Crystal structure of N-glycosylated human glypican-1 core protein: structure of two loops evolutionarily conserved in vertebrate glypican-1

Development of CAR-T Therapies and Personalized Vaccines for the Treatment of Cholangiocarcinoma: Current Progress, Mechanisms of Action, and Challenges

Cholangiocarcinoma (CCA) is a highly fatal malignancy with an increasing prevalence, a high mortality rate, poor overall survival, and limited responsiveness to conventional chemoradiotherapy. Targeted therapies addressing specific gene mutations have expanded treatment options for some patient populations. The introduction of chimeric antigen receptor-modified T-cell (CAR-T) immunotherapy and personalized vaccines have opened up a new avenue for managing various cancers. Considerable efforts have been dedicated to preclinical research and ongoing clinical trials of immunotherapeutic approaches including CAR-T therapy, vaccines, and antibody-based therapies such as antibody drug conjugates. However, the potential of CAR-T therapy and vaccines in treating advanced unresectable/metastatic cholangiocarcinoma remains largely unexplored. This article offers an overview of the current landscape of antibody-based immunotherapy, particularly CAR-T therapy and vaccines in the context of cholangiocarcinoma treatment. It outlines a framework for selecting CAR-T and vaccine targets and delves into the biology of promising targetable antigens, as well as potential future therapeutic targets.

Pan-cancer analysis and the oncogenic role of Glypican 1 in hepatocellular carcinoma

Recent studies indicate that Glypican 1 (GPC-1) is aberrantly expressed and plays a key role in certain cancers, but little is known in the hepatocellular carcinoma. Raw data from TCGA, GTEx and TIMER databases were utilized to comprehensively analyze GPC-1 expression landscape in pan-cancer, and the biological function of GPC-1 was investigated in liver cancer cells. The results revealed that GPC-1 is highly expressed in HCC, negatively correlated with survival, and also positively correlated with immune infiltration and clinical stage. Furthermore, GPC-1 promoted cell proliferation and inhibited apoptosis in the HCC cell lines. WGCNA analysis and HCCDB database revealed that Akt acted as a key molecule related to GPC-1, influencing biological functions and regulating cell malignant behaviors via the AKT signaling pathway. In conclusion, our findings provide a relatively comprehensive understanding of the oncogenic role of GPC-1 in HCC, implying that GPC-1 could serve as an innovative therapeutic target.

Hedgehog on the Move: Glypican-Regulated Transport and Gradient Formation in Drosophila

Glypicans (Glps) are a family of heparan sulphate proteoglycans that are attached to the outer plasma membrane leaflet of the producing cell by a glycosylphosphatidylinositol anchor. Glps are involved in the regulation of many signalling pathways, including those that regulate the activities of Wnts, Hedgehog (Hh), Fibroblast Growth Factors (FGFs), and Bone Morphogenetic Proteins (BMPs), among others. In the Hh-signalling pathway, Glps have been shown to be essential for ligand transport and the formation of Hh gradients over long distances, for the maintenance of Hh levels in the extracellular matrix, and for unimpaired ligand reception in distant recipient cells. Recently, two mechanistic models have been proposed to explain how Hh can form the signalling gradient and how Glps may contribute to it. In this review, we describe the structure, biochemistry, and metabolism of Glps and their interactions with different components of the Hh-signalling pathway that are important for the release, transport, and reception of Hh.

Attenuation of cancer proliferation by suppression of glypican-1 and its pleiotropic effects in neoplastic behavior

Glypicans (GPC1-6) are associated with tumorigenic processes and their involvement in neoplastic behavior has been discussed in different cancer types. Here, a cancer-wide GPC expression study, using clinical cancer patient data in The Cancer Genome Atlas, reveals net upregulation of GPC1 and GPC2 in primary solid tumors, whereas GPC3, GPC5 and GPC6 display lowered expression pattern compared to normal tissues. Focusing on GPC1, survival analyses of the clinical cancer patient data reveal statistically significant correlation between high expression of GPC1 and poor prognosis in 10 particular cancer types i.e., bladder urothelial carcinoma, brain lower grade glioma, liver hepatocellular carcinoma, colon adenocarcinoma, kidney renal clear cell carcinoma, lung adenocarcinoma, mesothelioma, ovarian serous cystadenocarcinoma, uterine corpus endometrial carcinoma and uveal melanoma. In vitro studies targeting GPC1 expression by CRISPR/Cas9 or siRNA or treatment with an anti-GPC1 antibody resulted in attenuation of proliferation of cancer cells from bladder carcinoma, glioma and hepatocellular carcinoma patients (T24, U87 and HepG2 cells). Further, overexpression of GPC1 exhibited a significant and negative correlation between GPC1 expression and proliferation of T24 cells. Attempt to reveal the mechanism through which downregulation of GPC1 leads to attenuation of tumor growth using systematic Ingenuity Pathway Analysis indicate that suppression of GPC1 results in ECM-mediated inhibition of specific pro-cancer signaling pathways involving TGF-β and p38 MAPK. Identified differential expression and pleiotropic effects of GPCs in specific cancer types emphasize their potential of as novel diagnostic tools and prognostic factors and open doors for future GPC targeted therapy.

Modulation of cardiac voltage-activated K+ currents by glypican 1 heparan sulfate proteoglycan

BACKGROUND

Glypican 1 (Gpc1) is a heparan sulfate proteoglycan attached to the cell membrane via a glycosylphosphatidylinositol anchor, where it holds glycosaminoglycans nearby. We have recently shown that Gpc1 knockout (Gpc1-/-) mice feature decreased systemic blood pressure. To date, none has been reported regarding the role of Gpc1 on the electrical properties of the heart and specifically, in regard to a functional interaction between Gpc1 and voltage-gated K+ channels.

METHODS

We used echocardiography and in vivo (electrocardiographic recordings) and in vitro (patch clamping) electrophysiology to study mechanical and electric properties of mice hearts. We used RT-PCR to probe K+ channels' gene transcription in heart tissue.

