Aberrant fatty acid metabolism in skeletal muscle contributes to insulin resistance in zinc transporter 7 (znt7)-knockout mice

Reduced AKT activation accompanied with high TP53 expression is implicated in the impaired hematogenesis in Ziegler-Huang syndrome and the Znt7 null mice partially recapitulates the human disease linked to pancytopenia

BACKGROUND

Inherited bone marrow failure (IBMF) is a life-threatening condition. Excessive expression of TP53 induces cell cycle arrest and apoptosis of hematopoietic cells in individuals with IBMF. We recently discovered two pathogenic variants, NM_001144884:c.21dup;p.(Asp8ArgfsTer3) and NM_001144884:c.842 + 15 T > C, in ZNT7 associated with IBMF (Ziegler-Huang Syndrome; BMF8). However, the pathophysiologic mechanism of IBMF caused by ZNT7 mutations remained unknown.

METHOD

We investigated TP53 expression and the activation of its upstream regulator, AKT, in cell lines from affected individuals. We rescued the wild-type phenotype of AKT activation via transduction of wild-type ZNT7 into patient's fibroblasts. We performed fluorescence microscopy to assess co-expression patterns of ZNT7 with hematopoietic cell markers in different human and mouse bone marrow cell types. Finally, we evaluated the hematological features of Znt7 deficient mice.

RESULTS

The growth of patient's EBV-transformed B (B-EBV) lymphoblasts was impaired. We observed excessive expression of TP53 in the patient's B-EBV lymphoblasts accompanied by a significant decrease in AKT activation. Importantly, overexpression of wild-type ZNT7 in patient's fibroblasts rescued the activation of the AKT pathway by insulin. Additionally, human ZNT7 was expressed in myeloid and lymphoid lineage cells, whereas mouse ZnT7 was mainly expressed in the nucleated hematopoietic cells in the respective bone marrow. Despite these differences, we observed progressive cytopenia in Znt7KO mice, partially recapitulating BMF8 in humans.

CONCLUSION

Excessive expression of TP53 and down-regulation of AKT activation induced by ZNT7 deficiency might impair cell survival, which may contribute to the pathophysiology of bone marrow failure in affected individuals with BMF8.

Relationship between plasma 12,13-diHOME level and nonalcoholic fatty liver disease in patients with type 2 diabetes and obesity

BACKGROUND

12,13-dihydroxy-9Z-octadecenoic acid (12,13-diHOME) was one of the newly found lipokines. The goal of this study was to investigate whether the 12,13-diHOME was associated with related metabolic markers of nonalcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD) in a Chinese population with type 2 diabetes (T2DM) and obesity.

METHODS

This cross-sectional study enrolled 202 subjects with T2DM. Anthropometric parameters, 12,13-diHOME, serum lipids levels, fasting blood-glucose (FBG), serum glycosylated hemoglobin (HbA1c), fasting insulin (FINS), homeostasis model assessment of insulin resistance (HOMA-IR), liver and kidney function parameters were collected. NAFLD was diagnosed based on abdominal ultrasonography examination results. A computer-aided ultrasound quantitative method was applied to evaluate the liver fat content (LFC).

RESULTS

The number of the patients with fatty liver was 139 (68.81%) and those with non-fatty liver was 63 (31.19%). Subjects with NAFLD had a higher body mass index (BMI), diastolic blood pressure, serum alanine aminotransferase (ALT), triglyceride (TG), HOMA-IR, LFC, P<0.05 for all. But no significant difference was found in plasma 12,13-diHOME level (P=0.967), though its level trend was higher in non-NAFLD group. Plasma 12,13-diHOME was positively correlated with aspartate aminotransferase (AST), total cholesterol (TC), high density lipoprotein cholesterol (HDL-C), blood urea nitrogen (BUN), free fatty acid (FFA), C-peptide, FINS and HOMA-IR. It was negatively correlated with height, body weight, glomerular filtration rate (eGFR) and HbA1c.

CONCLUSIONS

Although 12,13-diHOME was correlated with AST, TC, HDL-C, BUN, FFA, C-peptide, FINS, HOMA-IR, eGFR and HbA1c, there was no significant difference in 12,13-diHOME level between the two groups. However, more research should be carried on about this newly-found lipokine.

The CB1 antagonist Rimonabant improves muscle regeneration and remodels the inflammatory and endocannabinoid profile upon injury in male mice

Skeletal muscle regeneration upon injury requires timely activation of inflammatory, myogenic, fibrotic, apoptotic and anabolic systems. Optimization of these features might improve the recovery process. Whereas recent data indicate that the endocannabinoid system, and more particularly cannabinoid receptor 1 (CB1) antagonism, is involved in the regulation of inflammatory, myogenic, fibrotic, apoptotic and anabolic pathways, it was never studied whether CB1 antagonism can improve muscle regeneration. The present study investigated the effect of the CB1 antagonist Rimonabant (10 mg/kg/d) on functional (5 days post-cardiotoxin injury; 5DPI) and molecular muscle responses (3DPI and 7DPI) in mice. Rimonabant prevented cardiotoxin-induced muscle strength loss 5DPI, increased myofiber growth (7DPI) and improved the muscle molecular profile 3DPI and 7DPI. In general, inflammation (e.g. p-p65NF-κB, CD80) and apoptosis (e.g. cleaved caspase-3, cleaved PARP) were downregulated by Rimonabant, whereas it upregulated the expression of Pax7 but other myogenic factors remained unaffected by rimonabant. In addition, Rimonabant restored the injury-induced (inflammatory) lipid profile to a large extent, including oxygenated fatty acids, unsaturated fatty acids and endocannabinoids such as 2-arachidonoyl glycerol and palmitoylethanolamide. Altogether, these data show that the endocannabinoid system might be a novel therapeutic target to improve muscle regeneration, which is relevant for age- and disease-related muscle degeneration.

