1
|
Kim BS. Critical role of TLR activation in viral replication, persistence, and pathogenicity of Theiler's virus. Front Immunol 2023; 14:1167972. [PMID: 37153539 PMCID: PMC10157096 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2023.1167972] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/17/2023] [Accepted: 04/11/2023] [Indexed: 05/09/2023] Open
Abstract
Theiler's murine encephalomyelitis virus (TMEV) establishes persistent viral infections in the central nervous system and induces chronic inflammatory demyelinating disease in susceptible mice. TMEV infects dendritic cells, macrophages, B cells, and glial cells. The state of TLR activation in the host plays a critical role in initial viral replication and persistence. The further activation of TLRs enhances viral replication and persistence, leading to the pathogenicity of TMEV-induced demyelinating disease. Various cytokines are produced via TLRs, and MDA-5 signals linked with NF-κB activation following TMEV infection. In turn, these signals further amplify TMEV replication and the persistence of virus-infected cells. The signals further elevate cytokine production, promoting the development of Th17 responses and preventing cellular apoptosis, which enables viral persistence. Excessive levels of cytokines, particularly IL-6 and IL-1β, facilitate the generation of pathogenic Th17 immune responses to viral antigens and autoantigens, leading to TMEV-induced demyelinating disease. These cytokines, together with TLR2 may prematurely generate functionally deficient CD25-FoxP3+ CD4+ T cells, which are subsequently converted to Th17 cells. Furthermore, IL-6 and IL-17 synergistically inhibit the apoptosis of virus-infected cells and the cytolytic function of CD8+ T lymphocytes, prolonging the survival of virus-infected cells. The inhibition of apoptosis leads to the persistent activation of NF-κB and TLRs, which continuously provides an environment of excessive cytokines and consequently promotes autoimmune responses. Persistent or repeated infections of other viruses such as COVID-19 may result in similar continuous TLR activation and cytokine production, leading to autoimmune diseases.
Collapse
|
2
|
Psenicka MW, Smith BC, Tinkey RA, Williams JL. Connecting Neuroinflammation and Neurodegeneration in Multiple Sclerosis: Are Oligodendrocyte Precursor Cells a Nexus of Disease? Front Cell Neurosci 2021; 15:654284. [PMID: 34234647 PMCID: PMC8255483 DOI: 10.3389/fncel.2021.654284] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/22/2021] [Accepted: 05/20/2021] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
The pathology in neurodegenerative diseases is often accompanied by inflammation. It is well-known that many cells within the central nervous system (CNS) also contribute to ongoing neuroinflammation, which can promote neurodegeneration. Multiple sclerosis (MS) is both an inflammatory and neurodegenerative disease in which there is a complex interplay between resident CNS cells to mediate myelin and axonal damage, and this communication network can vary depending on the subtype and chronicity of disease. Oligodendrocytes, the myelinating cell of the CNS, and their precursors, oligodendrocyte precursor cells (OPCs), are often thought of as the targets of autoimmune pathology during MS and in several animal models of MS; however, there is emerging evidence that OPCs actively contribute to inflammation that directly and indirectly contributes to neurodegeneration. Here we discuss several contributors to MS disease progression starting with lesion pathology and murine models amenable to studying particular aspects of disease. We then review how OPCs themselves can play an active role in promoting neuroinflammation and neurodegeneration, and how other resident CNS cells including microglia, astrocytes, and neurons can impact OPC function. Further, we outline the very complex and pleiotropic role(s) of several inflammatory cytokines and other secreted factors classically described as solely deleterious during MS and its animal models, but in fact, have many neuroprotective functions and promote a return to homeostasis, in part via modulation of OPC function. Finally, since MS affects patients from the onset of disease throughout their lifespan, we discuss the impact of aging on OPC function and CNS recovery. It is becoming clear that OPCs are not simply a bystander during MS progression and uncovering the active roles they play during different stages of disease will help uncover potential new avenues for therapeutic intervention.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Morgan W. Psenicka
- Department of Neurosciences, Lerner Research Institute, Cleveland Clinic, Cleveland, OH, United States
| | - Brandon C. Smith
- Department of Neurosciences, Lerner Research Institute, Cleveland Clinic, Cleveland, OH, United States
- Department of Biological, Geological, and Environmental Sciences, Cleveland State University, Cleveland, OH, United States
| | - Rachel A. Tinkey
- Department of Neurosciences, Lerner Research Institute, Cleveland Clinic, Cleveland, OH, United States
- School of Biomedical Sciences, Kent State University, Kent, OH, United States
| | - Jessica L. Williams
- Department of Neurosciences, Lerner Research Institute, Cleveland Clinic, Cleveland, OH, United States
