- Instituto de Microbiologia Paulo de Góes, Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, RJ, Brazil
| | - W Baetas-da-Cruz
- Laboratório Translacional em Fisiologia Molecular, Centro de Cirurgia Experimental, Faculdade de Medicina, Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, RJ, Brazil; Instituto de Biofísica Carlos Chagas Filho, Programa de Pós-Graduação em Ciências Biológicas (Fisiologia), Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, RJ, Brazil.
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33
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Dileepan T, Smith ED, Knowland D, Hsu M, Platt M, Bittner-Eddy P, Cohen B, Southern P, Latimer E, Harley E, Agalliu D, Cleary PP. Group A Streptococcus intranasal infection promotes CNS infiltration by streptococcal-specific Th17 cells. J Clin Invest 2015; 126:303-17. [PMID: 26657857 DOI: 10.1172/jci80792] [Citation(s) in RCA: 84] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/05/2015] [Accepted: 11/05/2015] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Group A streptococcal (GAS) infection induces the production of Abs that cross-react with host neuronal proteins, and these anti-GAS mimetic Abs are associated with autoimmune diseases of the CNS. However, the mechanisms that allow these Abs to cross the blood-brain barrier (BBB) and induce neuropathology remain unresolved. We have previously shown that GAS infection in mouse models induces a robust Th17 response in nasal-associated lymphoid tissue (NALT). Here, we identified GAS-specific Th17 cells in tonsils of humans naturally exposed to GAS, prompting us to explore whether GAS-specific CD4+ T cells home to mouse brains following i.n. infection. Intranasal challenge of repeatedly GAS-inoculated mice promoted migration of GAS-specific Th17 cells from NALT into the brain, BBB breakdown, serum IgG deposition, microglial activation, and loss of excitatory synaptic proteins under conditions in which no viable bacteria were detected in CNS tissue. CD4+ T cells were predominantly located in the olfactory bulb (OB) and in other brain regions that receive direct input from the OB. Together, these findings provide insight into the immunopathology of neuropsychiatric complications that are associated with GAS infections and suggest that crosstalk between the CNS and cellular immunity may be a general mechanism by which infectious agents exacerbate symptoms associated with other CNS autoimmune disorders.
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34
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Kara EE, McKenzie DR, Bastow CR, Gregor CE, Fenix KA, Ogunniyi AD, Paton JC, Mack M, Pombal DR, Seillet C, Dubois B, Liston A, MacDonald KPA, Belz GT, Smyth MJ, Hill GR, Comerford I, McColl SR. CCR2 defines in vivo development and homing of IL-23-driven GM-CSF-producing Th17 cells. Nat Commun 2015; 6:8644. [PMID: 26511769 PMCID: PMC4639903 DOI: 10.1038/ncomms9644] [Citation(s) in RCA: 98] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/13/2015] [Accepted: 09/15/2015] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
IL-17-producing helper T (Th17) cells are critical for host defense against extracellular pathogens but also drive numerous autoimmune diseases. Th17 cells that differ in their inflammatory potential have been described including IL-10-producing Th17 cells that are weak inducers of inflammation and highly inflammatory, IL-23-driven, GM-CSF/IFNγ-producing Th17 cells. However, their distinct developmental requirements, functions and trafficking mechanisms in vivo remain poorly understood. Here we identify a temporally regulated IL-23-dependent switch from CCR6 to CCR2 usage by developing Th17 cells that is critical for pathogenic Th17 cell-driven inflammation in experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE). This switch defines a unique in vivo cell surface signature (CCR6−CCR2+) of GM-CSF/IFNγ-producing Th17 cells in EAE and experimental persistent extracellular bacterial infection, and in humans. Using this signature, we identify an IL-23/IL-1/IFNγ/TNFα/T-bet/Eomesodermin-driven circuit driving GM-CSF/IFNγ-producing Th17 cell formation in vivo. Thus, our data identify a unique cell surface signature, trafficking mechanism and T-cell intrinsic regulators of GM-CSF/IFNγ-producing Th17 cells. Little is known regarding migration of Th17 cells that produce distinct cytokines implicated in protection and pathology. Kara et al. show that a switch from CCR6 to CCR2 by Th17 cells defines a signature (CCR6−CCR2+) of GM-CSF+ Th17 cells and drives pathology in a mouse model of autoimmunity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ervin E Kara
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Biology, School of Biological Sciences, University of Adelaide, Adelaide, South Australia 5005, Australia
| | - Duncan R McKenzie
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Biology, School of Biological Sciences, University of Adelaide, Adelaide, South Australia 5005, Australia
| | - Cameron R Bastow