The Octadecanoids: Synthesis and Bioactivity of 18-Carbon Oxygenated Fatty Acids in Mammals, Bacteria, and Fungi

The octadecanoids are a broad class of lipids consisting of the oxygenated products of 18-carbon fatty acids. Originally referring to production of the phytohormone jasmonic acid, the octadecanoid pathway has been expanded to include products of all 18-carbon fatty acids. Octadecanoids are formed biosynthetically in mammals via cyclooxygenase (COX), lipoxygenase (LOX), and cytochrome P450 (CYP) activity, as well as nonenzymatically by photo- and autoxidation mechanisms. While octadecanoids are well-known mediators in plants, their role in the regulation of mammalian biological processes has been generally neglected. However, there have been significant advancements in recognizing the importance of these compounds in mammals and their involvement in the mediation of inflammation, nociception, and cell proliferation, as well as in immuno- and tissue modulation, coagulation processes, hormone regulation, and skin barrier formation. More recently, the gut microbiome has been shown to be a significant source of octadecanoid biosynthesis, providing additional biosynthetic routes including hydratase activity (e.g., CLA-HY, FA-HY1, FA-HY2). In this review, we summarize the current field of octadecanoids, propose standardized nomenclature, provide details of octadecanoid preparation and measurement, summarize the phase-I metabolic pathway of octadecanoid formation in mammals, bacteria, and fungi, and describe their biological activity in relation to mammalian pathophysiology as well as their potential use as biomarkers of health and disease.

Zinc and its binding proteins: essential roles and therapeutic potential

Zinc is an essential micronutrient that participates in a multitude of cellular and biochemical processes. It is indispensable for normal growth and the maintenance of physiological functions. As one of the most significant trace elements in the body, zinc fulfills three primary biological roles: catalytic, structural, and regulatory. It serves as a cofactor in over 300 enzymes, and more than 3000 proteins require zinc, underscoring its crucial role in numerous physiological processes such as cell division and growth, immune function, tissue maintenance, as well as synthesis protein and collagen synthesis. Zinc deficiency has been linked to increased oxidative stress and inflammation, which may contribute to the pathogenesis of a multitude of diseases, like neurological disorders and cancer. In addition, zinc is a key constituent of zinc-binding proteins, which play a pivotal role in maintaining cellular zinc homeostasis. This review aims to update and expand upon the understanding of zinc biology, highlighting the fundamental roles of zinc in biological processes and the health implications of zinc deficiency. This work also explores the diverse functions of zinc in immune regulation, cellular growth, and neurological health, emphasizing the need for further research to fully elucidate the therapeutic potential of zinc supplementation in disease prevention and management.

Oxylipin dynamics in dairy cows during clinical ketosis and after treatment with niacin and flunixin meglumine

Dairy cows with clinical ketosis (CK) exhibit metabolic changes, including intense adipose tissue (AT) lipolysis and systemic insulin resistance, that increase plasma BHB and free fatty acids (FFA). Cows with CK also have systemic inflammation, predisposing them to inflammatory and infectious diseases. This inflammatory process is modulated in part by oxidized fatty acids (oxylipins) that regulate all aspects of inflammation. Oxylipin profiles have been characterized in healthy periparturient cows, but their dynamics during CK are unknown. Clinical ketosis is an acute metabolic disease requiring clinical therapy, commonly including propylene glycol (PG) as a gluconeogenic agent. Recently, we showed that including lipolysis inhibitors such as niacin (NIA) and flunixin meglumine (FM) improved CK recovery. These drugs may modulate oxylipin biosynthesis by regulating the release of PUFA (oxylipin substrates) and cyclooxygenase activity. However, their impact on oxylipin profiles in cows with CK is unknown. The objective of this study was to determine the dynamics of specific linoleic and arachidonic acid-derived oxylipins during CK and following therapy with PG, NIA, and FM. Multiparous Jersey cows (n = 72; 7.1 DIM) with CK from a commercial dairy were sampled. Inclusion criteria were CK symptoms (lethargy, depressed appetite, and reduced rumen fill) and blood BHB ≥ 1.2 mmol/L. The CK cows (n = 24/treatment) were randomly assigned to one of the 3 treatments: (1) PG: 310 g orally once daily for 5 d, (2) PG + NIA (PGNIA): 24 g orally once daily for 3 d, (3) PG + NIA + FM (PGNIAFM): 1.1 mg/kg i.v. once daily for 3 d. Healthy control cows (HC; n = 24) matched by lactation and DIM (±2 d) were also included. Plasma oxylipins were quantified at enrollment and 7 d later using HPLC-MS/MS. At enrollment, CK had higher concentrations of arachidonic acid (ARA)-derived 5- and 20-HETE, 8,9-, 11,12-, and 14-15-DHET, and lower concentrations of linoleic acid (LA)-derived 12,13-EpOME, 13-oxoODE, 9,10- and 12,13-DiHOME. Integrated analysis of biological pathways and oxylipin profiles using Ingenuity Pathway Analysis revealed ARA metabolism as the top pathway activated during CK. By d 7, treatment with PGNIAFM restored plasma PUFA and oxylipins to profiles similar to HC. Ingenuity Pathway Analysis showed that PGNIAFM activated the zinc transporter SLC30A7, associated with reduced activation of the ARA pathway. Results indicate that higher FA availability during CK, driven in part by dysregulated lipolysis, increases the pool of substrates for oxylipin biosynthesis. These oxylipins may play a role in both metabolic dysregulation and restoring homeostasis during CK. Inhibiting lipolysis and cyclooxygenase activity with NIA and FM can alter ARA- and LA-derived oxylipin biosynthesis. These findings underscore the potential use of lipolysis inhibitors NIA and FM in CK therapeutics and highlight the importance of understanding oxylipin pathways in the pathogenesis of CK.

Effects of Zinc-Biofortified Wheat Intake on Plasma Markers of Fatty Acid Metabolism and Oxidative Stress Among Adolescents

BACKGROUND/OBJECTIVE

Zinc deficiency is common worldwide and has been linked to reduced growth and immune function, increased risk of and slower recovery from infections, and increased risk of non-communicable diseases. To address the issue, zinc biofortification of wheat has been proposed as a sustainable approach to increase dietary zinc intake in countries like Pakistan, where zinc deficiency rates are high and wheat is the primary staple crop. Since plasma zinc concentration (PZC) does not reliably respond to small changes in zinc intake, biomarkers sensitive to small changes in zinc intake achievable though biofortification are needed. Activity indices for zinc-dependent metabolic steps of desaturation and elongation of omega-6 fatty acids (FAs) have been proposed as sensitive zinc biomarkers. Oxylipin metabolites of polyunsaturated FAs may also respond to changes in zinc intake and further mediate metabolic response to oxidative stress. The objective of the current study was to assess the effects of consuming zinc-biofortified wheat flour on plasma markers of fatty acid (FA) metabolism in females aged 10-16 years.

