The product of ORF O located within the domain of herpes simplex virus 1 genome transcribed during latent infection binds to and inhibits in vitro binding of infected cell protein 4 to its cognate DNA site

HSV-1 small non-coding RNA (sncRNA) 1 and 2 activate the Herpes virus entry mediator (HVEM) promoter

HSV-1 latency associated transcript (LAT) plays a significant role in efficient establishment of latency and reactivation. LAT has antiapoptotic activity and downregulates expression of components of the Type I interferon pathway. LAT also specifically activates expression of the herpesvirus entry mediator (HVEM), one of seven known receptors used by HSV-1 for cell entry that is crucial for latency and reactivation. However, the mechanism by which LAT regulates HVEM expression is not known. LAT encodes two sncRNAs that are not miRNAs, within its 1.5 kb stable transcript, which also have antiapoptotic activity. These sncRNAs may encode short peptides, but experimental evidence is lacking. Here, we demonstrate that these two sncRNAs control HVEM expression by activating its promoter. Both sncRNAs are required for WT level of activation of HVEM and sncRNA1 is more important in HVEM activation than sncRNA2. Disruption of a putative start codon in sncRNA1 and sncRNA2 sequences reduced HVEM promoter activity, suggesting that sncRNAs may encode a protein. However, we did not detect peptide binding using two chromatin immunoprecipitation (ChIP) approaches and a web-based algorithm predicts low probability that the putative peptides bind to DNA. In addition, computational modeling predicts that sncRNA molecules bind with high affinity to the HVEM promoter and deletion of these binding sites to sncRNA1, sncRNA2 or both reduced HVEM promoter activity. Together, our data suggests that sncRNAs exert their function as RNA molecules, not as proteins, and we provide a model for the predicted binding affinities and binding sites of sncRNA1 and sncRNA2 in the HVEM promoter. IMPORTANCE HSV-1 causes recurrent ocular infections, which is the leading cause of corneal scarring and blindness. Corneal scarring is caused by the host immune response to repeated reactivation events. LAT functions by regulating latency and reactivation, in part by inhibiting apoptosis and activating HVEM expression. However, the mechanism used by LAT to control of HVEM expression is unclear. Here, we demonstrate that two sncRNAs encoded within the 1.5 kb LAT transcript activate HVEM expression by binding to two regions of its promoter. Interfering with these interactions may reduce latency and thereby eye disease associated with reactivation.

Management and outcome of spinal implant-associated surgical site infections in patients with posterior instrumentation: analysis of 176 cases

PURPOSE

The management of implant-associated surgical site infections (SSI) in patients with posterior instrumentation is challenging. Evidence regarding the most appropriate treatment and the need for removal of implants is equivocal. We sought to evaluate the management and outcome of such patients at our institution.

METHODS

We searched our prospectively documented databases for eligible patients with posterior spinal instrumentation, excluding the cervical spine (January 2008-June 2018). Patient files were reviewed, demographic data and treatment details were recorded. Patient-reported outcome (PRO) was assessed with the Core Outcome Measures Index (COMI) preoperatively and postoperatively at 3 and 12 months.

RESULTS

A total of 170 patients underwent 210 revisions for 176 SSIs. Two-thirds presented within four weeks (105/176, 59.7%, median 22.5d, 7d-11.1y). The most common pathogens were Staphylococcus aureus (n = 79/210, 37.6%) and Staphylococcus epidermidis (n = 56/210, 26.7%). Debridement and implant retention was performed in 135/210 (64.3%) revisions and partial replacement in 62/210 (29.5%). In 28/176 SSI (15.9%), persistent infection required multiple revisions (≤ 4). Surgery was followed by intravenous and oral antimicrobial treatment (10-12w). In 139/176 SSIs (79%) with ≥ 1y follow-up, infection was cured in 115/139 (82.7%); relapse occurred in 9 (relapse rate: 5.1%). Two patients (1.4%) died. COMI decreased significantly (8.2 ± 1.5 vs. 4.8 ± 2.9, p < 0.0001) over 12 months. 72.7% of patients were (very) satisfied with their care.

CONCLUSION

Patients with SSI after posterior (thoraco-)lumbo(-sacral) instrumentation can be successfully treated in most cases with surgical and specific antibiotic treatment. An interdisciplinary approach is recommended. Loose implants should be replaced. In some cases, multiple revisions may be necessary. Patient outcomes were satisfactory.

Integrative functional genomics decodes herpes simplex virus 1

The predicted 80 open reading frames (ORFs) of herpes simplex virus 1 (HSV-1) have been intensively studied for decades. Here, we unravel the complete viral transcriptome and translatome during lytic infection with base-pair resolution by computational integration of multi-omics data. We identify a total of 201 transcripts and 284 ORFs including all known and 46 novel large ORFs. This includes a so far unknown ORF in the locus deleted in the FDA-approved oncolytic virus Imlygic. Multiple transcript isoforms expressed from individual gene loci explain translation of the vast majority of ORFs as well as N-terminal extensions (NTEs) and truncations. We show that NTEs with non-canonical start codons govern the subcellular protein localization and packaging of key viral regulators and structural proteins. We extend the current nomenclature to include all viral gene products and provide a genome browser that visualizes all the obtained data from whole genome to single-nucleotide resolution.