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Biology, School of Biological Sciences, University of Adelaide, Adelaide, South Australia 5005, Australia
| | - Carly E Gregor
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Biology, School of Biological Sciences, University of Adelaide, Adelaide, South Australia 5005, Australia
| | - Kevin A Fenix
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Biology, School of Biological Sciences, University of Adelaide, Adelaide, South Australia 5005, Australia
| | - Abiodun D Ogunniyi
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Biology, School of Biological Sciences, University of Adelaide, Adelaide, South Australia 5005, Australia.,Research Centre for Infectious Diseases, School of Biological Sciences, University of Adelaide, Adelaide, South Australia 5005, Australia
| | - James C Paton
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Biology, School of Biological Sciences, University of Adelaide, Adelaide, South Australia 5005, Australia.,Research Centre for Infectious Diseases, School of Biological Sciences, University of Adelaide, Adelaide, South Australia 5005, Australia
| | - Matthias Mack
- Department of Internal Medicine II, University Hospital Regensburg, Regensburg 93042, Germany
| | - Diana R Pombal
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, VIB and University of Leuven, B-3000 Leuven, Belgium
| | - Cyrill Seillet
- Division of Molecular Immunology, Walter and Eliza Hall Institute of Medical Research, Parkville, Victoria 3052, Australia
| | - Bénédicte Dubois
- Department of Neurosciences, KU-Leuven-University of Leuven, B-3000 Leuven, Belgium
| | - Adrian Liston
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, VIB and University of Leuven, B-3000 Leuven, Belgium
| | - Kelli P A MacDonald
- QIMR Berghofer Medical Research Institute, Herston, Queensland 4006, Australia
| | - Gabrielle T Belz
- Division of Molecular Immunology, Walter and Eliza Hall Institute of Medical Research, Parkville, Victoria 3052, Australia.,Department of Medical Biology, University of Melbourne, Parkville, Victoria 3010, Australia
| | - Mark J Smyth
- QIMR Berghofer Medical Research Institute, Herston, Queensland 4006, Australia.,School of Medicine, University of Queensland, Herston, Queensland 4006, Australia
| | - Geoffrey R Hill
- QIMR Berghofer Medical Research Institute, Herston, Queensland 4006, Australia.,The Royal Brisbane and Women's Hospital, Herston, Queensland 4029, Australia
| | - Iain Comerford
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Biology, School of Biological Sciences, University of Adelaide, Adelaide, South Australia 5005, Australia
| | - Shaun R McColl
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Biology, School of Biological Sciences, University of Adelaide, Adelaide, South Australia 5005, Australia.,Centre for Molecular Pathology, School of Biological Sciences, University of Adelaide, Adelaide, South Australia 5005, Australia
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Isolation site influences virulence phenotype of serotype 14 Streptococcus pneumoniae strains belonging to multilocus sequence type 15. Infect Immun 2015; 83:4781-90. [PMID: 26416904 DOI: 10.1128/iai.01081-15] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/20/2015] [Accepted: 09/25/2015] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Streptococcus pneumoniae is a diverse species causing invasive as well as localized infections that result in massive global morbidity and mortality. Strains vary markedly in pathogenic potential, but the molecular basis is obscured by the diversity and plasticity of the pneumococcal genome. We have previously reported that S. pneumoniae serotype 3 isolates belonging to the same multilocus sequence type (MLST) differed markedly in in vitro and in vivo phenotypes, in accordance with the clinical site of isolation, suggesting stable niche adaptation within a clonal lineage. In the present study, we have extended our analysis to serotype 14 clinical isolates from cases of sepsis or otitis media that belong to the same MLST (ST15). In a murine intranasal challenge model, five ST15 isolates (three from blood and two from ears) colonized the nasopharynx to similar extents. However, blood and ear isolates exhibited significant differences in bacterial loads in other host niches (lungs, ear, and brain) at both 24 and 72 h postchallenge. In spite of these differences, blood and ear isolates were present in the lungs at similar levels at 6 h postchallenge, suggesting that early immune responses may underpin the distinct virulence phenotypes. Transcriptional analysis of lung tissue from mice infected for 6 h with blood isolates versus ear isolates revealed 8 differentially expressed genes. Two of these were exclusively expressed in response to infection with the ear isolate. These results suggest a link between the differential capacities to elicit early innate immune responses and the distinct virulence phenotypes of clonally related S. pneumoniae strains.