METHODS

A nested secondary analysis was conducted in samples from a double-blind, cluster-randomized controlled trial conducted in rural Pakistan, whereparticipants (n = 517) consumed either zinc-biofortified wheat flour or control flour for 25 weeks. Total plasma FAs and oxylipins were measured by liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS). Activity indices were estimated from the ratios of product to precursor FAs.

RESULTS

Except for docosahexaenoic acid (DHA, p < 0.05), no significant intervention effect was observed on plasma FAs and FA activity index endpoints. Zinc-biofortified wheat intake reduced pro-inflammatory oxylipins and biomarkers of oxidative stress, 5-HETE (p < 0.05), 9-HETE (p < 0.05), 11-HETE (p < 0.05), and 15-HETE (p < 0.05), compared with the control. However, after adjustment for multiple comparisons, none of the intervention effects remained significant.

CONCLUSIONS

Further study of the responsiveness and specificity of plasma oxylipins to changes in zinc intake is warranted.

A double knockout for zinc transporter 8 and somatostatin in mice reveals their distinct roles in regulation of insulin secretion and obesity

BACKGROUND

Both zinc transporter 8 (ZnT8) and somatostatin (Sst) play crucial roles in the regulation of insulin and glucagon secretion. However, the interaction between them in controlling glucose metabolism was not well understood. The aim of this study was to explore the interactive effects of a double knockout of Znt8 and Sst on insulin and glucose metabolism in mice.

METHODS

Co-expression of ZnT8 with hormones secreted from gastrointestinal endocrine cells of mice was determined using immunofluorescence. Male Znt8 knockout (Znt8KO), Sst knockout (SstKO), double knockout for Sst and Znt8 (DKO), and the wild-type (WT) mice were fed a regular chow diet (CD) or a high-fat diet (HFD) at 3 weeks old for 15 weeks. Weights and fasting or fed glucose levels were determined. Glucose and insulin tolerance tests were performed; metabolic-relevant hormone levels including insulin, glucagon, glucagon-like peptide 1, Pyy, and leptin were determined.

RESULTS

ZnT8 is co-expressed with Sst in a subpopulation of endocrine D cells in the gastrointestinal tract. The absence of ZnT8 expression resulted in an increased density of the dense cores in the secretory granules of the D cell. DKO mice had reduced weight compared to WT when maintained on the CD. Compared to Znt8KO and SstKO, DKO mice did not show significant differences in fed or fasting blood glucose level regardless of dietary conditions. However, the CD-fed DKO mice had impaired insulin secretion without alterations in islet morphology or numbers. Moreover, DKO mice displayed diet-induced insulin resistance and disrupted secretion of metabolic-related hormones.

CONCLUSIONS

Somatostatin as well as a normal insulin sensitivity are required for normalizing glucose metabolism in Znt8KO mice. ZnT8 may play a role in regulating fat mass and leptin secretion. These findings shed light on the multifaceted nature of Znt8 and Sst interactions, opening new avenues to understand their roles in controlling glucose metabolism and fat mass.

Molecular characterization of vascular endothelial growth factor b from spotted sea bass (Lateolabrax maculatus) and its potential roles in decreasing lipid deposition

Vascular endothelial growth factor B (VEGFB), a member of the VEGF family, exhibits limited angiogenic activity in mammals but plays an unexpected role in targeting lipids to peripheral tissues. However, its role in lipid metabolism in fish is unknown. In this study, the vegfb gene was cloned and characterized from spotted sea bass (Lateolabrax maculatus). It encodes 254 amino acids and possesses the typical characteristics of the Vegfb family, demonstrating high homology with those from other vertebrate species. The vegfb gene exhibits the highest expression levels in the liver, followed by the gills, intestine, and adipose tissues in spotted sea bass. In vivo, high-lipid diets decreased vegfb expression and increased lipid deposition in liver of fish. In vitro, palmitic acid + oleic acid treatment or vegfb knockdown significantly increased TG and TC contents, promoting lipid droplet deposition in hepatocytes. Vegfb overexpression has the opposite effects, inhibiting lipid deposition and downregulating fatty acid transport and adipogenesis genes. In contrast, the vegfb knockdown significantly upregulated the expression levels of c/ebpα, plin2, and dgat1 (P < 0.05). These results demonstrate that Vegfb may play an important role in reducing lipid deposition by regulating fatty acid transport and adipogenesis in the hepatocytes of spotted sea bass.

Effects of Heat Stress on Breast Muscle Metabolomics and Lipid Metabolism Related Genes in Growing Broilers

With global warming and worsening climatic conditions, heat stress (HS) has become a significant challenge affecting the development of poultry production. In this study, we aimed to determine the effects of HS on breast muscle metabolomics and lipid metabolism-related genes in growing broilers. One hundred twenty 29-day-old Arbor Acres broilers were randomly divided into normal temperature (NT; 21 ± 1 °C) and heat stress (HS; 31 ± 1 °C) groups, with six replicates (ten birds in each replicate) in each group, raised for 14 days in two environment chambers at 60 ± 7% relative humidity. Compared with the broilers in the NT group, the average daily food intake, average daily gain and breast muscle yield in the HS group were significantly lower (p < 0.05). The feed conversion ratio was significantly higher in the HS group (p < 0.05). The concentrations of serum corticosterone, free fatty acids and cholesterol and the percentage of abdominal fat of broilers in the HS group were significantly higher (p < 0.05) than the values of the broilers in the NT group. Untargeted breast muscle metabolome analysis revealed 14 upregulated differential metabolites, including glycerophosphocholine, and 27 downregulated differential metabolites, including taurine, in the HS group compared to the NT group; the HS group also displayed significant effects on six metabolic pathways compared to the NT group (p < 0.05). The mRNA expression levels of peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor gamma coactivator-1-alpha, peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor alpha (PPARα) and ATP-binding cassette transporter A1 in the liver and breast muscles were significantly decreased in the HS group compared with the NT group (p < 0.05). The collective findings reveal that HS can cause disorders in breast muscle lipid metabolism in broilers. The PPARα gene might be the key gene in the mechanism of the lipid metabolism that is induced by HS in breast muscle of broilers. These findings provide novel insights into the effects of HS on chicken growth.