The herpes viral transcription factor ICP4 forms a novel DNA recognition complex

The transcription factor ICP4 from herpes simplex virus has a central role in regulating the gene expression cascade which controls viral infection. Here we present the crystal structure of the functionally essential ICP4 DNA binding domain in complex with a segment from its own promoter, revealing a novel homo-dimeric fold. We also studied the complex in solution by small angle X-Ray scattering, nuclear magnetic resonance and surface-plasmon resonance which indicated that, in addition to the globular domain, a flanking intrinsically disordered region also recognizes DNA. Together the data provides a rationale for the bi-partite nature of the ICP4 DNA recognition consensus sequence as the globular and disordered regions bind synergistically to adjacent DNA motifs. Therefore in common with its eukaryotic host, the viral transcription factor ICP4 utilizes disordered regions to enhance the affinity and tune the specificity of DNA interactions in tandem with a globular domain.

HSV1 latent transcription and non-coding RNA: A critical retrospective

Virologists have invested great effort into understanding how the herpes simplex viruses and their relatives are maintained dormant over the lifespan of their host while maintaining the poise to remobilize on sporadic occasions. Piece by piece, our field has defined the tissues in play (the sensory ganglia), the transcriptional units (the latency-associated transcripts), and the responsive genomic region (the long repeats of the viral genomes). With time, the observed complexity of these features has compounded, and the totality of viral factors regulating latency are less obvious. In this review, we compose a comprehensive picture of the viral genetic elements suspected to be relevant to herpes simplex virus 1 (HSV1) latent transcription by conducting a critical analysis of about three decades of research. We describe these studies, which largely involved mutational analysis of the notable latency-associated transcripts (LATs), and more recently a series of viral miRNAs. We also intend to draw attention to the many other less characterized non-coding RNAs, and perhaps coding RNAs, that may be important for consideration when trying to disentangle the multitude of phenotypes of the many genetic modifications introduced into recombinant HSV1 strains.

The 3 facets of regulation of herpes simplex virus gene expression: A critical inquiry

On entry into the body herpes simplex viruses (HSV) replicate in a series of steps that involves derepression of viral DNA activated by VP16, a virion protein, and sequential transcription of viral genes in a cascade fashion. HSV also enters into neurons in which viral DNA maintained as heterochromatin and with few exceptions viral gene expression is silenced. A third face of the interaction of HSV with its host cells takes place at the moment when the silenced viral genome in neurons is abruptly derepressed. The available data do no reveal evidence that HSV encodes different regulatory programs for each facet of its interaction with its host cells. Rather the data point to significant gaps in our knowledge of the mechanisms by which each facet is initiated and the roles of the infected cells at each facet of the interaction of viral gene products with the host cell.

Characterization of herpes simplex virus 2 primary microRNA Transcript regulation

In order to understand factors that may influence latency-associated transcription and latency-associated transcript (LAT) phenotypes, we studied the expression of the herpes simplex virus 2 (HSV-2) LAT-associated microRNAs (miRNAs). We mapped the transcription initiation sites of all three primary miRNA transcripts and identified the ICP4-binding sequences at the transcription initiation sites of both HSV-2 LAT (pri-miRNA for miR-I and miR-II, which target ICP34.5, and miR-III, which targets ICP0) and L/ST (a pri-miRNA for miR-I and miR-II) but not at that of the primary miR-H6 (for which the target is unknown). We confirmed activity of the putative HSV-2 L/ST promoter and found that ICP4 trans-activates the L/ST promoter when the ICP4-binding site at its transcription initiation site is mutated, suggesting that ICP4 may play a dual role in regulating transcription of L/ST and, consequently, of miR-I and miR-II. LAT exon 1 (containing LAT enhancer sequences), together with the LAT promoter region, comprises a bidirectional promoter required for the expression of both LAT-encoded miRNAs and miR-H6 in latently infected mouse ganglia. The ability of ICP4 to suppress ICP34.5-targeting miRNAs and to activate lytic viral genes suggests that ICP4 could play a key role in the switch between latency and reactivation.

IMPORTANCE

The HSV-2 LAT and viral miRNAs expressed in the LAT region are the most abundant viral transcripts during HSV latency. The balance between the expression of LAT and LAT-associated miRNAs and the expression of lytic viral transcripts from the opposite strand appears to influence whether individual HSV-infected neurons will be latently or productively infected. The outcome of neuronal infection may thus depend on regulation of gene expression of the corresponding primary miRNAs. In the present study, we characterize promoter sequences responsible for miRNA expression, including identification of the primary miRNA 5' ends and evaluation of ICP4 response. These findings provide further insight into the virus' strategy to tightly control expression of lytic cycle genes (especially the neurovirulence factor, ICP34.5) and suggest a mechanism (via ICP4) for the transition from latency to reactivated productive infection.