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Dando SJ, Mackay-Sim A, Norton R, Currie BJ, St John JA, Ekberg JAK, Batzloff M, Ulett GC, Beacham IR. Pathogens penetrating the central nervous system: infection pathways and the cellular and molecular mechanisms of invasion. Clin Microbiol Rev 2014; 27:691-726. [PMID: 25278572 PMCID: PMC4187632 DOI: 10.1128/cmr.00118-13] [Citation(s) in RCA: 259] [Impact Index Per Article: 25.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/08/2023] Open
Abstract
The brain is well protected against microbial invasion by cellular barriers, such as the blood-brain barrier (BBB) and the blood-cerebrospinal fluid barrier (BCSFB). In addition, cells within the central nervous system (CNS) are capable of producing an immune response against invading pathogens. Nonetheless, a range of pathogenic microbes make their way to the CNS, and the resulting infections can cause significant morbidity and mortality. Bacteria, amoebae, fungi, and viruses are capable of CNS invasion, with the latter using axonal transport as a common route of infection. In this review, we compare the mechanisms by which bacterial pathogens reach the CNS and infect the brain. In particular, we focus on recent data regarding mechanisms of bacterial translocation from the nasal mucosa to the brain, which represents a little explored pathway of bacterial invasion but has been proposed as being particularly important in explaining how infection with Burkholderia pseudomallei can result in melioidosis encephalomyelitis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Samantha J Dando
- Institute for Glycomics, Griffith University, Gold Coast, Queensland, Australia
| | - Alan Mackay-Sim
- Eskitis Institute for Drug Discovery, Griffith University, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia
| | - Robert Norton
- Townsville Hospital, Townsville, Queensland, Australia
| | - Bart J Currie
- Menzies School of Health Research and Royal Darwin Hospital, Darwin, Northern Territory, Australia
| | - James A St John
- Eskitis Institute for Drug Discovery, Griffith University, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia
| | - Jenny A K Ekberg
- Eskitis Institute for Drug Discovery, Griffith University, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia School of Biomedical Sciences, Queensland University of Technology, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia
| | - Michael Batzloff
- Institute for Glycomics, Griffith University, Gold Coast, Queensland, Australia
| | - Glen C Ulett
- School of Medical Science and Griffith Health Institute, Griffith University, Gold Coast, Queensland, Australia
| | - Ifor R Beacham
- Institute for Glycomics, Griffith University, Gold Coast, Queensland, Australia
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Macedo-Ramos H, Batista AF, Carrier-Ruiz A, Alves L, Allodi S, Ribeiro-Resende VT, Teixeira LM, Baetas-da-Cruz W. Evidence of involvement of the mannose receptor in the internalization of Streptococcus pneumoniae by Schwann cells. BMC Microbiol 2014; 14:211. [PMID: 25085553 PMCID: PMC4236529 DOI: 10.1186/s12866-014-0211-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/26/2014] [Accepted: 07/21/2014] [Indexed: 01/17/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND The ability of S. pneumoniae to generate infections depends on the restrictions imposed by the host's immunity, in order to prevent the bacterium from spreading from the nasopharynx to other tissues, such as the brain. Some authors claim that strains of S. pneumoniae, which fail to survive in the bloodstream, can enter the brain directly from the nasal cavity by axonal transport through the olfactory and/or trigeminal nerves. However, from the immunological point of view, glial cells are far more responsive to bacterial infections than are neurons. This hypothesis is consistent with several recent reports showing that bacteria can infect glial cells from the olfactory bulb and trigeminal ganglia. Since our group previously demonstrated that Schwann cells (SCs) express a functional and appropriately regulated mannose receptor (MR), we decided to test whether SCs are involved in the internalization of S. pneumoniae via MR. RESULTS Immediately after the interaction step, as well as 3 h later, the percentage of association was approximately 56.5%, decreasing to 47.2% and 40.8% after 12 and 24 h, respectively. Competition assays by adding a 100-fold excess of mannan prior to the S. pneumoniae infection reduced the number of infected cells at 3 and 24 h. A cytochemistry assay with Man/BSA-FITC binding was performed in order to verify a possible overlap between mannosylated ligands and internalized bacteria. Incubation of the SCs with Man/BSA-FITC resulted in a large number of intracellular S. pneumoniae, with nearly complete loss of the capsule. Moreover, the anti-pneumococcal antiserum staining colocalized with the internalized man/BSA-FITC, suggesting that both markers are present within the same endocytic compartment of the SC. CONCLUSIONS Our data offer novel evidence that SCs could be essential for pneumococcal cells to escape phagocytosis and killing by innate immune cells. On the other hand, the results also support the idea that SCs are immunocompetent cells of the PNS that can mediate an efficient immune response against pathogens via MR.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | - Wagner Baetas-da-Cruz
- Faculdade de Medicina, Centro de Cirurgia Experimental, Laboratório Translacional em Fisiologia Molecular, Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, RJ, Brazil.