Dysregulated Liver Metabolism and Polycystic Ovarian Syndrome

A significant fraction of couples around the world suffer from polycystic ovarian syndrome (PCOS), a disease defined by the characteristics of enhanced androgen synthesis in ovarian theca cells, hyperandrogenemia, and ovarian dysfunction in women. Most of the clinically observable symptoms and altered blood biomarker levels in the patients indicate metabolic dysregulation and adaptive changes as the key underlying mechanisms. Since the liver is the metabolic hub of the body and is involved in steroid-hormonal detoxification, pathological changes in the liver may contribute to female endocrine disruption, potentially through the liver-to-ovary axis. Of particular interest are hyperglycemic challenges and the consequent changes in liver-secretory protein(s) and insulin sensitivity affecting the maturation of ovarian follicles, potentially leading to female infertility. The purpose of this review is to provide insight into emerging metabolic mechanisms underlying PCOS as the primary culprit, which promote its incidence and aggravation. Additionally, this review aims to summarize medications and new potential therapeutic approaches for the disease.

Identification of metabolism-related genes for predicting peritoneal metastasis in patients with gastric cancer

OBJECTIVE

The reprogramming of metabolism is an important factor in the metastatic process of cancer. In our study, we intended to investigate the predictive value of metabolism-related genes (MRGs) in recurrent gastric cancer (GC) patients with peritoneal metastasis.

METHODS

The sequencing data of mRNA of GC patients were obtained from Asian Cancer Research Group (ACRG) and the GEO databases (GSE53276). The differentially expressed MRGs (DE-MRGs) between a cell line without peritoneal metastasis (HSC60) and one with peritoneal metastasis (60As6) were analyzed with the Limma package. According to the LASSO regression, eight MRGs were identified as crucially related to peritoneal seeding recurrence in patients. Then, disease free survival related genes were screened using Cox regression, and a promising prognostic model was constructed based on 8 MRGs. We trained and verified it in two independent cohort.

RESULTS

We confirmed 713 DE-MRGs and the enriched pathways. Pathway analysis found that the MRG-related pathways were related to tumor metabolism development. With the help of Kaplan-Meier analysis, we found that the group with higher risk scores had worse rates of peritoneal seeding recurrence than the group with lower scores in the cohorts.

CONCLUSIONS

This study developed an eight-gene signature correlated with metabolism that could predict peritoneal seeding recurrence for GC patients. This signature could be a promising prognostic model, providing better strategy in treatment.

Roles of ZnT86D in Neurodevelopment and Pathogenesis of Alzheimer Disease in a Drosophila melanogaster Model

Zinc is a fundamental trace element essential for numerous biological processes, and zinc homeostasis is regulated by the Zrt-/Irt-like protein (ZIP) and zinc transporter (ZnT) families. ZnT7 is mainly localized in the Golgi apparatus and endoplasmic reticulum (ER) and transports zinc into these organelles. Although previous studies have reported the role of zinc in animal physiology, little is known about the importance of zinc in the Golgi apparatus and ER in animal development and neurodegenerative diseases. In this study, we demonstrated that ZnT86D, a Drosophila ortholog of ZnT7, plays a pivotal role in the neurodevelopment and pathogenesis of Alzheimer disease (AD). When ZnT86D was silenced in neurons, the embryo-to-adult survival rate, locomotor activity, and lifespan were dramatically reduced. The toxic phenotypes were accompanied by abnormal neurogenesis and neuronal cell death. Furthermore, knockdown of ZnT86D in the neurons of a Drosophila AD model increased apoptosis and exacerbated neurodegeneration without significant changes in the deposition of amyloid beta plaques and susceptibility to oxidative stress. Taken together, our results suggest that an appropriate distribution of zinc in the Golgi apparatus and ER is important for neuronal development and neuroprotection and that ZnT7 is a potential protective factor against AD.

Role of fatty acid transport protein 4 in metabolic tissues: insights into obesity and fatty liver disease

Fatty acid (FA) metabolism is a series of processes that provide structural substances, signalling molecules and energy. Ample evidence has shown that FA uptake is mediated by plasma membrane transporters including FA transport proteins (FATPs), caveolin-1, fatty-acid translocase (FAT)/CD36, and fatty-acid binding proteins. Unlike other FA transporters, the functions of FATPs have been controversial because they contain both motifs of FA transport and fatty acyl-CoA synthetase (ACS). The widely distributed FATP4 is not a direct FA transporter but plays a predominant function as an ACS. FATP4 deficiency causes ichthyosis premature syndrome in mice and humans associated with suppression of polar lipids but an increase in neutral lipids including triglycerides (TGs). Such a shift has been extensively characterized in enterocyte-, hepatocyte-, and adipocyte-specific Fatp4-deficient mice. The mutants under obese and non-obese fatty livers induced by different diets persistently show an increase in blood non-esterified free fatty acids and glycerol indicating the lipolysis of TGs. This review also focuses on FATP4 role on regulatory networks and factors that modulate FATP4 expression in metabolic tissues including intestine, liver, muscle, and adipose tissues. Metabolic disorders especially regarding blood lipids by FATP4 deficiency in different cell types are herein discussed. Our results may be applicable to not only patients with FATP4 mutations but also represent a model of dysregulated lipid homeostasis, thus providing mechanistic insights into obesity and development of fatty liver disease.

Paternal Zn-deficiency abolishes metabolic effects in offspring induced by diet type

Accumulating evidence implicates that offspring are susceptible to paternal alterations in numerous fetal disorders, such as growth and metabolic defects. However, less study has been conducted to define the relationship between paternal zinc deficiency (ZnD) and energy metabolism of offspring. In the present study, we used a paternal ZnD exposure (Zn at 0.3 μg/g) model to test energy metabolism of male and female offspring with the intervention of diet type (high-fat diet and low-fat diet). Our results demonstrated that paternal ZnD decreased body weight (BW) gain per week (P < 0.01) and ME intake per week (P < 0.05) at 11 weeks in male offspring with high-fat diet intervention but not in female offspring. Further, anabolism and catabolism of hepatic energy products also exhibited alterations. ZnD attenuated liver glucose but increased lipids content accompanied with elevated adiponectin and reduction in leptin level in serum, which exhibited lipid metabolic disturbance and smaller ratio of liver weight to BW in male but not female offspring. The qRT-PCR and liver energy metabolites analysis revealed that paternal ZnD mainly induced reduction in glucose tolerance and lowered glucose uptaking ability in male offspring and thereby alleviated glycolysis and the tricarboxylic acid cycle (TCA) cycle, which displayed a male gender-dependency. Therefore, we propose that paternal ZnD abolishes metabolic effects in male offspring induced by diet type intervention. Our findings reveal a novel link between paternal Zn-D and offspring energy metabolism.