RESULTS

Gpc1-/- hearts featured increased cardiac stroke volume and preserved ejection fraction. Gpc1-/- electrocardiograms showed longer QT intervals, abnormalities in the ST segment, and delayed T waves, corroborated by longer action potentials in isolated ventricular cardiomyocytes. In voltage-clamp, these cells showed decreased Ito and IK voltage-activated K+ current densities. Moreover, IK showed activation at less negative voltages, but a higher level of inactivation at a given membrane potential. Kcnh2 and Kcnq1 voltage-gated K+ channels subunits' transcripts were remarkably more abundant in heart tissues from Gpc1-/- mice, suggesting that Gpc1 may interfere in the steps between transcription and translation in these cases.

CONCLUSION

Our data reveals an unprecedented connection between Gpc1 and voltage-gated K+ channels expressed in the heart and this knowledge contributes to the understanding of the role of this HSPG in cardiac function which may play a role in the development of cardiovascular disease.

GPC3-Unc5 receptor complex structure and role in cell migration

Neural migration is a critical step during brain development that requires the interactions of cell-surface guidance receptors. Cancer cells often hijack these mechanisms to disseminate. Here, we reveal crystal structures of Uncoordinated-5 receptor D (Unc5D) in complex with morphogen receptor glypican-3 (GPC3), forming an octameric glycoprotein complex. In the complex, four Unc5D molecules pack into an antiparallel bundle, flanked by four GPC3 molecules. Central glycan-glycan interactions are formed by N-linked glycans emanating from GPC3 (N241 in human) and C-mannosylated tryptophans of the Unc5D thrombospondin-like domains. MD simulations, mass spectrometry and structure-based mutants validate the crystallographic data. Anti-GPC3 nanobodies enhance or weaken Unc5-GPC3 binding and, together with mutant proteins, show that Unc5/GPC3 guide migrating pyramidal neurons in the mouse cortex, and cancer cells in an embryonic xenograft neuroblastoma model. The results demonstrate a conserved structural mechanism of cell guidance, where finely balanced Unc5-GPC3 interactions regulate cell migration.

The Proteoglycan Glypican-1 as a Possible Candidate for Innovative Targeted Therapeutic Strategies for Pancreatic Ductal Adenocarcinoma

Pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma (PDAC) accounts for 90% of all pancreatic cancers, with a 5-year survival rate of 7% and 80% of patients diagnosed with advanced or metastatic malignancies. Despite recent advances in diagnostic testing, surgical techniques, and systemic therapies, there remain limited options for the effective treatment of PDAC. There is an urgent need to develop targeted therapies that are able to differentiate between cancerous and non-cancerous cells to reduce side effects and better inhibit tumor growth. Antibody-targeted strategies are a potentially effective option for introducing innovative therapies. Antibody-based immunotherapies and antibody-conjugated nanoparticle-based targeted therapies with antibodies targeting specific tumor-associated antigens (TAA) can be proposed. In this context, glypican-1 (GPC1), which is highly expressed in PDAC and not expressed or expressed at very low levels in non-malignant lesions and healthy pancreatic tissues, is a useful TAA that can be achieved by a specific antibody-based immunotherapy and antibody-conjugated nanoparticle-based targeted therapy. In this review, we describe the main clinical features of PDAC. We propose the proteoglycan GPC1 as a useful TAA for PDAC-targeted therapies. We also provide a digression on the main developed approaches of antibody-based immunotherapy and antibody-conjugated nanoparticle-based targeted therapy, which can be used to target GPC1.

Site-specific glycosylation of proteoglycans: a revisited frontier in proteoglycan research

Proteoglycans (PGs), a class of carbohydrate-modified proteins, are present in essentially all metazoan organisms investigated to date. PGs are composed of glycosaminoglycan (GAG) chains attached to various core proteins and are important for embryogenesis and normal homeostasis. PGs exert many of their functions via their GAG chains and understanding the details of GAG-ligand interactions has been an essential part of PG research. Although PGs are also involved in many diseases, the number of GAG-related drugs used in the clinic is yet very limited, indicating a lack of detailed structure-function understanding. Structural analysis of PGs has traditionally been obtained by first separating the GAG chains from the core proteins, after which the two components are analyzed separately. While this strategy greatly facilitates the analysis, it precludes site-specific information and introduces either a "GAG" or a "core protein" perspective on the data interpretation. Mass-spectrometric (MS) glycoproteomic approaches have recently been introduced, providing site-specific information on PGs. Such methods have revealed a previously unknown structural complexity of the GAG linkage regions and resulted in identification of several novel CSPGs and HSPGs in humans and in model organisms, thereby expanding our view on PG complexity. In light of these findings, we discuss here if the use of such MS-based techniques, in combination with various functional assays, can also be used to expand our functional understanding of PGs. We have also summarized the site-specific information of all human PGs known to date, providing a theoretical framework for future studies on site-specific functional analysis of PGs in human pathophysiology.

Netrin-1: A Serum Marker Predicting Cognitive Impairment after Spinal Cord Injury

Objective

Although cognitive impairment has received more attention in recent years as a result of spinal cord injury (SCI), the pathogenic process that causes it is still unknown. The neuroprotective effects of Netrin as a family of laminin-related secreted proteins were discovered. The purpose of this study was to determine the changes of serum Netrin-1 after SCI and its relationship with cognitive impairment.

Methods

96 SCI patients and 60 controls were included in our study. We collected baseline data from all participants, measured their serum Netrin-1 levels, and followed up their cognitive levels 3 months later.

Results

The clinical baseline values between the control and SCI groups were not significantly different (p > 0.05). However, the serum Netrin-1 level in the SCI group was significantly lower than that in the control group (528.4 ± 88.3 pg/ml vs. 673.5 ± 97.2 pg/ml, p < 0.05). According to the quartile level of serum Netrin-1 level in the SCI group, we found that with the increase of serum Netrin-1 level, the MoCA score also increased significantly (p < 0.001), indicating that the serum Netrin-1 level was positively correlated with the MoCA score after SCI. After controlling for baseline data, multiple regression analysis revealed that Netrin-1 remained an independent risk factor for cognitive impairment after SCI (=0.274, p = 0.036).