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Burkholderia pseudomallei penetrates the brain via destruction of the olfactory and trigeminal nerves: implications for the pathogenesis of neurological melioidosis. mBio 2014; 5:e00025. [PMID: 24736221 PMCID: PMC3993850 DOI: 10.1128/mbio.00025-14] [Citation(s) in RCA: 51] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/15/2023] Open
Abstract
Melioidosis is a potentially fatal disease that is endemic to tropical northern Australia and Southeast Asia, with a mortality rate of 14 to 50%. The bacterium Burkholderia pseudomallei is the causative agent which infects numerous parts of the human body, including the brain, which results in the neurological manifestation of melioidosis. The olfactory nerve constitutes a direct conduit from the nasal cavity into the brain, and we have previously reported that B. pseudomallei can colonize this nerve in mice. We have now investigated in detail the mechanism by which the bacteria penetrate the olfactory and trigeminal nerves within the nasal cavity and infect the brain. We found that the olfactory epithelium responded to intranasal B. pseudomallei infection by widespread crenellation followed by disintegration of the neuronal layer to expose the underlying basal layer, which the bacteria then colonized. With the loss of the neuronal cell bodies, olfactory axons also degenerated, and the bacteria then migrated through the now-open conduit of the olfactory nerves. Using immunohistochemistry, we demonstrated that B. pseudomallei migrated through the cribriform plate via the olfactory nerves to enter the outer layer of the olfactory bulb in the brain within 24 h. We also found that the bacteria colonized the thin respiratory epithelium in the nasal cavity and then rapidly migrated along the underlying trigeminal nerve to penetrate the cranial cavity. These results demonstrate that B. pseudomallei invasion of the nerves of the nasal cavity leads to direct infection of the brain and bypasses the blood-brain barrier. Melioidosis is a potentially fatal tropical disease that is endemic to northern Australia and Southeast Asia. It is caused by the bacterium Burkholderia pseudomallei, which can infect many organs of the body, including the brain, and results in neurological symptoms. The pathway by which the bacteria can penetrate the brain is unknown, and we have investigated the ability of the bacteria to migrate along nerves that innervate the nasal cavity and enter the frontal region of the brain by using a mouse model of infection. By generating a mutant strain of B. pseudomallei which is unable to survive in the blood, we show that the bacteria rapidly penetrate the cranial cavity using the olfactory (smell) nerve and the trigeminal (sensory) nerve that line the nasal cavity.
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39
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McIntosh EDG. Treatment and prevention strategies to combat pediatric pneumococcal meningitis. Expert Rev Anti Infect Ther 2014; 3:739-50. [PMID: 16207165 DOI: 10.1586/14787210.3.5.739] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
Pneumococcal meningitis is a severe, life-threatening infection of the nervous system affecting infants, children and adults alike. The incidence of pneumococcal meningitis in infants and children less than 2 years of age in Europe is approximately 10 out of 100,000 per year, rising to approximately 148 out of 100,000 per year in Gambian infants. The use of highly sensitive tests such as PCR may increase the likelihood of detecting the infection by 20% or more. Epidemics of serotype 1 pneumococcal meningitis in northern Ghana, have had many of the characteristics of meningococcal meningitis epidemics. Neurologic sequelae may occur in 28-63% of cases, and serotype 3 is associated with a 2.54 relative risk of death. The pathogenic process can be divided into invasion, inflammatory pathways, bacterial toxicity and damage; pneumolysin being particularly associated with apoptosis. In the future, neuroprotection may be achieved, targeting this process at all these levels. Therapeutic guidelines have been published by the Infectious Diseases Society of America. Standard empiric therapy, in those aged greater than or equal to 1 month, is a third-generation cephalosporin plus vancomycin. There is insufficient evidence relating to the use or otherwise of corticosteroids in pneumococcal meningitis to make a firm recommendation. The advent of a pneumococcal conjugate vaccine is the most powerful tool available for the prevention of pneumococcal meningitis in all parts of the world.
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Thomas RJ. Particle size and pathogenicity in the respiratory tract. Virulence 2013; 4:847-58. [PMID: 24225380 PMCID: PMC3925716 DOI: 10.4161/viru.27172] [Citation(s) in RCA: 132] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/30/2013] [Revised: 11/08/2013] [Accepted: 11/12/2013] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Particle size dictates where aerosolized pathogens deposit in the respiratory tract, thereafter the pathogens potential to cause disease is influenced by tissue tropism, clearance kinetics and the host immunological response. This interplay brings pathogens into contact with a range of tissues spanning the respiratory tract and associated anatomical structures. In animal models, differential deposition within the respiratory tract influences infection kinetics for numerous select agents. Greater numbers of pathogens are required to infect the upper (URT) compared with the lower respiratory tract (LRT), and in comparison the URT infections are protracted with reduced mortality. Pathogenesis in the URT is characterized by infection of the URT lymphoid tissues, cervical lymphadenopathy and septicemia, closely resembling reported human infections of the URT. The olfactory, gastrointestinal, and ophthalmic systems are also infected in a pathogen-dependent manner. The relevant literature is reviewed with respect to particle size and infection of the URT in animal models and humans.