Comparative Transcriptomic Analysis Reveals Diverse Expression Pattern Underlying Fatty Acid Composition among Different Beef Cuts

Beef is an important dietary source of quality animal proteins and amino acids in human nutrition. The fatty acid composition is one of the indispensable indicators affecting nutritional value of beef. However, a comprehensive understanding of the expression changes underlying fatty acid composition in representative beef cuts is needed in cattle. This study aimed to characterize the dynamics of fatty acid composition using comparative transcriptomic analysis in five different type of beef cuts. We identified 7545 differentially expressed genes (DEGs) among 10 pair-wise comparisons. Co-expression gene network analysis identified two modules, which were significantly correlated with 2 and 20 fatty acid composition, respectively. We also identified 38 candidate genes, and functional enrichment showed that these genes were involved in fatty acid biosynthetic process and degradation, PPAR, and AMPK signaling pathway. Moreover, we observed a cluster of DEGs (e.g., SCD, LPL, FABP3, and PPARD) which were involved in the regulation of lipid metabolism and adipocyte differentiation. Our results provide some valuable insights into understanding the transcriptome regulation of candidate genes on fatty acid composition of beef cuts, and our findings may facilitate the designs of genetic selection program for beneficial fatty acid composition in beef cattle.

Plant polyphenols mechanisms of action on insulin resistance and against the loss of pancreatic beta cells

Diabetes mellitus describes a group of metabolic disorders characterized by a prolonged period hyperglycemia with long-lasting detrimental effects on the cardiovascular and nervous systems, kidney, vision, and immunity. Many plant polyphenols are shown to have beneficial activity for the prevention and treatment of diabetes, by different mechanisms. This review article is focused on synthesizing the mechanisms by which polyphenols decrease insulin resistance and inhibit loss of pancreatic islet β-cell mass and function. To achieve the objectives, this review summarizes the results of the researches realized in recent years in clinical trials and in various experimental models, on the effects of foods rich in polyphenols, polyphenolic extracts, and commercially polyphenols on insulin resistance and β-cells death. Dietary polyphenols are able to reduce insulin resistance alleviating the IRS-1/PI3-k/Akt signaling pathway, and to reduce the loss of pancreatic islet β-cell mass and function by several molecular mechanisms, such as protection of the surviving machinery of cells against the oxidative insult; increasing insulin secretion in pancreatic β-cells through activation of the FFAR1; cytoprotective effect on β-cells by activation of autophagy; protection of β-cells to act as activators for anti-apoptotic pathways and inhibitors for apoptotic pathway; stimulating of insulin release, presumably by transient ATP-sensitive K⁺ channel inhibition and whole-cell Ca²⁺ stimulation; involvement in insulin release that act on ionic currents and membrane potential as inhibitor of delayed-rectifier K⁺ current (I_K(DR)) and activator of current. dietary polyphenols could be used as potential anti-diabetic agents to prevent and alleviate diabetes and its complications, but further studies are needed.

MiR-200c-3p regulates pyroptosis by targeting SLC30A7 in diabetic retinopathy

CLINICAL RELEVANCE

MicroRNAs (miRNAs) have been reported to be involved in the progression of various diseases. Studying the regulatory mechanisms of miRNAs can help clinical treatment.

BACKGROUND

Diabetic retinopathy (DR) is one of the complications of diabetes. The objective of this study was to elucidate the underlying molecular mechanisms by which miR-200c-3p regulates the pyroptosis of DR cell.

METHODS

Human retinal microvascular endothelial cells (HRMECs) and high glucose (HG) cultures established DR cell model in vitro. RT-qPCR is used to detect the expression level of miRNAs. CCK-8 assays and flow cytometry are used to detect apoptosis of HRMECs cell. Western blotting is used to detect cleaved caspase-3, cleaved caspase-1, and N-GSDMD proteins levels in HRMECs. The ELISA assay is used to detect the expression of IL-1β and IL-18. Predict and validate potential binding sites between miR-200c-3p and SLC30A7 by dual luciferase reporter gene analysis.

RESULTS

The results showed that HG caused damage to HRMECs through the pyroptosis pathway rather than the apoptosis pathway. MiR-200c-3p is highly expressed in HG induced-HRMECs, and knockdown of miR-200c-3p mitigates HG-induced HRMECs pyroptosis. MiR-200c-3p negatively targets SLC30A7 in HRMECs, and miR-200c-3p regulates pyroptosis of HG-induced HRMECs by targeting SLC30A7.

CONCLUSION

The results suggest that miR-200c-3p might be a promising interference target for DR prevention and treatment. The results of current study may provide new insights into development of therapeutic strategies for DR.

The Role of Zinc Homeostasis in the Prevention of Diabetes Mellitus and Cardiovascular Diseases

Zinc is an essential micronutrient for human health and is involved in various biological functions, such as growth, metabolism, and immune function. In recent years, research on intracellular zinc dynamics has progressed, and it has become clear that zinc transporters strictly control intracellular zinc localization, zinc regulates the functions of various proteins and signal transduction pathways as a second messenger similar to calcium ions, and intracellular zinc dyshomeostasis is associated with impaired insulin synthesis, secretion, sensitivity, lipid metabolism, and vascular function. Numerous animal and human studies have shown that zinc deficiency may be associated with the risk factors for diabetes and cardiovascular diseases (CVDs) and zinc administration might be beneficial for the prevention and treatment of these diseases. Therefore, an understanding of zinc biology may help the establishment of novel strategies for the prevention and treatment of diabetes and CVDs. This review will summarize the current knowledge on the role of zinc homeostasis in the pathogenesis of diabetes and atherosclerosis and will discuss the potential of zinc in the prevention of these diseases.