Conclusions

Netrin-1 may be a neuroprotective factor for cognitive impairment, which may serve as a serum marker to predict cognitive impairment after SCI.

Hedgehog pathway modulation by glypican 3-conjugated heparan sulfate

Glypicans are a family of cell surface heparan sulfate proteoglycans that play critical roles in multiple cell signaling pathways. Glypicans consist of a globular core, an unstructured stalk modified with sulfated glycosaminoglycan chains, and a glycosylphosphatidylinositol anchor. Though these structural features are conserved, their individual contribution to glypican function remains obscure. Here, we investigate how glypican 3 (GPC3), which is mutated in Simpson-Golabi-Behmel tissue overgrowth syndrome, regulates Hedgehog signaling. We find that GPC3 is necessary for the Hedgehog response, surprisingly controlling a downstream signal transduction step. Purified GPC3 ectodomain rescues signaling when artificially recruited to the surface of GPC3-deficient cells but has dominant-negative activity when unattached. Strikingly, the purified stalk, modified with heparan sulfate but not chondroitin sulfate, is necessary and sufficient for activity. Our results demonstrate a novel function for GPC3-associated heparan sulfate and provide a framework for the functional dissection of glycosaminoglycans by in vivo biochemical complementation. This article has an associated First Person interview with the first author of the paper.

The function of Glypicans in the mammalian embryo

Glypicans are proteoglycans that are bound to the outer surface of the plasma membrane by a glycosylphosphatidylinositol anchor. The mammalian genome contains six members of the glypican family (GPC1 to GPC6). Although the degree of sequence homology within the family is rather low, the three-dimensional structure of these proteoglycans is highly conserved. Glypicans are predominantly expressed during embryonic development. Genetic and biochemical studies have shown that glypicans can stimulate or inhibit the signaling pathways triggered by Wnts, Hedgehogs, Fibroblast Growth Factors, and Bone Morphogenetic Proteins. The study of mutant mouse strains demonstrated that glypicans have important functions in the developmental morphogenesis of various organs. In addition, a role of glypicans in synapsis formation has been established. Notably, glypican loss-of-function mutations are the cause of three human inherited syndromes. Recent analysis of glypican compound mutant mice have demonstrated that members of this protein family display redundant functions during embryonic development.

Role of glypican-1 in regulating multiple cellular signaling pathways

Glypican-1 (GPC1) is one of the six glypican family members in humans. It is composed of a core protein with three heparan sulfate chains and attached to the cell membrane by a glycosyl-phosphatidylinositol anchor. GPC1 modulates various signaling pathways including fibroblast growth factors (FGF), vascular endothelial growth factor-A (VEGF-A), transforming growth factor-β (TGF-β), Wnt, Hedgehog (Hh), and bone morphogenic protein (BMP) through specific interactions with pathway ligands and receptors. The impact of these interactions on signaling pathways, activating or inhibitory, is dependent upon specific GPC1 domain interaction with pathway components, as well as cell surface context. In this review, we summarize the current understanding of the structure of GPC1, as well as its role in regulating multiple signaling pathways. We focus on the functions of GPC1 in cancer cells and how new insights into these signaling processes can inform its translational potential as a therapeutic target in cancer.

A GPC2 antibody-drug conjugate is efficacious against neuroblastoma and small-cell lung cancer via binding a conformational epitope

Glypican 2 (GPC2) is a MYCN-regulated, differentially expressed cell-surface oncoprotein and target for immune-based therapies in neuroblastoma. Here, we build on GPC2's immunotherapeutic attributes by finding that it is also a highly expressed, MYCN-driven oncoprotein on small-cell lung cancers (SCLCs), with significantly enriched expression in both the SCLC and neuroblastoma stem cell compartment.By solving the crystal structure of the D3-GPC2-Fab/GPC2 complex at 3.3 Å resolution, we further illustrate that the GPC2-directed antibody-drug conjugate (ADC; D3-GPC2-PBD), that links a human GPC2 antibody (D3) to DNA-damaging pyrrolobenzodiazepine (PBD) dimers, binds a tumor-specific, conformation-dependent epitope of the core GPC2 extracellular domain. We then show that this ADC induces durable neuroblastoma and SCLC tumor regression via induction of DNA damage, apoptosis, and bystander cell killing, notably with no signs of ADC-induced in vivo toxicity. These studies provide preclinical data to support the clinical translation of ADCs targeting GPC2.

Advances in immunotherapeutic targets for childhood cancers: A focus on glypican-2 and B7-H3

Cancer immunotherapies have revolutionized how we can treat adult malignancies and are being translated to pediatric oncology. Chimeric antigen receptor T-cell therapy and bispecific antibodies targeting CD19 have shown success for the treatment of pediatric patients with B-cell acute lymphoblastic leukemia. Anti-GD2 monoclonal antibody has demonstrated efficacy in neuroblastoma. In this review, we summarize the immunotherapeutic agents that have been approved for treating childhood cancers and provide an updated review of molecules expressed by pediatric cancers that are under study or are emerging candidates for future immunotherapies. Advances in our knowledge of tumor immunology and in genome profiling of cancers has led to the identification of new tumor-specific/associated antigens. While cell surface antigens are normally targeted in a major histocompatibility complex (MHC)-independent manner using antibody-based therapies, intracellular antigens are normally targeted with MHC-dependent T cell therapies. Glypican 2 (GPC2) and B7-H3 (CD276) are two cell surface antigens that are expressed by a variety of pediatric tumors such as neuroblastoma and potentially can have a positive impact on the treatment of pediatric cancers in the clinic.

Structure, Dynamics, and Interactions of GPI-Anchored Human Glypican-1 with Heparan Sulfates in a Membrane

Glypican-1 and its heparan sulfate (HS) chains play important roles in modulating many biological processes including growth factor signaling. Glypican-1 is bound to a membrane surface via a glycosylphosphatidylinositol (GPI)-anchor. In this study, we used all-atom molecular modeling and simulation to explore the structure, dynamics, and interactions of GPI-anchored glypican-1, three HS chains, membranes, and ions. The folded glypican-1 core structure is stable, but has substantial degrees of freedom in terms of movement and orientation with respect to the membrane due to the long unstructured C-terminal region linking the core to the GPI-anchor. With unique structural features depending on the extent of sulfation, high flexibility of HS chains can promote multi-site interactions with surrounding molecules near and above the membrane. This study is a first step toward all-atom molecular modeling and simulation of the glycocalyx, as well as its modulation of interactions between growth factors and their receptors.