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Frazão N, Hiller NL, Powell E, Earl J, Ahmed A, Sá-Leão R, de Lencastre H, Ehrlich GD, Tomasz A. Virulence potential and genome-wide characterization of drug resistant Streptococcus pneumoniae clones selected in vivo by the 7-valent pneumococcal conjugate vaccine. PLoS One 2013; 8:e74867. [PMID: 24069360 PMCID: PMC3777985 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0074867] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/19/2013] [Accepted: 08/07/2013] [Indexed: 11/28/2022] Open
Abstract
We used mouse models of pneumococcal colonization and disease combined with full genome sequencing to characterize three major drug resistant clones of S. pneumoniae that were recovered from the nasopharynx of PCV7-immunized children in Portugal. The three clones--serotype 6A (ST2191), serotype 15A (ST63) and serotype 19A (ST276) carried some of the same drug resistance determinants already identified in nasopharyngeal isolates from the pre-PCV7 era. The three clones were able to colonize efficiently the mouse nasopharyngeal mucosa where populations of these pneumococci were retained for as long as 21 days. During this period, the three clones were able to asymptomatically invade the olfactory bulbs, brain, lungs and the middle ear mucosa and established populations in these tissues. The virulence potential of the three clones was poor even at high inoculum (10(5) CFU per mouse) concentrations in the mouse septicemia model and was undetectable in the pneumonia model. Capsular type 3 transformants of clones 6A and 19A prepared in the laboratory produced lethal infection at low cell concentration (10(3) CFU per mouse) but the same transformants became impaired in their potential to colonize, indicating the importance of the capsular polysaccharide in both disease and colonization. The three clones were compared to the genomes of 56 S. pneumoniae strains for which sequence information was available in the public databank. Clone 15A (ST63) only differed from the serotype 19F clone G54 in a very few genes including serotype so that this clone may be considered the product of a capsular switch. While no strain with comparable degree of similarity to clone 19A (ST276) was found among the sequenced isolates, by MLST this clone is a single locust variant (SLV) of Denmark14-ST230 international clone. Clone 6A (ST2191) was most similar to the penicillin resistant Hungarian serotype 19A clone.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nelson Frazão
- Laboratory of Molecular Genetics, Instituto de Tecnologia Química e Biológica, Universidade Nova de Lisboa, Oeiras, Portugal
- Laboratory of Microbiology, The Rockefeller University, New York, New York, United States of America
| | - N. Luisa Hiller
- Allegheny General Hospital, Allegheny-Singer Research Institute, Center for Genomic Sciences, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, United States of America
- Department of Biological Sciences, Carnegie Mellon University, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, United States of America
| | - Evan Powell
- Allegheny General Hospital, Allegheny-Singer Research Institute, Center for Genomic Sciences, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, United States of America
| | - Josh Earl
- Allegheny General Hospital, Allegheny-Singer Research Institute, Center for Genomic Sciences, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, United States of America
| | - Azad Ahmed
- Allegheny General Hospital, Allegheny-Singer Research Institute, Center for Genomic Sciences, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, United States of America
| | - Raquel Sá-Leão
- Laboratory of Molecular Microbiology of Human Pathogens, Instituto de Tecnologia Química e Biológica, Universidade Nova de Lisboa, Oeiras, Portugal
| | - Hermínia de Lencastre
- Laboratory of Molecular Genetics, Instituto de Tecnologia Química e Biológica, Universidade Nova de Lisboa, Oeiras, Portugal
- Laboratory of Microbiology, The Rockefeller University, New York, New York, United States of America
| | - Garth D. Ehrlich
- Allegheny General Hospital, Allegheny-Singer Research Institute, Center for Genomic Sciences, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, United States of America
| | - Alexander Tomasz
- Laboratory of Microbiology, The Rockefeller University, New York, New York, United States of America