Oxylipin Responses to Fasting and Insulin Infusion in a Large Mammalian Model of Fasting-Induced Insulin Resistance, the Northern Elephant Seal

The prolonged, post-weaning fast of northern elephant seal (Mirounga angustirostris) pups is characterized by a reliance on lipid metabolism and reversible, fasting-induced insulin resistance providing a unique model to examine the effects of insulin on lipid metabolism. We have previously shown that acute insulin infusion induced a shift in fatty acid metabolism dependent on fasting duration. This study complements the previous study by examining the effects of fasting duration and insulin infusion on circulating levels of oxylipins, bioactive metabolites derived from the oxygenation of polyunsaturated fatty acids. Northern elephant seal pups were studied at two post-weaning periods (n = 5/period): early fasting (1-2 weeks post-weaning; 127 ± 1 kg) and late fasting (6-7 weeks post-weaning; 93 ± 4 kg). Different cohorts of pups were weighed, sedated, and infused with 65 mU/kg of insulin. Plasma was collected prior to infusion (T0), and at 10, 30, 60, and 120 min post-infusion. A profile of ~80 oxylipins were analyzed by UPLC-ESI-MS/MS. Nine oxylipins changed between early and late fasting and eight were altered in response to insulin infusion. Fasting decreased PGF2a and increased 14,15-DiHETrE, 20-HETE, and 4-HDoHE (p<0.03) in T0 samples, while insulin infusion resulted in an inverse change in area under the curve (AUC) levels in these same metabolites (p<0.05). In addition, 12-HpETE and 12-HETE decreased with fasting and insulin infusion, respectively (p<0.04). The oxylipins altered during fasting and in response to insulin infusion may contribute to the manifestation of insulin resistance and participate in the metabolic regulation of associated cellular processes.

Electric pulse stimulation inhibited lipid accumulation on C2C12 myotubes incubated with oleic acid and palmitic acid

OBJECTIVE

To investigate the effect of electrical pulse stimulation (EPS) on lipid accumulation and alteration of fatty acid-related enzymes in C2C12 myotubes incubated with fatty acids.

METHODS

Mouse C2C12 myotubes were incubated with oleic acid and palmitic acid, and differentiated C2C12 myotubes were treated with EPS, oil-red O (ORO), BODIPY staining and triglyceride (TG) content were examined. Total RNA was isolated, and real-time polymerase chain reaction analysis was performed.

RESULTS

(1) EPS decreased TG content (p < .01). (2) EPS significantly induced the mRNA expression of FAD/CD36 (p < .05), FATP4 (p < .001), FABP1 (p < .01) and FABP5 (p < .01). (3) EPS significantly inhibited the mRNA expression of fatty acid synthase (p < .01). (4) Adipose triglyceride lipase and hormone-sensitive lipase expression were significantly elevated (p < .001), and induced the mRNA expression of CPT1 (p < .01), ACOX1 (p < .05), UCP3 (p < .05) and PPARα (p < .001) after EPS.

CONCLUSION

EPS reduced lipid droplet accumulation; enhanced CD36, FATP4, FABP1 and FABP5 expression; inhibited C2C12 myotube fatty acid re-esterification; and promoted fatty acid oxidation in C2C12 myotubes.

Mitochondrial dysfunction and beneficial effects of mitochondria-targeted small peptide SS-31 in Diabetes Mellitus and Alzheimer's disease

Diabetes and Alzheimer's disease are common chronic illnesses in the United States and lack clearly demonstrated therapeutics. Mitochondria, the "powerhouse of the cell", is involved in the homeostatic regulation of glucose, energy, and reduction/oxidation reactions. The mitochondria has been associated with the etiology of metabolic and neurological disorders through a dysfunction of regulation of reactive oxygen species. Mitochondria-targeted chemicals, such as the Szeto-Schiller-31 peptide, have advanced therapeutic potential through the inhibition of oxidative stress and the restoration of normal mitochondrial function as compared to traditional antioxidants, such as vitamin E. In this article, we summarize the pathophysiological relevance of the mitochondria and the beneficial effects of Szeto-Schiller-31 peptide in the treatment of Diabetes and Alzheimer's disease.

Zinc

Since the discovery of manifest Zn deficiency in 1961, the increasing number of studies demonstrated the association between altered Zn status and multiple diseases. In this chapter, we provide a review of the most recent advances on the role of Zn in health and disease (2010-20), with a special focus on the role of Zn in neurodegenerative and neurodevelopmental disorders, diabetes and obesity, male and female reproduction, as well as COVID-19. In parallel with the revealed tight association between ASD risk and severity and Zn status, the particular mechanisms linking Zn2+ and ASD pathogenesis like modulation of synaptic plasticity through ProSAP/Shank scaffold, neurotransmitter metabolism, and gut microbiota, have been elucidated. The increasing body of data indicate the potential involvement of Zn2+ metabolism in neurodegeneration. Systemic Zn levels in Alzheimer's and Parkinson's disease were found to be reduced, whereas its sequestration in brain may result in modulation of amyloid β and α-synuclein processing with subsequent toxic effects. Zn2+ was shown to possess adipotropic effects through the role of zinc transporters, zinc finger proteins, and Zn-α2-glycoprotein in adipose tissue physiology, underlying its particular role in pathogenesis of obesity and diabetes mellitus type 2. Recent findings also contribute to further understanding of the role of Zn2+ in spermatogenesis and sperm functioning, as well as oocyte development and fertilization. Finally, Zn2+ was shown to be the potential adjuvant therapy in management of novel coronavirus infection (COVID-19), underlining the perspectives of zinc in management of old and new threats.

RNA-sequencing analysis reveals the potential contribution of lncRNAs in palmitic acid-induced insulin resistance of skeletal muscle cells

Insulin resistance (IR) has been considered as the common pathological basis and developmental driving force for most metabolic diseases. Long noncoding RNAs (lncRNAs) have emerged as pivotal regulators in modulation of glucose and lipid metabolism. However, the comprehensive profile of lncRNAs in skeletal muscle cells under the insulin resistant status and the possible biological effects of them were not fully studied. In this research, using C2C12 myotubes as cell models in vitro, deep RNA-sequencing was performed to profile lncRNAs and mRNAs between palmitic acid-induced IR C2C12 myotubes and control ones. The results revealed that a total of 144 lncRNAs including 70 up-regulated and 74 down-regulated (|fold change| > 2, q < 0.05) were significantly differentially expressed in palmitic acid-induced insulin resistant cells. In addition, functional annotation analysis based on the Gene Ontology (GO) and Kyoto encyclopedia of genes and genomes (KEGG) databases revealed that the target genes of the differentially expressed lncRNAs were significantly enriched in fatty acid oxidation, lipid oxidation, PPAR signaling pathway, and insulin signaling pathway. Moreover, Via qPCR, most of selected lncRNAs in myotubes and db/db mice skeletal muscle showed the consistent expression trends with RNA-sequencing. Co-expression analysis also explicated the key lncRNA–mRNA interactions and pointed out a potential regulatory network of candidate lncRNA ENSMUST00000160839. In conclusion, the present study extended the skeletal muscle lncRNA database and provided novel potential regulators for future genetic and molecular studies on insulin resistance, which is helpful for prevention and treatment of the related metabolic diseases.