Anti-GPC3 single-chain scFv antibody acts as an agent for radio-immunoimaging in diagnosing hepatocellular carcinoma

Glypican-3 (GPC3) over-expresses in hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC), but not expresses or under-expresses in normal adult hepatocytes. Therefore, GPC3 acts as a potential target for diagnosis and treatment of HCC. This study aimed to conduct radio-immunoimaging using GPC3 as a target in order, and to explore its potential for diagnosing and treating HCC. Humanized single-chain antibody scFv for HCC was established using phage antibody library. E.coli HB2151 was infected with recombinant phage antibodies that are considered to be strongly positive by phage ELISA. Then, the soluble antibodies were obtained post IPTG induction. Soluble antibodies were detected using SDS-PAGE assay. Anti-GPC3 single-chain antibodies were labeled using ¹³¹I, and then the distribution of radioactive markers in nude mice were analyzed in vivo by radio-immunoimaging. The results indicated that the size of soluble scFv products was 30 kD after purifying anti-GPC3 scFv antibodies that are successfully screened from phage antibody library. Anti-GPC3 phage antibodies could specifically bind to HCC cells. The ratios of radioactive tumor/blood and tumor/muscle for ¹³¹I labeled anti-GPC3 monoclonal antibodies were increased gradually, achieving the highest at 48 h. Radio-immunoimaging showed that the radioactive uptake of tumor sites remained the strongest at 48 h, and the ratio of target to non-target was the highest. In conclusion, the established anti-GPC3 scFv antibody had the potential to become an agent for radio-immunoimaging in diagnosing HCC and act as a targeted antibody for further radio-immunotherapy of HCC.

Paradoxical Role of Glypican-1 in Prostate Cancer Cell and Tumor Growth

Recent studies suggest that glypican-1 (GPC-1) is a biomarker for prostate cancer, but there are few studies elucidating the role of GPC-1 in prostate cancer progression. We observed high expression of GPC-1 in more aggressive prostate cancer cell lines such as PC-3 and DU-145. While inhibition of GPC-1 expression in PC-3 cells decreased cell growth and migration in vitro, it surprisingly increased cell proliferation and migration in DU-145 cells, suggesting that the role of GPC-1 is cell type-dependent. Further, GPC-1 inhibition increased PC-3 tumor size in NCr nude mice xenografts. We hypothesized that the discrepancy between the in vitro and in vivo data is mediated by stromal cells in the tumor microenvironment. Thus, we tested the effect of tumor conditioned media (TCM) on gene expression in human mesenchymal stem cells and fibroblasts. Treatment of stromal cells with TCM from PC-3 cells transfected with GPC-1 shRNA increased the expression of migration markers, endocrine/paracrine biomolecules, and extracellular matrix components. Additionally, the decreased cell growth in GPC-1 knockdown PC-3 cells was rescued by coculturing with stromal cells. These data demonstrate the paradoxical role that GPC-1 plays in prostate cancer cell growth by interacting with stromal cells and through ECM remodeling and endocrine/paracrine signaling.

Role of glypicans in regulation of the tumor microenvironment and cancer progression

Glypicans are evolutionary conserved, cell surface heparan sulfate (HS) proteoglycans that are attached to the cell membrane via a glycosylphosphatidylinositol (GPI) anchor. Glypicans interact with a broad class of soluble and insoluble ligands, such as morphogens, growth factors, chemokines, receptors and components of the extracellular matrix (ECM). Such versatility comes from their ability to interact through both their HS chains and core protein. Glypicans are involved in cellular and tissue development, morphogenesis and cell motility. They exhibit differential expression in several cancers, acting as both tumor promoters and inhibitors in a cancer type-specific manner. They also influence tumor stroma by facilitating angiogenesis, ECM remodeling and alteration of immune cell functions. Glypicans have emerged as a new therapeutic moiety, whose functions can be exploited in the field of targeted therapies and precision medicine in cancer. This is demonstrated by the emergence of several anti-glypican antibody-based immunologics that have been recently developed and are being evaluated in clinical trials. This review will focus on glypican structure and function with an emphasis on their expression in various cancers. Discussion will also center on the potential of glypicans to be therapeutic targets for inhibition of cancer cell growth.

Multiscale Simulations of Biological Membranes: The Challenge To Understand Biological Phenomena in a Living Substance

Biological membranes are tricky to investigate. They are complex in terms of molecular composition and structure, functional over a wide range of time scales, and characterized by nonequilibrium conditions. Because of all of these features, simulations are a great technique to study biomembrane behavior. A significant part of the functional processes in biological membranes takes place at the molecular level; thus computer simulations are the method of choice to explore how their properties emerge from specific molecular features and how the interplay among the numerous molecules gives rise to function over spatial and time scales larger than the molecular ones. In this review, we focus on this broad theme. We discuss the current state-of-the-art of biomembrane simulations that, until now, have largely focused on a rather narrow picture of the complexity of the membranes. Given this, we also discuss the challenges that we should unravel in the foreseeable future. Numerous features such as the actin-cytoskeleton network, the glycocalyx network, and nonequilibrium transport under ATP-driven conditions have so far received very little attention; however, the potential of simulations to solve them would be exceptionally high. A major milestone for this research would be that one day we could say that computer simulations genuinely research biological membranes, not just lipid bilayers.

Glypicans as Cancer Therapeutic Targets

Glypicans are a group of cell-surface glycoproteins in which heparan sulfate (HS) glycosaminoglycan chains are covalently linked to a protein core. The glypican gene family is broadly conserved across animal species and plays important roles in biological processes. Glypicans can function as coreceptors for multiple signaling molecules known for regulating cell growth, motility, and differentiation. Some members of the glypican family, including glypican 2 (GPC2) and glypican 3 (GPC3), are expressed in childhood cancers and liver cancers, respectively. Antibody-based therapies targeting glypicans are being investigated in preclinical and clinical studies, with the goal of treating solid tumors that do not respond to standard therapies. These studies may establish glypicans as a new class of therapeutic targets for treating cancer.