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Interkingdom signaling induces Streptococcus pneumoniae biofilm dispersion and transition from asymptomatic colonization to disease. mBio 2013; 4:mBio.00438-13. [PMID: 23882016 PMCID: PMC3735180 DOI: 10.1128/mbio.00438-13] [Citation(s) in RCA: 172] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Streptococcus pneumoniae is a common human nasopharyngeal commensal colonizing 10% to 40% of healthy individuals, depending on age. Despite a low invasive disease rate, widespread carriage ensures that infection occurs often enough to make S. pneumoniae a leading bacterial cause of respiratory disease worldwide. However, the mechanisms behind transition from asymptomatic colonization to dissemination and disease in otherwise sterile sites remain poorly understood but are epidemiologically strongly linked to infection with respiratory viruses. In this report, we show that infection with influenza A virus and treatment with the resulting host signals (febrile-range temperatures, norepinephrine, extracytoplasmic ATP, and increased nutrient availability) induce the release of bacteria from biofilms in a newly developed biofilm model on live epithelial cells both in vitro and during in vivo colonization. These dispersed bacteria have distinct phenotypic properties different from those of both biofilm and broth-grown, planktonic bacteria, with the dispersed population showing differential virulence gene expression characteristics resulting in a significantly increased ability to disseminate and cause infection of otherwise sterile sites, such as the middle ear, lungs, and bloodstream. The results offer novel and important insights into the role of interkingdom signaling between microbe and host during biofilm dispersion and transition to acute disease. This report addresses the mechanisms involved in transition from pneumococcal asymptomatic colonization to disease. In this study, we determined that changes in the nasopharyngeal environment result in the release of bacteria from colonizing biofilms with a gene expression and virulence phenotype different not only from that of colonizing biofilm bacteria but also from that of the broth-grown planktonic bacteria commonly used for pathogenesis studies. The work importantly also identifies specific host factors responsible for the release of bacteria and their changed phenotype. We show that these interkingdom signals are recognized by bacteria and are induced by influenza virus infection, which is epidemiologically strongly associated with transition to secondary pneumococcal disease. As virus infection is a common inducer of transition to disease among species occupying the nasopharynx, the results of this study may provide a basis for better understanding of the signals involved in the transition from colonization to disease in the human nasopharynx.
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Beacham IR, Headrick JP. Bacterial UDP-Glucose Hydrolases and P2 Receptor-Mediated Responses to Infection: A Commentary. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2013. [DOI: 10.4236/aid.2013.32016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
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Thomas RJ, Davies C, Nunez A, Hibbs S, Eastaugh L, Harding S, Jordan J, Barnes K, Oyston P, Eley S. Particle-size dependent effects in the Balb/c murine model of inhalational melioidosis. Front Cell Infect Microbiol 2012; 2:101. [PMID: 22919690 PMCID: PMC3417579 DOI: 10.3389/fcimb.2012.00101] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/11/2012] [Accepted: 07/03/2012] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Deposition of Burkholderia pseudomallei within either the lungs or nasal passages of the Balb/c murine model resulted in different infection kinetics. The infection resulting from the inhalation of B. pseudomallei within a 12 μm particle aerosol was prolonged compared to a 1 μm particle aerosol with a mean time-to-death (MTD) of 174.7 ± 14.9 h and 73.8 ± 11.3 h, respectively. Inhalation of B. pseudomallei within 1 μm or 12 μm particle aerosols resulted in a median lethal dose (MLD) of 4 and 12 cfu, respectively. The 12 μm particle inhalational infection was characterized by a marked involvement of the nasal mucosa and extension of bacterial colonization and inflammatory lesions from the olfactory epithelium through the olfactory nerves (or tracts) to the olfactory bulb (100%), culminating in abscessation of the brain (33%). Initial involvement of the upper respiratory tract lymphoid tissues (nasal-associated lymphoid tissue (NALT) and cervical lymph nodes) was observed in both the 1 and 12 μm particle inhalational infections (80-85%). Necrotising alveolitis and bronchiolitis were evident in both inhalational infections, however, lung pathology was greater after inhalation of the 1 μm particle aerosol with pronounced involvement of the mediastinal lymph node (50%). Terminal disease was characterized by bacteraemia in both inhalational infections with dissemination to the spleen, liver, kidneys, and thymus. Treatment with co-trimoxazole was more effective than treatment with doxycycline irrespective of the size of the particles inhaled. Doxycycline was more effective against the 12 μm particle inhalational infection as evidenced by increased time to death. However, both treatment regimes exhibited significant relapse when therapy was discontinued with massive enlargement and abscessation of the lungs, spleen, and cervical lymph nodes observed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Richard J Thomas
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, Defence Science and Technology Laboratory, Salisbury Wiltshire, UK.