Selective degradation of mRNAs by the HSV host shutoff RNase is regulated by the UL47 tegument protein

Herpes simplex virus 1 (HSV-1) encodes an endoribonuclease that is responsible for the shutoff of host protein synthesis [virion host shutoff (VHS)-RNase]. The VHS-RNase released into cells during infection targets differentially four classes of mRNAs. Thus, (a) VHS-RNase degrades stable cellular mRNAs and α (immediate early) viral mRNAs; (b) it stabilizes host stress response mRNAs after deadenylation and subsequent cleavage near the adenylate-uridylate (AU)-rich elements; (c) it does not effectively degrade viral β or γ mRNAs; and (d) it selectively spares from degradation a small number of cellular mRNAs. Current evidence suggests that several viral and at least one host protein (tristetraprolin) regulate its activity. Thus, virion protein (VP) 16 and VP22 neutralize the RNase activity at late times after infection. By binding to AU-rich elements via its interaction with tristetraprolin, the RNase deadenylates and cleaves the mRNAs in proximity to the AU-rich elements. In this report we show that another virion protein, UL47, brought into the cell during infection, attenuates the VHS-RNase activity with respect to stable host and viral α mRNAs and effectively blocks the degradation of β and γ mRNAs, but it has no effect on the processing of AU-rich mRNAs. The properties of UL47 suggest that it, along with the α protein infected cell protein 27, attenuates degradation of mRNAs by the VHS-RNase through interaction with the enzyme in polyribosomes. Mutants lacking both VHS-RNase and UL47 overexpress α genes and delay the expression of β and γ genes, suggesting that overexpression of α genes inhibits the downstream expression of early and late genes.

Bovine Herpes Virus 1 (BHV-1) and Herpes Simplex Virus Type 1 (HSV-1) Promote Survival of Latently Infected Sensory Neurons, in Part by Inhibiting Apoptosis

α-Herpesvirinae subfamily members, including herpes simplex virus type 1 (HSV-1) and bovine herpes virus 1 (BHV-1), initiate infection in mucosal surfaces. BHV-1 and HSV-1 enter sensory neurons by cell-cell spread where a burst of viral gene expression occurs. When compared to non-neuronal cells, viral gene expression is quickly extinguished in sensory neurons resulting in neuronal survival and latency. The HSV-1 latency associated transcript (LAT), which is abundantly expressed in latently infected neurons, inhibits apoptosis, viral transcription, and productive infection, and directly or indirectly enhances reactivation from latency in small animal models. Three anti-apoptosis genes can be substituted for LAT, which will restore wild type levels of reactivation from latency to a LAT null mutant virus. Two small non-coding RNAs encoded by LAT possess anti-apoptosis functions in transfected cells. The BHV-1 latency related RNA (LR-RNA), like LAT, is abundantly expressed during latency. The LR-RNA encodes a protein (ORF2) and two microRNAs that are expressed in certain latently infected neurons. Wild-type expression of LR gene products is required for stress-induced reactivation from latency in cattle. ORF2 has anti-apoptosis functions and interacts with certain cellular transcription factors that stimulate viral transcription and productive infection. ORF2 is predicted to promote survival of infected neurons by inhibiting apoptosis and sequestering cellular transcription factors which stimulate productive infection. In addition, the LR encoded microRNAs inhibit viral transcription and apoptosis. In summary, the ability of BHV-1 and HSV-1 to interfere with apoptosis and productive infection in sensory neurons is crucial for the life-long latency-reactivation cycle in their respective hosts.

Herpes simplex virus 2 expresses a novel form of ICP34.5, a major viral neurovirulence factor, through regulated alternative splicing

Herpes simplex virus 1 (HSV-1) and HSV-2, two closely related neurotropic human herpesviruses, achieve neurotropism through ICP34.5, a major viral neurovirulence factor. In this report, in addition to the full-length 38-kDa protein (ICP34.5α), we identified a 28-kDa novel form of ICP34.5 (ICP34.5β) in HSV-2-infected cells. ICP34.5β is translated from unspliced ICP34.5 mRNA, with the retained intron introducing a premature stop codon. Thus, ICP34.5β lacks the C-terminal conserved GADD34 domain but includes 19 additional amino acids encoded by the intron. Although a fraction of both HSV-2 ICP34.5 proteins are detected in the nucleolus, ICP34.5α is predominantly located in cytoplasm, and ICP34.5β is mainly detected more diffusely in the nucleus. ICP34.5β is unable to counteract PKR-mediated eIF2 phosphorylation but does not interfere with ICP34.5α's function in this process. Efficient expression of ICP34.5β in cell culture assays is dependent on viral infection or expression of ICP27, a multifunctional immediate-early gene. The effect of ICP27 on the ICP34.5β protein level is attributed to its selective inhibition of ICP34.5 splicing, which results in increased expression of ICP34.5β but a reduced level of ICP34.5α. The C- terminal KH3 domain but not the RNA binding domain of ICP27 is required for its specific inhibition of ICP34.5 splicing and promotion of ICP34.5β expression. Our results suggest that the expression of ICP34.5α and ICP34.5β is tightly regulated in HSV-2 and likely contributes to viral pathogenesis.

The miRNAs of herpes simplex virus (HSV)

Herpes simplex virus (HSV) is a group of common human pathogens with two serotypes HSV-1 and HSV-2. The prevalence of HSV is worldwide. It primarily infects humans through epithelial cells, when it introduces a latent infection into the nervous system. During viral latency, only a region known as the latency-associated transcript (LAT) is expressed. The discovery of HSV miRNAs helps to draw a larger picture of the infection and pathogenesis of the virus. This review summarizes miRNAs found in HSV-1 and HSV-2 so far. The functional studies of miRNAs in HSV to date indicate that they play a stage-specific role coordinated with viral proteins to maintain the virus life cycle.

Ocular herpes simplex virus: how are latency, reactivation, recurrent disease and therapy interrelated?