Glycosaminoglycans and Proteoglycans

In this editorial to MDPI Pharmaceuticals special issue “Glycosaminoglycans and Proteoglycans” we describe in outline the common structural features of glycosaminoglycans and the characteristics of proteoglycans, including the intracellular proteoglycan, serglycin, cell-surface proteoglycans, like syndecans and glypicans, and the extracellular matrix proteoglycans, like aggrecan, perlecan, and small leucine-rich proteoglycans. The context in which the pharmaceutical uses of glycosaminoglycans and proteoglycans are presented in this special issue is given at the very end.

Role of Glycanation and Convertase Maturation of Soluble Glypican-3 in Inhibiting Proliferation of Hepatocellular Carcinoma Cells

Glypican 3 (GPC3) is a complex heparan sulfate proteoglycan associated with the outer surface of the plasma membrane by a glycosylphosphatidylinositol (GPI) anchor. It is also N-glycosylated and processed by a furin-like convertase. GPC3 has numerous biological functions. Although GPC3 is undetectable in normal liver tissue, it is abnormally and highly overexpressed in hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC). Interestingly, proliferation of HCC cells such as HepG2 and HuH7 is inhibited when they express a soluble form of GPC3 after lentiviral transduction. To obtain more insight into the role of some of its post-translational modifications, we designed a mutant GPC3, sGPC3m, without its GPI anchor, convertase cleavage site, and glycosaminoglycan chains. The highly pure sGPC3m protein strongly inhibited HuH7 and HepG2 cell proliferation in vitro and induced a significant increase in their cell doubling time. It changed the morphology of HuH7 cells but not that of HepG2. It induced the enlargement of HuH7 cell nuclear area and the restructuration of adherent cell junctions. Unexpectedly, for both cell types, the levels of apoptosis, cell division, and β-catenin were not altered by sGPC3m, although growth inhibition was very efficient. Overall, our data show that glycanation and convertase maturation are not required for sGPC3m to inhibit HCC cell proliferation.

Nucleolin is a nuclear target of heparan sulfate derived from glypican-1

The recycling, S-nitrosylated heparan sulfate (HS) proteoglycan glypican-1 releases anhydromannose (anMan)-containing HS chains by a nitrosothiol-catalyzed cleavage in endosomes that can be constitutive or induced by ascorbate. The HS-anMan chains are then transported to the nucleus. A specific nuclear target for HS-anMan has not been identified. We have monitored endosome-to-nucleus trafficking of HS-anMan by deconvolution and confocal immunofluorescence microscopy using an anMan-specific monoclonal antibody in non-growing, ascorbate-treated, and growing, untreated, wild-type mouse embryonic fibroblasts and hypoxia-exposed Alzheimer mouse Tg2576 fibroblasts and human U87 glioblastoma cells. In all cells, nuclear HS-anMan targeted a limited number of sites of variable size where it colocalized with DNA and nucleolin, an established marker for nucleoli. HS-anMan also colocalized with ethynyl uridine-tagged nascent RNA and two acetylated forms of histone H3. Acute hypoxia increased the formation of HS-anMan in both Tg2576 and U87 cells. A portion of HS-anMan colocalized with nucleolin at small discrete sites, while most of the nucleolin and nascent RNA was dispersed. In U87 cells, HS-anMan, nucleolin and nascent RNA reassembled after prolonged hypoxia. Nucleolar HS may modulate synthesis and/or release of rRNA.

Glypican-1 as a Biomarker for Prostate Cancer: Isolation and Characterization

Prostate cancer is the most frequently diagnosed male visceral cancer and the second leading cause of cancer death in the United States. Standard tests such as prostate-specific antigen (PSA) measurement have poor specificity (33%) resulting in a high number of false positive reports. Consequently there is a need for new biomarkers to address this problem. The MIL-38 antibody was first described nearly thirty years ago, however, until now, the identification of the target antigen remained elusive. By a series of molecular techniques and mass spectrometry, the MIL-38 antigen was identified to be the highly glycosylated proteoglycan Glypican-1 (GPC-1). This protein is present in two forms; a membrane bound core protein of 55-60 kDa and secreted soluble forms of 40 kDa and 52 kDa. GPC-1 identification was confirmed by immuno-precipitation, western blots and ELISA. An ELISA platform is currently being developed to assess the levels of GPC-1 in normal, benign prostatic hyperplasia (BPH) and prostate cancer patients to determine whether secreted GPC-1 may represent a clinically relevant biomarker for prostate cancer diagnosis.

Structural Aspects of N-Glycosylations and the C-terminal Region in Human Glypican-1

Glypicans are multifunctional cell surface proteoglycans involved in several important cellular signaling pathways. Glypican-1 (Gpc1) is the predominant heparan sulfate proteoglycan in the developing and adult human brain. The two N-linked glycans and the C-terminal domain that attach the core protein to the cell membrane are not resolved in the Gpc1 crystal structure. Therefore, we have studied Gpc1 using crystallography, small angle x-ray scattering, and chromatographic approaches to elucidate the composition, structure, and function of the N-glycans and the C terminus and also the topology of Gpc1 with respect to the membrane. The C terminus is shown to be highly flexible in solution, but it orients the core protein transverse to the membrane, directing a surface evolutionarily conserved in Gpc1 orthologs toward the membrane, where it may interact with signaling molecules and/or membrane receptors on the cell surface, or even the enzymes involved in heparan sulfate substitution in the Golgi apparatus. Furthermore, the N-glycans are shown to extend the protein stability and lifetime by protection against proteolysis and aggregation.