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Fujkuyama Y, Tokuhara D, Kataoka K, Gilbert RS, McGhee JR, Yuki Y, Kiyono H, Fujihashi K. Novel vaccine development strategies for inducing mucosal immunity. Expert Rev Vaccines 2012; 11:367-79. [PMID: 22380827 DOI: 10.1586/erv.11.196] [Citation(s) in RCA: 108] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/04/2023]
Abstract
To develop protective immune responses against mucosal pathogens, the delivery route and adjuvants for vaccination are important. The host, however, strives to maintain mucosal homeostasis by responding to mucosal antigens with tolerance, instead of immune activation. Thus, induction of mucosal immunity through vaccination is a rather difficult task, and potent mucosal adjuvants, vectors or other special delivery systems are often used, especially in the elderly. By taking advantage of the common mucosal immune system, the targeting of mucosal dendritic cells and microfold epithelial cells may facilitate the induction of effective mucosal immunity. Thus, novel routes of immunization and antigen delivery systems also show great potential for the development of effective and safe mucosal vaccines against various pathogens. The purpose of this review is to introduce several recent approaches to induce mucosal immunity to vaccines, with an emphasis on mucosal tissue targeting, new immunization routes and delivery systems. Defining the mechanisms of mucosal vaccines is as important as their efficacy and safety, and in this article, examples of recent approaches, which will likely accelerate progress in mucosal vaccine development, are discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yoshiko Fujkuyama
- Departments of Pediatric Dentistry and Microbiology, The Immunobiology Vaccine Center, The University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, AL, USA
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Herbert RP, Harris J, Chong KP, Chapman J, West AK, Chuah MI. Cytokines and olfactory bulb microglia in response to bacterial challenge in the compromised primary olfactory pathway. J Neuroinflammation 2012; 9:109. [PMID: 22642871 PMCID: PMC3411416 DOI: 10.1186/1742-2094-9-109] [Citation(s) in RCA: 46] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/16/2012] [Accepted: 05/29/2012] [Indexed: 12/04/2022] Open
Abstract
Background The primary olfactory pathway is a potential route through which microorganisms from the periphery could potentially access the central nervous system. Our previous studies demonstrated that if the olfactory epithelium was damaged, bacteria administered into the nasal cavity induced nitric oxide production in olfactory ensheathing cells. This study investigates the cytokine profile of olfactory tissues as a consequence of bacterial challenge and establishes whether or not the bacteria are able to reach the olfactory bulb in the central nervous system. Methods The olfactory epithelium of C57BL/6 mice was damaged by unilateral Triton X-100 nasal washing, and Staphylococcus aureus was administered ipsilaterally 4 days later. Olfactory mucosa and bulb were harvested 6 h, 24 h and 5 days after inoculation and their cytokine profile compared to control tissues. The fate of S. aureus and the response of bulbar microglia were examined using fluorescence microscopy and transmission electron microscopy. Results In the olfactory mucosa, administered S. aureus was present in supporting cells of the olfactory epithelium, and macrophages and olfactory nerve bundles in the lamina propria. Fluorescein isothiocyanate-conjugated S. aureus was observed within the olfactory mucosa and bulb 6 h after inoculation, but remained restricted to the peripheral layers up to 5 days later. At the 24-h time point, the level of interleukin-6 (IL-6) and tumour necrosis factor-α in the compromised olfactory tissues challenged with bacteria (12,466 ± 956 pg/ml and 552 ± 193 pg/ml, respectively) was significantly higher than that in compromised olfactory tissues alone (6,092 ± 1,403 pg/ml and 80 ± 2 pg/ml, respectively). Immunohistochemistry confirmed that IL-6 was present in several cell types including olfactory ensheathing cells and mitral cells of the olfactory bulb. Concurrently, there was a 4.4-, 4.5- and 2.8-fold increase in the density of iNOS-expressing cells in the olfactory mucosa, olfactory nerve and glomerular layers combined, and granule layer of the olfactory bulb, respectively. Conclusions Bacteria are able to penetrate the immunological defence of the compromised olfactory mucosa and infiltrate the olfactory bulb within 6 h even though a proinflammatory profile is mounted. Activated microglia may have a role in restricting bacteria to the outer layers of the olfactory bulb.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rosalind P Herbert
- Menzies Research Institute Tasmania, 17 Liverpool Street, Hobart, TAS, 7001, Australia
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Kono M, Hotomi M, Hollingshead SK, Briles DE, Yamanaka N. Maternal immunization with pneumococcal surface protein A protects against pneumococcal infections among derived offspring. PLoS One 2011; 6:e27102. [PMID: 22073127 PMCID: PMC3205068 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0027102] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/19/2011] [Accepted: 10/10/2011] [Indexed: 11/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Pathogen-specific antibody plays an important role in protection against pneumococcal carriage and infections. However, neonates and infants exhibit impaired innate and adaptive immune responses, which result in their high susceptibility to pneumococci. To protect neonates and infants against pneumococcal infection it is important to elicit specific protective immune responses at very young ages. In this study, we investigated