Impact of a weight loss and fitness intervention on exercise-associated plasma oxylipin patterns in obese, insulin-resistant, sedentary women

Very little is known about how metabolic health status, insulin resistance or metabolic challenges modulate the endocannabinoid (eCB) or polyunsaturated fatty acid (PUFA)-derived oxylipin (OxL) lipid classes. To address these questions, plasma eCB and OxL concentrations were determined at rest, 10 and 20 min during an acute exercise bout (30 min total, ~45% of preintervention V̇O2peak , ~63 W), and following 20 min recovery in overnight-fasted sedentary, obese, insulin-resistant women under controlled diet conditions. We hypothesized that increased fitness and insulin sensitivity following a ~14-week training and weight loss intervention would lead to significant changes in lipid signatures using an identical acute exercise protocol to preintervention. In the first 10 min of exercise, concentrations of a suite of OxL diols and hydroxyeicosatetraenoic acid (HETE) metabolites dropped significantly. There was no increase in 12,13-DiHOME, previously reported to increase with exercise and proposed to activate muscle fatty acid uptake and tissue metabolism. Following weight loss intervention, exercise-associated reductions were more pronounced for several linoleate and alpha-linolenate metabolites including DiHOMEs, DiHODEs, KODEs, and EpODEs, and fasting concentrations of 9,10-DiHODE, 12,13-DiHODE, and 9,10-DiHOME were reduced. These findings suggest that improved metabolic health modifies soluble epoxide hydrolase, cytochrome P450 epoxygenase (CYP), and lipoxygenase (LOX) systems. Acute exercise led to reductions for most eCB metabolites, with no evidence for concentration increases even at recovery. It is proposed that during submaximal aerobic exercise, nonoxidative fates of long-chain saturated, monounsaturated, and PUFAs are attenuated in tissues that are important contributors to the blood OxL and eCB pools.

Association between the Thigh Muscle and Insulin Resistance According to Body Mass Index in Middle-Aged Korean Adults

BACKGROUND

We examined the associations between thigh muscle area (TMA) and insulin resistance (IR) according to body mass index (BMI) in middle-aged Korean general population.

METHODS

TMA was measured using quantitative computed tomography and corrected by body weight (TMA/Wt) in 1,263 men, 788 premenopausal women, and 1,476 postmenopausal women all aged 30 to 64 years. The tertiles of TMA/Wt were calculated separately for men and for premenopausal and postmenopausal women. Homeostatic model assessment for insulin resistance (HOMA-IR) was performed using fasting blood glucose and insulin levels, and increased IR was defined according to sex-specific, top quartiles of HOMA-IR. Associations between the TMA/Wt tertiles and increased IR according to the BMI categories (<25 and ≥25 kg/m²) were assessed using multivariable logistic regression analysis.

RESULTS

In men with higher BMIs, but not in those with lower BMIs, the presence of an increased IR had significantly higher odds ratios in the lower TMA/Wt tertiles, even after adjustment for visceral fat area. However, in premenopausal and postmenopausal women, there was no significant inverse association between TMA/Wt tertiles and increased IR, regardless of BMI category.

CONCLUSION

Our findings suggest that the thigh muscle is inversely associated with IR in men, particularly in those with higher BMIs.

Excess Accumulation of Lipid Impairs Insulin Sensitivity in Skeletal Muscle

Both glucose and free fatty acids (FFAs) are used as fuel sources for energy production in a living organism. Compelling evidence supports a role for excess fatty acids synthesized in intramuscular space or dietary intermediates in the regulation of skeletal muscle function. Excess FFA and lipid droplets leads to intramuscular accumulation of lipid intermediates. The resulting downregulation of the insulin signaling cascade prevents the translocation of glucose transporter to the plasma membrane and glucose uptake into skeletal muscle, leading to metabolic disorders such as type 2 diabetes. The mechanisms underlining metabolic dysfunction in skeletal muscle include accumulation of intracellular lipid derivatives from elevated plasma FFAs. This paper provides a review of the molecular mechanisms underlying insulin-related signaling pathways after excess accumulation of lipids.

Solute Carrier Transporters as Potential Targets for the Treatment of Metabolic Disease

The solute carrier (SLC) superfamily comprises more than 400 transport proteins mediating the influx and efflux of substances such as ions, nucleotides, and sugars across biological membranes. Over 80 SLC transporters have been linked to human diseases, including obesity and type 2 diabetes (T2D). This observation highlights the importance of SLCs for human (patho)physiology. Yet, only a small number of SLC proteins are validated drug targets. The most recent drug class approved for the treatment of T2D targets sodium-glucose cotransporter 2, product of the SLC5A2 gene. There is great interest in identifying other SLC transporters as potential targets for the treatment of metabolic diseases. Finding better treatments will prove essential in future years, given the enormous personal and socioeconomic burden posed by more than 500 million patients with T2D by 2040 worldwide. In this review, we summarize the evidence for SLC transporters as target structures in metabolic disease. To this end, we identified SLC13A5/sodium-coupled citrate transporter, and recent proof-of-concept studies confirm its therapeutic potential in T2D and nonalcoholic fatty liver disease. Further SLC transporters were linked in multiple genome-wide association studies to T2D or related metabolic disorders. In addition to presenting better-characterized potential therapeutic targets, we discuss the likely unnoticed link between other SLC transporters and metabolic disease. Recognition of their potential may promote research on these proteins for future medical management of human metabolic diseases such as obesity, fatty liver disease, and T2D. SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT: Given the fact that the prevalence of human metabolic diseases such as obesity and type 2 diabetes has dramatically risen, pharmacological intervention will be a key future approach to managing their burden and reducing mortality. In this review, we present the evidence for solute carrier (SLC) genes associated with human metabolic diseases and discuss the potential of SLC transporters as therapeutic target structures.