Insights into the key roles of proteoglycans in breast cancer biology and translational medicine

Proteoglycans control numerous normal and pathological processes, among which are morphogenesis, tissue repair, inflammation, vascularization and cancer metastasis. During tumor development and growth, proteoglycan expression is markedly modified in the tumor microenvironment. Altered expression of proteoglycans on tumor and stromal cell membranes affects cancer cell signaling, growth and survival, cell adhesion, migration and angiogenesis. Despite the high complexity and heterogeneity of breast cancer, the rapid evolution in our knowledge that proteoglycans are among the key players in the breast tumor microenvironment suggests their potential as pharmacological targets in this type of cancer. It has been recently suggested that pharmacological treatment may target proteoglycan metabolism, their utilization as targets for immunotherapy or their direct use as therapeutic agents. The diversity inherent in the proteoglycans that will be presented herein provides the potential for multiple layers of regulation of breast tumor behavior. This review summarizes recent developments concerning the biology of selected proteoglycans in breast cancer, and presents potential targeted therapeutic approaches based on their novel key roles in breast cancer.

Proteoglycans and neuronal migration in the cerebral cortex during development and disease

Chondroitin sulfate proteoglycans and heparan sulfate proteoglycans are major constituents of the extracellular matrix and the cell surface in the brain. Proteoglycans bind with many proteins including growth factors, chemokines, axon guidance molecules, and cell adhesion molecules through both the glycosaminoglycan and the core protein portions. The functions of proteoglycans are flexibly regulated due to the structural variability of glycosaminoglycans, which are generated by multiple glycosaminoglycan synthesis and modifying enzymes. Neuronal cell surface proteoglycans such as PTPζ, neuroglycan C and syndecan-3 function as direct receptors for heparin-binding growth factors that induce neuronal migration. The lectican family, secreted chondroitin sulfate proteoglycans, forms large aggregates with hyaluronic acid and tenascins, in which many signaling molecules and enzymes including matrix proteases are preserved. In the developing cerebrum, secreted chondroitin sulfate proteoglycans such as neurocan, versican and phosphacan are richly expressed in the areas that are strategically important for neuronal migration such as the striatum, marginal zone, subplate and subventricular zone in the neocortex. These proteoglycans may anchor various attractive and/or repulsive cues, regulating the migration routes of inhibitory neurons. Recent studies demonstrated that the genes encoding proteoglycan core proteins and glycosaminoglycan synthesis and modifying enzymes are associated with various psychiatric and intellectual disorders, which may be related to the defects of neuronal migration.

Proteoglycan form and function: A comprehensive nomenclature of proteoglycans

We provide a comprehensive classification of the proteoglycan gene families and respective protein cores. This updated nomenclature is based on three criteria: Cellular and subcellular location, overall gene/protein homology, and the utilization of specific protein modules within their respective protein cores. These three signatures were utilized to design four major classes of proteoglycans with distinct forms and functions: the intracellular, cell-surface, pericellular and extracellular proteoglycans. The proposed nomenclature encompasses forty-three distinct proteoglycan-encoding genes and many alternatively-spliced variants. The biological functions of these four proteoglycan families are critically assessed in development, cancer and angiogenesis, and in various acquired and genetic diseases where their expression is aberrant.

Extracellular regulation of type IIa receptor protein tyrosine phosphatases: mechanistic insights from structural analyses

The receptor protein tyrosine phosphatases (RPTPs) exhibit a wide repertoire of cellular signalling functions. In particular, type IIa RPTP family members have recently been highlighted as hubs for extracellular interactions in neurons, regulating neuronal extension and guidance, as well as synaptic organisation. In this review, we will discuss the recent progress of structural biology investigations into the architecture of type IIa RPTP ectodomains and their interactions with extracellular ligands. Structural insights, in combination with biophysical and cellular studies, allow us to begin to piece together molecular mechanisms for the transduction and integration of type IIa RPTP signals and to propose hypotheses for future experimental validation.

ECOD: an evolutionary classification of protein domains

Understanding the evolution of a protein, including both close and distant relationships, often reveals insight into its structure and function. Fast and easy access to such up-to-date information facilitates research. We have developed a hierarchical evolutionary classification of all proteins with experimentally determined spatial structures, and presented it as an interactive and updatable online database. ECOD (Evolutionary Classification of protein Domains) is distinct from other structural classifications in that it groups domains primarily by evolutionary relationships (homology), rather than topology (or "fold"). This distinction highlights cases of homology between domains of differing topology to aid in understanding of protein structure evolution. ECOD uniquely emphasizes distantly related homologs that are difficult to detect, and thus catalogs the largest number of evolutionary links among structural domain classifications. Placing distant homologs together underscores the ancestral similarities of these proteins and draws attention to the most important regions of sequence and structure, as well as conserved functional sites. ECOD also recognizes closer sequence-based relationships between protein domains. Currently, approximately 100,000 protein structures are classified in ECOD into 9,000 sequence families clustered into close to 2,000 evolutionary groups. The classification is assisted by an automated pipeline that quickly and consistently classifies weekly releases of PDB structures and allows for continual updates. This synchronization with PDB uniquely distinguishes ECOD among all protein classifications. Finally, we present several case studies of homologous proteins not recorded in other classifications, illustrating the potential of how ECOD can be used to further biological and evolutionary studies.

Xylose phosphorylation functions as a molecular switch to regulate proteoglycan biosynthesis

Most eukaryotic cells elaborate several proteoglycans critical for transmitting biochemical signals into and between cells. However, the regulation of proteoglycan biosynthesis is not completely understood. We show that the atypical secretory kinase family with sequence similarity 20, member B (Fam20B) phosphorylates the initiating xylose residue in the proteoglycan tetrasaccharide linkage region, and that this event functions as a molecular switch to regulate subsequent glycosaminoglycan assembly. Proteoglycans from FAM20B knockout cells contain a truncated tetrasaccharide linkage region consisting of a disaccharide capped with sialic acid (Siaα2-3Galβ1-4Xylβ1) that cannot be further elongated. We also show that the activity of galactosyl transferase II (GalT-II, B3GalT6), a key enzyme in the biosynthesis of the tetrasaccharide linkage region, is dramatically increased by Fam20B-dependent xylose phosphorylation. Inactivating mutations in the GALT-II gene (B3GALT6) associated with Ehlers-Danlos syndrome cause proteoglycan maturation defects similar to FAM20B deletion. Collectively, our findings suggest that GalT-II function is impaired by loss of Fam20B-dependent xylose phosphorylation and reveal a previously unappreciated mechanism for regulation of proteoglycan biosynthesis.