the protective immunity against pneumococcal carriage, pneumonia, and sepsis induced by maternal immunization with pneumococcal surface protein A (PspA). Mother mice were intranasally immunized with recombinant PspA (rPspA) and cholera toxin B subunit (CTB) prior to being mated. Anti-PspA specific IgG, predominantly IgG1, was present at a high level in the serum and milk of immunized mothers and in the sera of their pups. The pneumococcal densities in washed nasal tissues and in lung homogenate were significantly reduced in pups delivered from and/or breast-fed by PspA-immunized mothers. Survival after fatal systemic infections with various types of pneumococci was significantly extended in the pups, which had received anti-PspA antibody via the placenta or through their milk. The current findings strongly suggest that maternal immunization with PspA is an attractive strategy against pneumococcal infections during early childhood. (191 words)
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Affiliation(s)
- Masamitsu Kono
- Department of Otolaryngology-Head and Neck Surgery, Wakayama Medical University, Wakayama-city, Wakayama, Japan
| | - Muneki Hotomi
- Department of Otolaryngology-Head and Neck Surgery, Wakayama Medical University, Wakayama-city, Wakayama, Japan
- * E-mail:
| | - Susan K. Hollingshead
- Department of Microbiology, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, Alabama, United States of America
| | - David E. Briles
- Department of Microbiology, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, Alabama, United States of America
| | - Noboru Yamanaka
- Department of Otolaryngology-Head and Neck Surgery, Wakayama Medical University, Wakayama-city, Wakayama, Japan
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Thomas RJ. Receptor mimicry as novel therapeutic treatment for biothreat agents. Bioeng Bugs 2011; 1:17-30. [PMID: 21327124 DOI: 10.4161/bbug.1.1.10049] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/29/2009] [Revised: 09/10/2009] [Accepted: 09/11/2009] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
The specter of intentional release of pathogenic microbes and their toxins is a real threat. This article reviews the literature on adhesins of biothreat agents, their interactions with oligosaccharides and the potential for anti-adhesion compounds as an alternative to conventional therapeutics. The minimal binding structure of ricin has been well characterised and offers the best candidate for successful anti-adhesion therapy based on the Galβ1-4GlcNAc structure. The botulinum toxin serotypes A-F bind to a low number of gangliosides (GT1b, GQ1b, GD1a and GD1b) hence it should be possible to determine the minimal structure for binding. The minimal disaccharide sequence of GalNAcβ1-4Gal found in the gangliosides asialo-GM1 and asialo-GM2 is required for adhesion for many respiratory pathogens. Although a number of adhesins have been identified in bacterial biothreat agents such as Yersinia pestis, Bacillus anthracis, Francisella tularensis, Brucella species and Burkholderia pseudomallei, specific information regarding their in vivo expression during pneumonic infection is lacking. Limited oligosaccharide inhibition studies indicate the potential of GalNAcβ1-4Gal, GalNAcβ-3Gal and the hydrophobic compound, para-nitrophenol as starting points for the rational design of generic anti-adhesion compounds. A cocktail of multivalent oligosaccharides based on the minimal binding structures of identified adhesins would offer the best candidates for anti-adhesion therapy.
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Nasopharyngeal colonization and invasive disease are enhanced by the cell wall hydrolases LytB and LytC of Streptococcus pneumoniae. PLoS One 2011; 6:e23626. [PMID: 21886805 PMCID: PMC3160309 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0023626] [Citation(s) in RCA: 49] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/02/2011] [Accepted: 07/21/2011] [Indexed: 01/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Background Streptococcus pneumoniae is a common colonizer of the human nasopharynx and one of the major pathogens causing invasive disease worldwide. Dissection of the molecular pathways responsible for colonization, invasion, and evasion of the immune system will provide new targets for antimicrobial or vaccine therapies for this common pathogen. Methodology/Principal Findings We have constructed mutants lacking the pneumococcal cell wall hydrolases (CWHs) LytB and LytC to investigate the role of these proteins in different phases of the pneumococcal pathogenesis. Our results show that LytB and LytC are involved in the attachment of S. pneumoniae to human nasopharyngeal cells both in vitro and in vivo. The interaction of both proteins with phagocytic cells demonstrated that LytB and LytC act in concert avoiding pneumococcal phagocytosis mediated by neutrophils and alveolar macrophages. Furthermore, C3b deposition was increased on the lytC mutant confirming that LytC is involved in complement evasion. As a result, the lytC mutant showed a reduced ability to successfully cause pneumococcal pneumonia and sepsis. Bacterial mutants lacking both LytB and LytC showed a dramatically impaired attachment to nasopharyngeal cells as well as a marked degree of attenuation in a mouse model of colonization. In addition, C3b deposition and phagocytosis was more efficient for the double lytB lytC mutant and its virulence was greatly impaired in both systemic and pulmonary models of infection. Conclusions/Significance This study confirms that the CWHs LytB and LytC of S. pneumoniae are essential virulence factors involved in the colonization of the nasopharynx and in the progress of invasive disease by avoiding host immunity.
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