Most humans are infected with herpes simplex virus (HSV) type 1 in early childhood and remain latently infected throughout life. While most individuals have mild or no symptoms, some will develop destructive HSV keratitis. Ocular infection with HSV-1 and its associated sequelae account for the majority of corneal blindness in industrialized nations. Neuronal latency in the peripheral ganglia is established when transcription of the viral genome is repressed (silenced) except for the latency-associated transcripts and microRNAs. The functions of latency-associated transcripts have been investigated since 1987. Roles have been suggested relating to reactivation, establishment of latency, neuronal protection, antiapoptosis, apoptosis, virulence and asymptomatic shedding. Here, we review HSV-1 latent infections, reactivation, recurrent disease and antiviral therapies for the ocular HSV diseases.

The checkpoints of viral gene expression in productive and latent infection: the role of the HDAC/CoREST/LSD1/REST repressor complex

At the portal of entry into the body, herpes simplex viruses (HSV) vigorously multiply and spread until curtailed by the adaptive immune response. At the same time, HSV invades nerve ending-abutting infected cells and is transported in a retrograde manner to the neuronal nucleus, where it establishes a latent (silent) infection. At intervals, as a consequence of physical or metabolic stress, the virus is activated and transported in an anterograde manner to the body surface. The progression of infection is regulated at four checkpoints. In cell culture or at the portal of entry into the body, HSV uses components of the HDAC1- or HDAC2/CoREST/LSD1/REST repressor complex to activate α genes (checkpoint 1) and then uses an α protein, ICP0, to suppress the same repressor complex from silencing post-α gene expression (checkpoint 2). In neurons destined to harbor latent virus (checkpoint 3), HSV hijacks the same repressor complex to silence itself as a first step in the establishment of the latent state. Suppression of histone deacetylases (HDACs) plays a key role in the reactivation from latency (checkpoint 4). HSV has evolved a strategy of using the same host repressor complex to meet its diverse lifestyle needs.

Host responses to herpes simplex virus and herpes simplex virus vectors

Herpes simplex virus (HSV) is a well-known, ubiquitous pathogen of humans. Engineered mutants of HSV can also be exploited as vectors in gene therapy or for virotherapy of tumors. HSV has multiple abilities to evade and modulate the innate and adaptive responses of the host. The increasing knowledge on the mutual interactions of the invading HSV with the host defenses will contribute to our deeper understanding of the relationship between HSV and the host, and thereby lead to future development of more effective and specific HSV vectors for treatment of human diseases. The future advances of HSV vaccines and vaccine vectors are based on the knowlegde of the complex interplay between HSV and the host defenses.

Identification of herpes simplex virus type 1 proteins encoded within the first 1.5 kb of the latency-associated transcript

Expression of the first 1.5 kb of the latency-associated transcript (LAT) that is encoded by herpes simplex virus type 1 (HSV-1) is sufficient for wild-type (wt) levels of reactivation from latency in small animal models. Peptide-specific immunoglobulin G (IgG) was generated against open reading frames (ORFs) that are located within the first 1.5 kb of LAT coding sequences. Cells stably transfected with LAT or trigeminal ganglionic neurons of mice infected with a LAT expressing virus appeared to express the L2 or L8 ORF. Only L2 ORF expression was readily detected in trigeminal ganglionic neurons of latently infected mice.

Towards an understanding of the herpes simplex virus type 1 latency-reactivation cycle

Infection by herpes simplex virus type 1 (HSV-1) can cause clinical symptoms in the peripheral and central nervous system. Recurrent ocular shedding can lead to corneal scarring and vision loss making HSV-1 a leading cause of corneal blindness due to an infectious agent. The primary site of HSV-1 latency is sensory neurons within trigeminal ganglia. Periodically, reactivation from latency occurs resulting in virus transmission and recurrent disease. During latency, the latency-associated transcript (LAT) is abundantly expressed. LAT expression is important for the latency-reactivation cycle in animal models, in part, because it inhibits apoptosis, viral gene expression, and productive infection. A novel transcript within LAT coding sequences (AL3) and small nonprotein coding RNAs are also expressed in trigeminal ganglia of latently infected mice. In this review, an update of viral factors that are expressed during latency and their potential roles in regulating the latency-reactivation cycle is discussed.

An acutely and latently expressed herpes simplex virus 2 viral microRNA inhibits expression of ICP34.5, a viral neurovirulence factor

Latency-associated transcript (LAT) sequences regulate herpes simplex virus (HSV) latency and reactivation from sensory neurons. We found a HSV-2 LAT-related microRNA (miRNA) designated miR-I in transfected and infected cells in vitro and in acutely and latently infected ganglia of guinea pigs in vivo. miR-I is also expressed in human sacral dorsal root ganglia latently infected with HSV-2. miR-I is expressed under the LAT promoter in vivo in infected sensory ganglia. We also predicted and identified a HSV-1 LAT exon-2 viral miRNA in a location similar to miR-I, implying a conserved mechanism in these closely related viruses. In transfected and infected cells, miR-I reduces expression of ICP34.5, a key viral neurovirulence factor. We hypothesize that miR-I may modulate the outcome of viral infection in the peripheral nervous system by functioning as a molecular switch for ICP34.5 expression.