Inactivation of Wnt signaling by a human antibody that recognizes the heparan sulfate chains of glypican-3 for liver cancer therapy

Wnt signaling is important for cancer pathogenesis and is often up-regulated in hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC). Heparan sulfate proteoglycans (HSPGs) function as coreceptors or modulators of Wnt activation. Glypican-3 (GPC3) is an HSPG that is highly expressed in HCC, where it can attract Wnt proteins to the cell surface and promote cell proliferation. Thus, GPC3 has emerged as a candidate therapeutic target in liver cancer. While monoclonal antibodies to GPC3 are currently being evaluated in preclinical and clinical studies, none have shown an effect on Wnt signaling. Here, we first document the expression of Wnt3a, multiple Wnt receptors, and GPC3 in several HCC cell lines, and demonstrate that GPC3 enhanced the activity of Wnt3a/β-catenin signaling in these cells. Then we report the identification of HS20, a human monoclonal antibody against GPC3, which preferentially recognized the heparan sulfate chains of GPC3, both the sulfated and nonsulfated portions. HS20 disrupted the interaction of Wnt3a and GPC3 and blocked Wnt3a/β-catenin signaling. Moreover, HS20 inhibited Wnt3a-dependent cell proliferation in vitro and HCC xenograft growth in nude mice. In addition, HS20 had no detectable undesired toxicity in mice. Taken together, our results show that a monoclonal antibody primarily targeting the heparin sulfate chains of GPC3 inhibited Wnt/β-catenin signaling in HCC cells and had potent antitumor activity in vivo.

CONCLUSION

An antibody directed against the heparan sulfate of a proteoglycan shows efficacy in blocking Wnt signaling and HCC growth, suggesting a novel strategy for liver cancer therapy.

Improvements in the order, isotropy and electron density of glypican-1 crystals by controlled dehydration

The use of controlled dehydration for improvement of protein crystal diffraction quality is increasing in popularity, although there are still relatively few documented examples of success. A study has been carried out to establish whether controlled dehydration could be used to improve the anisotropy of crystals of the core protein of the human proteoglycan glypican-1. Crystals were subjected to controlled dehydration using the HC1 device. The optimal protocol for dehydration was developed by careful investigation of the following parameters: dehydration rate, final relative humidity and total incubation time Tinc. Of these, the most important was shown to be Tinc. After dehydration using the optimal protocol the crystals showed significantly reduced anisotropy and improved electron density, allowing the building of previously disordered parts of the structure.

Identification and expression analysis of zebrafish glypicans during embryonic development

Heparan sulfate Proteoglycans (HSPG) are ubiquitous molecules with indispensable functions in various biological processes. Glypicans are a family of HSPG’s, characterized by a Gpi-anchor which directs them to the cell surface and/or extracellular matrix where they regulate growth factor signaling during development and disease. We report the identification and expression pattern of glypican genes from zebrafish. The zebrafish genome contains 10 glypican homologs, as opposed to six in mammals, which are highly conserved and are phylogenetically related to the mammalian genes. Some of the fish glypicans like Gpc1a, Gpc3, Gpc4, Gpc6a and Gpc6b show conserved synteny with their mammalian cognate genes. Many glypicans are expressed during the gastrulation stage, but their expression becomes more tissue specific and defined during somitogenesis stages, particularly in the developing central nervous system. Existence of multiple glypican orthologs in fish with diverse expression pattern suggests highly specialized and/or redundant function of these genes during embryonic development.

Structure and function of the Smoothened extracellular domain in vertebrate Hedgehog signaling

The Hedgehog (Hh) signal is transduced across the membrane by the heptahelical protein Smoothened (Smo), a developmental regulator, oncoprotein and drug target in oncology. We present the 2.3 Å crystal structure of the extracellular cysteine rich domain (CRD) of vertebrate Smo and show that it binds to oxysterols, endogenous lipids that activate Hh signaling. The oxysterol-binding groove in the Smo CRD is analogous to that used by Frizzled 8 to bind to the palmitoleyl group of Wnt ligands and to similar pockets used by other Frizzled-like CRDs to bind hydrophobic ligands. The CRD is required for signaling in response to native Hh ligands, showing that it is an important regulatory module for Smo activation. Indeed, targeting of the Smo CRD by oxysterol-inspired small molecules can block signaling by all known classes of Hh activators and by clinically relevant Smo mutants. DOI:http://dx.doi.org/10.7554/eLife.01340.001.

Glypican-3 antibodies: a new therapeutic target for liver cancer

Glypican-3 (GPC3) is an emerging therapeutic target in hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC), even though the biological function of GPC3 remains elusive. Currently human (MDX-1414 and HN3) and humanized mouse (GC33 and YP7) antibodies that target GPC3 for HCC treatment are under different stages of preclinical or clinical development. Humanized mouse antibody GC33 is being evaluated in a phase II clinical trial. Human antibodies MDX-1414 and HN3 are under different stages of preclinical evaluation. Here, we summarize current evidence for GPC3 as a new target in liver cancer, discuss both its oncogenic function and its mode of actions for current antibodies, and evaluate potential challenges for GPC3-targeted anti-cancer therapies.

Regulation of TGFβ superfamily signaling by two separable domains of glypican LON-2 in C. elegans

Regulated intercellular signaling is critical for the normal development and maintenance of multicellular organisms. Glypicans have been shown to regulate signaling by TGFβs, hedgehogs and Wnts, in several cellular contexts. Glypicans comprise a conserved family of heparan sulfated, glycosylphosphatidylinositol (GPI)-linked extracellular proteins. The structural complexity of glypicans may underlie their functional complexity. In a recent study³¹, we built on previous findings that one of the two C. elegans glypicans, LON-2, specifically inhibits signaling by the TGFβ superfamily member DBL-1. We tested the functional requirements of LON-2 protein core components and post-translational modifications for LON-2 activity. We provide the first evidence that two parts of a glypican can independently regulate TGFβ superfamily signaling in vivo: the N-terminal furin protease product and a C-terminal region containing heparan sulfate attachment sites. Furthermore, we show a protein-protein interaction motif is crucial for LON-2 activity in the N-terminal protein core, suggesting that LON-2 acts by serving as a scaffold for DBL-1 and an RGD-binding protein. In addition, we demonstrate specificity of glypican function by showing C. elegans GPN-1 does not functionally substitute for LON-2. This work reveals a molecular foundation for understanding the complexity and specificity of glypican function.