Maintenance of Intestinal Epithelial Homeostasis by Zinc Transporters

Zinc is an essential micronutrient for normal organ function, and dysregulation of zinc metabolism has been implicated in a wide range of diseases. Emerging evidence has revealed that zinc transporters play diverse roles in cellular homeostasis and function by regulating zinc trafficking via organelles or the plasma membrane. In the gastrointestinal tract, zinc deficiency leads to diarrhea and dysfunction of intestinal epithelial cells. Studies also showed that zinc transporters are very important in intestinal epithelial homeostasis. In this review, we describe the physiological roles of zinc transporters in intestinal epithelial functions and relevance of zinc transporters in gastrointestinal diseases.

Inhibitory effect of 17β‑estradiol on triglyceride synthesis in skeletal muscle cells is dependent on ESR1 and not ESR2

The present study aimed to investigate the inhibitory effects and the mechanisms underlying 17β-estradiol (E₂) effects on triglyceride synthesis and insulin resistance in skeletal muscle tissues and cells. Ovariectomy (OVX) was performed on 6-month-old female rats treated with or without E₂. Subsequently, various serum biochemical markers were measured. Additionally, pathological alterations of the uterus, liver and skeletal muscle were analyzed, and the content of triglycerides (TG) in muscle was detected. Differentiated myotubes formed by C2C12 cells were treated with palmitic acid (PA) or pretreated with E₂, estrogen receptor (ESR) 1 agonist propylpyrazoletriol (PPT) and ESR2 agonist diarylpropionitrile (DPN). Subsequently, the mRNA or protein expression levels of ESR1/2, peroxisome proliferator activated receptor α (PPARα), CD36 molecule (CD36), fatty acid synthase (FASN), perilipin 2 (PLIN2), phosphorylated acetyl-CoA carboxylase α (p-ACACA), p-AKT serine/threonine kinase (p-AKT) and p-mitogen-activated protein kinase 8 (p-MAPK8) were analyzed in skeletal muscle or in C2C12 cells by reverse transcription-semi-quantitative polymerase chain reaction and western blotting. The present results suggested that treatment with E₂ inhibited OVX-induced body weight gain, TG accumulation and insulin resistance. The protein or mRNA expression levels of ESR1, CD36, PPARα, p-ACACA and p-AKT were decreased, whereas the protein or mRNA expression levels of ESR2, PLIN2, FASN and p-MAPK8 were increased in the OVX group. Of note, treatment with E₂ restored the expression levels of the aforementioned factors. In C2C12 cells, treatment with E₂ or PPT reversed the alterations induced by treatment with PA. In contrast, pretreatment with DPN did not influence the effect of PA. Collectively, E₂ was able to interact with ESR1, thus activating the CD36-PPARα pathway, decreasing the level of TG in the muscles and improving insulin resistance in skeletal muscles and C2C12 cells.

Vascular endothelial growth factor B inhibits lipid accumulation in C2C12 myotubes incubated with fatty acids

To investigate (1) the effect of vascular endothelial growth factor B (VEGFB) on lipid accumulation and the alteration of fatty acids and fatty acid-related enzymes in C2C12 myotubes incubated with fatty acids and (2) the regulatory effect of VEGFB on skeletal muscle lipid metabolism. Mouse C2C12 myotubes were incubated with oleic acid (OA) and palmitic acid (PA), and differentiated mature C2C12 myotubes were treated with VEGFB. Oil-red O staining, BODIPY staining and cell triglycerides (TG) content were examined. Total RNA was isolated, and real-time PCR analysis was performed. Treatment with 100 μM OA and 50 μM PA induced lipid droplet accumulation and increased TG content (p < .01), and 100 ng/mL VEGFB reduced lipid droplet accumulation and decreased TG content (p < .01). Treatment with 100 ng/mL VEGFB significantly induced the mRNA expression of fatty acid transport protein 1 (FATP1) (p < .01) and FATP4 (p < .01). Treatment with 100 ng/mL VEGFB significantly induced the mRNA expression of adipose TG lipase and hormone-sensitive lipase (p < .01) as well as carnitine palmitoyltransferase I (p < .01), peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor-γ coactivator-1α (p < .01), acyl-coa dehydrogenase very long chain (p < .05), acyl-coa synthetase long-chain family member 1 (p < .01), peroxisomal acyl-coenzyme A oxidase 1 (p < .05), and mitochondrial uncoupling protein 3 (p < .01). VEGFB enhanced FATP1and FATP4 expression, promoted C2C12 myotube fatty acid oxidation and TG decomposition, and inhibited C2C12 myotube fatty acid re-esterification, thus inhibiting lipid accumulation in C2C12 myotubes incubated with fatty acids.

Subcongenic analysis of a quantitative trait locus affecting body weight and glucose metabolism in zinc transporter 7 (znt7)-knockout mice

Background

A genome-wide mapping study using male F₂zinc transporter 7-knockout mice (znt7-KO) and their wild type littermates in a mixed 129P1/ReJ (129P1) and C57BL/6J (B6) background identified a quantitative trait locus (QTL) on chromosome 7, which had a synergistic effect on body weight gain and fat deposit with the znt7-null mutation.

Results

The genetic segment for body weight on mouse chromosome 7 was investigated by newly created subcongenic znt7-KO mouse strains carrying different lengths of genomic segments of chromosome 7 from the 129P1 donor strain in the B6 background. We mapped the sub-QTL for body weight in the proximal region of the previously mapped QTL, ranging from 47.4 to 64.4 megabases (Mb) on chromosome 7. The 129P1 donor allele conferred lower body weight gain and better glucose handling during intraperitoneal glucose challenge than the B6 allele control. We identified four candidate genes, including Htatip2, E030018B13Rik, Nipa1, and Atp10a, in this sub-QTL using quantitative RT-PCR and cSNP detection (single nucleotide polymorphisms in the protein coding region).

Conclusions

This study dissected the genetic determinates of body weight and glucose metabolism in znt7-KO mice. The study demonstrated that a 17-Mb long 129P1 genomic region on mouse chromosome 7 conferred weight reduction and improved glucose tolerance in znt7-KO male mice. Among the four candidate genes identified, Htatip2 is the most likely candidate gene involved in the control of body weight based on its function in regulation of lipid metabolism. The candidate genes discovered in this study lay a foundation for future studies of their roles in development of metabolic diseases, such as obesity and type 2 diabetes.

Electronic supplementary material

The online version of this article (10.1186/s12863-019-0715-2) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.