Characterization of the triplet repeats in the central domain of the gamma134.5 protein of herpes simplex virus 1

The gamma134.5 protein of herpes simplex virus 1 (HSV-1) consists of an amino-terminal domain, a central domain with triplet repeats (Ala-Thr-Pro) and a carboxyl-terminal domain. The triplet repeats are a unique feature of the gamma134.5 protein encoded by HSV-1, but the number of repeats varies among different strains. Notably, the central domain containing the triplet repeats is implicated in neuroinvasion. In this report, it has been shown that partial or full deletion of triplet repeats, i.e. from ten to either three or zero, in the gamma134.5 protein has no effect on the virus response to interferon. The triplet deletion mutants replicate efficiently in CV-1 and mouse 10T1/2 cells. However, in mouse 3T6 cells, these mutants grow with delayed growth kinetics. This decrease in growth, compared with wild-type HSV-1(F), does not result from failure of the virus to suppress the RNA-dependent protein kinase response, but rather from a delay in virus release or egress. Accordingly, these mutant viruses are predominantly present within infected cells. These results indicate that deletions in the central domain of the gamma134.5 protein impair virus egress, but not virus response to interferon.

Complete sequence and comparative analysis of the genome of herpes B virus (Cercopithecine herpesvirus 1) from a rhesus monkey

The complete DNA sequence of herpes B virus (Cercopithecine herpesvirus 1) strain E2490, isolated from a rhesus macaque, was determined. The total genome length is 156,789 bp, with 74.5% G+C composition and overall genome organization characteristic of alphaherpesviruses. The first and last residues of the genome were defined by sequencing the cloned genomic termini. There were six origins of DNA replication in the genome due to tandem duplication of both oriL and oriS regions. Seventy-four genes were identified, and sequence homology to proteins known in herpes simplex viruses (HSVs) was observed in all cases but one. The degree of amino acid identity between B virus and HSV proteins ranged from 26.6% (US5) to 87.7% (US15). Unexpectedly, B virus lacked a homolog of the HSV gamma(1)34.5 gene, which encodes a neurovirulence factor. Absence of this gene was verified in two low-passage clinical isolates derived from a rhesus macaque and a zoonotically infected human. This finding suggests that B virus most likely utilizes mechanisms distinct from those of HSV to sustain efficient replication in neuronal cells. Despite the considerable differences in G+C content of the macaque and B virus genes (51% and 74.2%, respectively), codons used by B virus are optimal for the tRNA population of macaque cells. Complete sequence of the B virus genome will certainly facilitate identification of the genetic basis and possible molecular mechanisms of enhanced B virus neurovirulence in humans, which results in an 80% mortality rate following zoonotic infection.

Suppression of promoter activity of the LAT gene by IE180 of pseudorabies virus

The latency-associated transcript (LAT) gene is the only viral genomic region that is abundantly transcribed during pseudorabies virus (PrV) latent infection. The mechanism of reactivation of PrV from latency remains unknown. To analyze the regulation mechanism of the LAT promoter, we constructed a series of recombinant vectors in which various sequences upstream of LAT were linked to the chloramphenicol acetyltransferase (CAT) gene. Transcriptional efficiency was examined by cotransfection with plasmids carrying the PrV IE, EP0, or gD gene, respectively. Results showed that the activity of PrV LAT promoter was dramatically repressed by the IE180 protein and a TATA box and a putative IE180 binding site within the promoter were involved in this repression. To dissect the functional domains of IE180, we compared the relative repressive abilities of IE180 variants to the LAT promoter by transient transfection assays. Mutational analysis demonstrated that almost the whole IE180 (amino acid residues 1-1440) are essential for its repression to LAT promoter. To explore the possible mechanism of repression, an electrophoretic mobility shift assay (EMSA) using nuclear extracts from neuronal cells was performed and formation of protein-DNA complexes between IE180 and the oligonucleotide probe (-46 to -19, relative to the start site of LAT transcription) was demonstrated. The association of IE180 with the region encompassing the putative IE180 binding site and the TATA box upstream of PrV LAT gene was further confirmed by supershift of EMSA complexes using IE180 specific antibody. Thus, our results suggested that IE180 repressed the LAT promoter via an interaction between IE180, LAT promoter and cellular protein(s).

Cytokines in experimental herpes simplex virus infection

Herpes simplex virus (HSV) causes productive and latent forms of infection in humans and experimental animals. The primary infection and reactivation of the latent infection evoke an immune response in the host organism, involving activities of macrophages, CD4+ and CD8+ lymphocytes, and B lymphocytes. Strong cytokine responses are associated with the acute and recurrent phases of HSV infection. Also, during the latent phase of HSV infection in the sensory ganglia, expression of certain cytokines can be detected. The cytokine response to HSV infection is dominated by proinflammatory and Th1 type cytokines; however, Th2 type cytokines such as interleukin-4 also are expressed in the infected tissue. The use of novel HSV-derived, cytokine-expressing gene therapy vectors necessitates studies on the possible modulation of the host responses by the virus-encoded cytokine transgenes. This review focuses on the roles of certain Th1 and Th2 type cytokines in different phases of the experimental HSV infections.