Non-toxic amyloid beta formed in the presence of glypican-1 or its deaminatively generated heparan sulfate degradation products

The amyloid beta (Aβ) peptides (mainly Aβ40 and Aβ42), which are derived from the amyloid precursor protein (APP), can oligomerize into antibody A11-positive, neurotoxic species, believed to be involved in Alzheimer's disease. Interestingly, APP binds strongly to the heparan sulfate (HS) proteoglycan (PG) glypican-1 (Gpc-1) in vitro and both proteins are colocalized inside cells. In endosomes, APP is proteolytically processed to yield Aβ peptides. The HS chains of S-nitrosylated (SNO) Gpc-1 PG are cleaved into anhydromannose (anMan)-containing di- and oligosaccharides by an NO-dependent reaction in the same compartments. Here, we have studied the toxicity of oligomers/aggregates of Aβ40 and Aβ42, as well as Aβ40/42 mixtures that were formed in the presence of immobilized Gpc-1 PG or immobilized HS oligosaccharides. Afterwards, Aβ was displaced from the matrices, analyzed by sodium dodecyl sulfate polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis and assayed for A11 immunoreactivity, for effects on growth of mouse N2a neuroblastoma cells and for membrane leakage in rat cortical neurons. HS generally promoted and accelerated Aβ multimerization into oligomers as well as larger aggregates that were mostly A11 positive and showed toxic effects. However, non-toxic Aβ was formed in the presence of Gpc-1 PG or when anMan-containing HS degradation products were simultaneously generated. Both toxic and non-toxic Aβ peptides were taken up by the cells but toxic forms appeared to enter the nuclei to a larger extent. The protection afforded by the presence of HS degradation products may reflect a normal intracellular function for the Aβ peptides.

Therapeutically targeting glypican-3 via a conformation-specific single-domain antibody in hepatocellular carcinoma

Glypican-3 (GPC3) has emerged as a candidate therapeutic target in hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC), but the oncogenic role of GPC3 in HCC is poorly understood. Here, we report a human heavy-chain variable domain antibody, HN3, with high affinity (Kd = 0.6 nM) for cell-surface-associated GPC3 molecules. The human antibody recognized a conformational epitope that requires both the amino and carboxy terminal domains of GPC3. HN3 inhibited proliferation of GPC3-positive cells and exhibited significant inhibition of HCC xenograft tumor growth in nude mice. The underlying mechanism of HN3 action may involve cell-cycle arrest at G1 phase through Yes-associated protein signaling. This study suggests a previously unrecognized mechanism for GPC3-targeted cancer therapy.

Two functional domains in C. elegans glypican LON-2 can independently inhibit BMP-like signaling

Glypicans are multifunctional proteoglycans with regulatory roles in several intercellular signaling pathways. Here, we examine the functional requirements for glypican regulation of bone morphogenetic protein (BMP)-mediated body length in C. elegans. We provide evidence that two parts of C. elegans glypican LON-2 can independently inhibit BMP signaling in vivo: the N-terminal furin protease product and the C-terminal region containing heparan sulfate attachment sequences. While the C-terminal protease product is dispensable for LON-2 minimal core protein activity, it does affect the localization of LON-2. Cleavage of LON-2 into two parts at the conserved furin protease site is not required for LON-2 to inhibit BMP-like signaling. The glycosyl-phosphatidylinositol (GPI) membrane anchor is also not absolutely required for LON-2 activity. Finally, we show that an RGD protein-protein interaction motif in the LON-2 N-terminal domain is necessary for LON-2 core protein activity, suggesting that LON-2 inhibits BMP signaling by acting as a scaffold for BMP and an RGD-binding protein.

Cysteine-rich domains related to Frizzled receptors and Hedgehog-interacting proteins

Frizzled and Smoothened are homologous seven-transmembrane proteins functioning in the Wnt and Hedgehog signaling pathways, respectively. They harbor an extracellular cysteine-rich domain (FZ-CRD), a mobile evolutionary unit that has been found in a number of other metazoan proteins and Frizzled-like proteins in Dictyostelium. Domains distantly related to FZ-CRDs, in Hedgehog-interacting proteins (HHIPs), folate receptors and riboflavin-binding proteins (FRBPs), and Niemann-Pick Type C1 proteins (NPC1s), referred to as HFN-CRDs, exhibit similar structures and disulfide connectivity patterns compared with FZ-CRDs. We used computational analyses to expand the homologous set of FZ-CRDs and HFN-CRDs, providing a better understanding of their evolution and classification. First, FZ-CRD-containing proteins with various domain compositions were identified in several major eukaryotic lineages including plants and Chromalveolata, revealing a wider phylogenetic distribution of FZ-CRDs than previously recognized. Second, two new and distinct groups of highly divergent FZ-CRDs were found by sensitive similarity searches. One of them is present in the calcium channel component Mid1 in fungi and the uncharacterized FAM155 proteins in metazoans. Members of the other new FZ-CRD group occur in the metazoan-specific RECK (reversion-inducing-cysteine-rich protein with Kazal motifs) proteins that are putative tumor suppressors acting as inhibitors of matrix metalloproteases. Finally, sequence and three-dimensional structural comparisons helped us uncover a divergent HFN-CRD in glypicans, which are important morphogen-binding heparan sulfate proteoglycans. Such a finding reinforces the evolutionary ties between the Wnt and Hedgehog signaling pathways and underscores the importance of gene duplications in creating essential signaling components in metazoan evolution.