Analysis of protein expression from within the region encoding the 2.0-kilobase latency-associated transcript of herpes simplex virus type 1

During latent infections of sensory neurons, herpes simplex virus type 1 gene expression is restricted to the latency-associated transcripts (LATs). The association of the stable 2.0-kb LAT intron with polysomes has suggested that it might represent a novel mRNA. In this work, we investigated expression of 2.0-kb LAT open reading frames (ORFs) by inserting the gene for green fluorescent protein (GFP) within the 2.0-kb LAT sequence, both within a LAT expression plasmid and in the context of the virus. Upon transient transfection of cells of both neuronal and nonneuronal origin with LAT-GFP expression vectors, low-level GFP fluorescence was distributed over the cell cytoplasm and likely resulted from infrequent initiation at a GFP AUG codon, on either unspliced or alternately spliced LAT RNAs. A second nucleolar GFP expression pattern which resulted from fusion of GFP to a conserved ORF in exon 1 of the LAT gene was also observed. However, the abundant expression of this fusion protein was dependent upon an artificially added translation initiation codon. Expression was much reduced and restricted to a small subset of transfected cells when this initiator codon was removed. Neither the 2.0-kb LAT-GFP intron itself nor transcripts originating from the latency-associated promoter 2 (LAP2) were responsible for GFP expression. Abundant alternate splicing involving the 1.5-kb LAT splice acceptor and including splicing between the 1.5-kb LAT splice donor and acceptor, was observed in the nonneuronal Cos-1 cell line. Contrary to the results of our transfection studies, GFP expression could not be detected from a LAT-GFP virus at any stage of the infection cycle. Our results suggest that the inhibition of LAT ORF expression during viral infection occurred primarily at the level of translation.

Global analysis of herpes simplex virus type 1 transcription using an oligonucleotide-based DNA microarray

More than 100 transcripts of various abundances and kinetic classes are expressed during phases of productive and latent infections by herpes simplex virus (HSV) type 1. To carry out rapid global analysis of variations in such patterns as a function of perturbation of viral regulatory genes and cell differentiation, we have made DNA microchips containing sets of 75-mer oligonucleotides specific for individual viral transcripts. About half of these are unique for single transcripts, while others function for overlapping ones. We have also included probes for 57 human genes known to be involved in some aspect of stress response. The chips efficiently detect all viral transcripts, and analysis of those abundant under various conditions of infection demonstrates excellent correlation with known kinetics of mRNA accumulation. Further, quantitative sensitivity is high. We have further applied global analysis of transcription to an investigation of mRNA populations in cells infected with a mutant virus in which the essential immediate-early alpha27 (U(L)54) gene has been functionally deleted. Transcripts expressed at 6 h following infection with this mutant can be classified into three groups: those whose abundance is augmented (mainly immediate-early transcripts) or unaltered, those whose abundance is somewhat reduced, and those where there is a significant reduction in transcript levels. These do not conform to any particular kinetic class. Interestingly, levels of many cellular transcripts surveyed are increased. The high proportion of such transcripts suggests that the alpha27 gene plays a major role in the early decline in cellular gene expression so characteristic of HSV infection.

Herpes simplex virus 1 open reading frames O and P are not necessary for establishment of latent infection in mice

Open reading frame (ORF) O and ORF P partially overlap and are located antisense to the gamma(1)34.5 gene within the domain transcribed during latency. In wild-type virus-infected cells, ORF O and ORF P are completely repressed during productive infection by ICP4, the major viral transcriptional activator/repressor. In cells infected with a mutant in which ORF P was derepressed there was a significant delay in the appearance of the viral alpha-regulatory proteins ICP0 and ICP22. The ORF O protein binds to and inhibits ICP4 binding to its cognate DNA site in vitro. These characteristics suggested a role for ORF O and ORF P in the establishment of latency. To test this hypothesis, two recombinant viruses were constructed. In the first, R7538(P-/O-), the ORF P initiator methionine codon, which also serves as the initiator methionine codon for ORF O, was replaced and a diagnostic restriction endonuclease was introduced upstream. In the second, R7543(P-/O-)R, the mutations were repaired to restore the wild-type virus sequences. We report the following. (i) The R7538(P-/O-) mutant failed to express ORF O and ORF P proteins but expressed a wild-type gamma(1)34.5 protein. (ii) R7538(P-/O-) yields were similar to that of the wild type following infection of cell culture or following infection of mice by intracerebral or ocular routes. (iii) R7538(P-/O-) virus reactivated from latency following explanation and cocultivation of murine trigeminal ganglia with Vero cells at a frequency similar to that of the wild type, herpes simplex virus 1(F). (iv) The amount of latent R7538(P-/O-) virus as assayed by quantitative PCR is eightfold less than that of the repair virus. The repaired virus could not be differentiated from the wild-type parent in any of the assays done in this study. We conclude that ORF O and ORF P are not essential for the establishment of latency in mice but may play a role in determining the quantity of latent virus maintained in sensory neurons.

Identification of a novel expressed open reading frame situated between genes U(L)20 and U(L)21 of the herpes simplex virus 1 genome

An open reading frame (ORF) situated between the U(L)20 and U(L)21 genes encodes a protein designated as U(L)20.5. The U(L)20.5 ORF lies 5' and in the same orientation as the U(L)20 ORF. The expression of the U(L)20.5 ORF was verified by RNase protection assays and by in-frame insertion of an amino acid sequence encoding an epitope of an available monoclonal antibody. The tagged U(L)20.5 protein colocalized in small dense nuclear structures with products of the alpha22/U(S)1.5, U(L)3, and U(L)4 genes. Expression of the U(L)20.5 gene was blocked in cells infected and maintained in the presence of phosphonoacetate, indicating that it belongs to the late, or gamma(2), kinetic class. U(L)20.5 is not essential for viral replication inasmuch as a recombinant virus made by insertion of the thymidine kinase gene into the U(L)20.5 ORF replicates in all cell lines tested [J. D. Baines, P. L. Ward, G. Campadelli-Fiume, and B. Roizman (1991) J. Virol. 65, 6414-6424]. The genomic location of the recently discovered genes illustrates the compact nature of the viral genome.

Herpes simplex virus type 1 U(L)34 gene product is required for viral envelopment

The herpes simplex virus type 1 U(L)34 gene encodes a protein that is conserved in all human herpesviruses. The association of the U(L)34 protein with membranes in the infected cell and its expression as a gamma-1 gene suggest a role in maturation or egress of the virus particle from the cell. To determine the function of this gene product, we have constructed a recombinant virus that fails to express the U(L)34 protein. This recombinant virus, in which the U(L)34 protein coding sequence has been replaced by green fluorescent protein, forms minute plaques and replicates in single-step growth experiments to titers 3 to 5 log orders of magnitude lower than wild-type or repair viruses. On Vero cells, the deletion virus synthesizes proteins of all kinetic classes in normal amounts. Electron microscopic and biochemical analyses show that morphogenesis of the deletion virus proceeds normally to the point of formation of DNA-containing nuclear capsids, but electron micrographs show no enveloped virus particles in the cytoplasm or at the surface of infected cells, suggesting that the U(L)34 protein is essential for efficient envelopment of capsids.

Early expression of herpes simplex virus (HSV) proteins and reactivation of latent infection

During the last decade, new data accumulated describing the early events during herpes simplex virus 1 (HSV-1) replication occurring before capsid formation and virion envelopment. The HSV virion carries its own specific transcription initiation factor (alpha-TIF), which functions together with other components of the cellular transcriptase complex to mediate virus-specific immediate early (IE) transcription. The virus-coded IE proteins are the transactivator and regulatory elements modulating early transcription and subsequent translation of nonstructural virus-coded proteins needed mainly for viral DNA synthesis and for the supply of corresponding nucleoside components. They also cooperate at the late transcription and translation of the virion (capsid, tegument and envelope) proteins. In addition, the transactivator IE proteins down-regulate their own transcription, while others facilitate viral mRNA processing or interfere with the presentation of newly synthesized virus antigens. Establishment of latency is closely related to the transcription of a separate category of transcripts, termed latency-associated (LAT). Formation of LATs occurs mainly in nondividing neurons which are metabolically less active and express lower levels of cellular transcription factors (nonpermissive cells). Expression of the stable non-spliced (2 kb), and especially of stable spliced (1.5 and 1.45 kb) LATs is a prerequisite for HSV reactivation. Different HSV genomes (from various HSV strains) do not undergo IE transcription at the same rate. Restricted IE transcription and the absence of viral DNA synthesis favors LAT formation and persistence of the silenced genome. Uneven levels of LAT expression and differences in the metabolic state of carrier neurons influence the reactivation competence. Under artificial or natural activation conditions, sufficient amounts of IE transactivator proteins and proteins promoting nucleoside metabolism are synthesized even in the absence of the viral alpha-TIF facilitating reactivation.

Characterization of the transcriptional repressive element of the human cytomegalovirus immediate-early US3 gene

Transcriptional repression is utilized by human cytomegalovirus to regulate expression of the immediate-early US3 gene. Sequences located 3' of the US3 TATA box are required for down regulation of expression. Mutagenesis of US3 sequences identified a 10-nucleotide region that is essential for transcriptional repression. In addition to the 10-nucleotide element, an additional region, which includes the US3 initiator element, was needed to confer repression on a heterologous promoter. Thus, a 19-nucleotide element (-18 to +1 relative to the transcription start site) functioned as a transcriptional repressive element (tre). The tre repressed transcription in a position-dependent but orientation-independent manner. In vivo footprinting experiments demonstrated that transcriptional repression is associated with a decrease in protein interactions with the US3 promoter and surrounding sequences. The data presented here suggest that the association of an as yet unidentified repressor protein with the tre represses transcription by inhibiting assembly of the transcription initiation complex on the US3 promoter.

UL27.5 is a novel gamma2 gene antisense to the herpes simplex virus 1 gene encoding glycoprotein B

An antibody made against the herpes simplex virus 1 US5 gene predicted to encode glycoprotein J was found to react strongly with two proteins, one with an apparent Mr of 23,000 and mapping in the S component and one with a herpes simplex virus protein with an apparent Mr of 43,000. The antibody also reacted with herpes simplex virus type 2 proteins forming several bands with apparent Mrs ranging from 43,000 to 50,000. Mapping studies based on intertypic recombinants, analyses of deletion mutants, and ultimately, reaction of the antibody with a chimeric protein expressed by in-frame fusion of the glutathione S-transferase gene to an open reading frame antisense to the gene encoding glycoprotein B led to the definitive identification of the new open reading frame, designated UL27.5. Sequence analyses indicate the conservation of a short amino acid sequence common to US5 and UL27.5. The coding sequence of the herpes simplex virus UL27.5 open reading frame is strongly homologous to the sequence encoding the carboxyl terminus of the herpes simplex virus 2 UL27.5 sequence. However, both open reading frames could encode proteins predicted to be significantly larger than the mature UL27.5 proteins accumulating in the infected cells, indicating that these are either processed posttranslationally or synthesized from alternate, nonmethionine-initiating codons. The UL27.5 gene expression is blocked by phosphonoacetate, indicating that it is a gamma2 gene. The product accumulated predominantly in the cytoplasm. UL27.5 is the third open reading frame found to map totally antisense to another gene and suggests that additional genes mapping antisense to known genes may exist.

Herpes simplex virus type 1 latency-associated transcripts suppress viral replication and reduce immediate-early gene mRNA levels in a neuronal cell line

During herpes simplex virus type 1 (HSV-1) latent infection in human dorsal root ganglia, limited viral transcription, which has been linked to HSV-1 reactivation ability, takes place. To study the involvement of this transcription in HSV-1 replication in neuronal cells and consequently in viral latency, we constructed stably transfected neuronal cell lines containing (i) the entire HSV-1 latency transcriptionally active DNA fragment, (ii) the same DNA sequence with deletions of the latency-associated transcript (LAT) promoters, or (iii) the DNA coding sequence of the LAT domain. Replication of HSV-1 or a LAT-negative mutant was markedly repressed in the LAT-expressing cells, a phenomenon mediated by the LATs. To study the mechanism responsible for this effect, we examined LAT influence upon expression of HSV-1 immediate-early (IE) genes ICP0, ICP4, and ICP27, by Northern blot analysis. Following infection of a LAT-expressing neuronal cell line with a LAT-negative mutant, the steady-state levels of all three IE mRNAs were reduced compared to those for control cells. Transient transfections into a neuronal cell line indicated that the LAT suppressive effect upon ICP0 mRNA was mediated directly and was not due to the LAT effect upon the ICP0 promoter. We therefore propose that the LATs may repress viral replication in neuronal cells by reducing IE gene mRNA levels and thus facilitate the establishment of HSV-1 latency in nervous tissue.

A virus with a mutation in the ICP4-binding site in the L/ST promoter of herpes simplex virus type 1, but not a virus with a mutation in open reading frame P, exhibits cell-type-specific expression of gamma(1)34.5 transcripts and latency-associated transcripts

The herpes simplex virus type 1 L/S junction-spanning transcripts (L/STs) are a family of multisized transcripts expressed at high levels in cells infected with mutant viruses that (i) do not express ICP4, (ii) specify forms of ICP4 unable to bind to the consensus ICP4 binding site, or (iii) contain mutations in the ICP4 binding site located at the transcriptional start site of the L/STs. By extension, the failure to detect the L/STs in wild-type virus-infected cells is due to the repressive effect of ICP4 bound to its cognate binding site upstream of the L/ST transcription initiation site. ORF-P, the first and largest open reading frame (ORF) encoded by the L/STs, overlaps >90% of the ORF encoding ORF-34.5, a putative neurovirulence factor, which is transcribed from the opposite DNA strand. Viruses with mutations in the overlapping region of ORF-P and ICP34.5 exhibit premature shutoff of infected-cell protein synthesis and are highly attenuated following intracranial inoculation of juvenile mice. To determine whether the premature protein shutoff and neuroattenuated phenotypes of ORF-P ORF-34.5 double mutants are a consequence of alterations in ORF-P, ORF-34.5, or both, viruses containing mutations only in ORF-P or only in the ICP4 binding site in the L/ST promoter were isolated and characterized. Mutant virus L/ST-n38 contains a single-base-pair transition mutation in ORF-P codon 38, resulting in translational termination of the ORF-P protein (OPP). This mutation does not alter the amino acid sequence of ICP34.5. Expression of a truncated form of OPP by mutant virus L/ST-n38 did not result in premature shutoff of infected-cell protein synthesis and produced no other observable phenotype relative to wild-type virus in in vitro tests. Moreover, the 50% lethal dose (LD50) of L/ST-n38 was comparable to that of wild-type virus following intracranial inoculation of 3-week-old mice, as were the latency and reactivation phenotypes of the virus. These properties of L/ST-n38 indicate that the attenuated phenotype of ORF-P ORF-34.5 double mutants is a consequence of mutations that affect the function of ICP34.5 and not the function of OPP. Mutant virus LST-4BS contains four single-base-pair substitutions in the ICP4 binding site in the L/ST promoter that abrogate the binding of ICP4 to this site, leading to high-level expression of the L/STs and OPP. LST-4BS induced premature shutoff of viral and cellular protein synthesis and was slightly growth restricted in cells of neural lineage (SK-N-SH human neuroblastoma cells) but was wild type for these two parameters in cells of nonneural lineage (immortalized primate Vero cells). Of particular interest was the observation that L/ST-4BS exhibited cell-type-specific expression of both the gamma(1)34.5 transcripts and the latency-associated transcripts (LATs). Thus, expression of these transcripts was barely detectable in cells of neural lineage (NB41A3 mouse neuroblastoma cells) but was wild type in Vero cells. In vivo, L/ST-4BS was reactivated from mouse trigeminal ganglia with reduced efficiency and delayed kinetics relative to wild-type virus. L/ST-4BS was completely attenuated for neurovirulence (LD50 > 10(6) PFU) relative to wild-type virus (LD50 < 900 PFU), although the four single-base-pair substitutions lie outside the coding region for the neurovirulence factor, ICP34.5. Collectively, the complex in vitro and in vivo phenotypes of L/ST-4BS can be attributed to (i) disruptions of the ICP4 binding site in the L/ST promoter and subsequent overexpression of the L/STs and OPP; (ii) alterations in ORF-O, which is also mutated in L/ST-4BS; or (iii) alterations in other cryptic genes or cis-acting elements.