- Brain Health Research Institute, Kent State University, Kent, OH, United States
| |
Collapse
|
3
|
Excessive Innate Immunity Steers Pathogenic Adaptive Immunity in the Development of Theiler's Virus-Induced Demyelinating Disease. Int J Mol Sci 2021; 22:ijms22105254. [PMID: 34067536 PMCID: PMC8156427 DOI: 10.3390/ijms22105254] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/15/2021] [Revised: 05/06/2021] [Accepted: 05/13/2021] [Indexed: 01/05/2023] Open
Abstract
Several virus-induced models were used to study the underlying mechanisms of multiple sclerosis (MS). The infection of susceptible mice with Theiler’s murine encephalomyelitis virus (TMEV) establishes persistent viral infections and induces chronic inflammatory demyelinating disease. In this review, the innate and adaptive immune responses to TMEV are discussed to better understand the pathogenic mechanisms of viral infections. Professional (dendritic cells (DCs), macrophages, and B cells) and non-professional (microglia, astrocytes, and oligodendrocytes) antigen-presenting cells (APCs) are the major cell populations permissive to viral infection and involved in cytokine production. The levels of viral loads and cytokine production in the APCs correspond to the degrees of susceptibility of the mice to the TMEV-induced demyelinating diseases. TMEV infection leads to the activation of cytokine production via TLRs and MDA-5 coupled with NF-κB activation, which is required for TMEV replication. These activation signals further amplify the cytokine production and viral loads, promote the differentiation of pathogenic Th17 responses, and prevent cellular apoptosis, enabling viral persistence. Among the many chemokines and cytokines induced after viral infection, IFN α/β plays an essential role in the downstream expression of costimulatory molecules in APCs. The excessive levels of cytokine production after viral infection facilitate the pathogenesis of TMEV-induced demyelinating disease. In particular, IL-6 and IL-1β play critical roles in the development of pathogenic Th17 responses to viral antigens and autoantigens. These cytokines, together with TLR2, may preferentially generate deficient FoxP3+CD25- regulatory cells converting to Th17. These cytokines also inhibit the apoptosis of TMEV-infected cells and cytolytic function of CD8+ T lymphocytes (CTLs) and prolong the survival of B cells reactive to viral and self-antigens, which preferentially stimulate Th17 responses.
Collapse
|
4
|
Gerhauser I, Hansmann F, Ciurkiewicz M, Löscher W, Beineke A. Facets of Theiler's Murine Encephalomyelitis Virus-Induced Diseases: An Update. Int J Mol Sci 2019; 20:ijms20020448. [PMID: 30669615 PMCID: PMC6358740 DOI: 10.3390/ijms20020448] [Citation(s) in RCA: 47] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/20/2018] [Revised: 01/15/2019] [Accepted: 01/18/2019] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
Theiler’s murine encephalomyelitis virus (TMEV), a naturally occurring, enteric pathogen of mice is a Cardiovirus of the Picornaviridae family. Low neurovirulent TMEV strains such as BeAn cause a severe demyelinating disease in susceptible SJL mice following intracerebral infection. Furthermore, TMEV infections of C57BL/6 mice cause acute polioencephalitis initiating a process of epileptogenesis that results in spontaneous recurrent epileptic seizures in approximately 50% of affected mice. Moreover, C3H mice develop cardiac lesions after an intraperitoneal high-dose application of TMEV. Consequently, TMEV-induced diseases are widely used as animal models for multiple sclerosis, epilepsy, and myocarditis. The present review summarizes morphological lesions and pathogenic mechanisms triggered by TMEV with a special focus on the development of hippocampal degeneration and seizures in C57BL/6 mice as well as demyelination in the spinal cord in SJL mice. Furthermore, a detailed description of innate and adaptive immune responses is given. TMEV studies provide novel insights into the complexity of organ- and mouse strain-specific immunopathology and help to identify factors critical for virus persistence.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Ingo Gerhauser
- Department of Pathology, University of Veterinary Medicine, Bünteweg 17, 30559 Hannover, Germany.
| | - Florian Hansmann
- Department of Pathology, University of Veterinary Medicine, Bünteweg 17, 30559 Hannover, Germany.
- Center for System Neuroscience, 30559 Hannover, Germany.
| | - Malgorzata Ciurkiewicz
- Department of Pathology, University of Veterinary Medicine, Bünteweg 17, 30559 Hannover, Germany.
- Center for System Neuroscience, 30559 Hannover, Germany.
| | - Wolfgang Löscher
- Center for System Neuroscience, 30559 Hannover, Germany.
- Department of Pharmacology, University of Veterinary Medicine, Bünteweg 17, 30559 Hannover, Germany.
| | - Andreas Beineke
- Department of Pathology, University of Veterinary Medicine, Bünteweg 17, 30559 Hannover, Germany.
- Center for System Neuroscience, 30559 Hannover, Germany.
| |
Collapse
|
5
|
Nardo G, Trolese MC, Verderio M, Mariani A, de Paola M, Riva N, Dina G, Panini N, Erba E, Quattrini A, Bendotti C. Counteracting roles of MHCI and CD8 + T cells in the peripheral and central nervous system of ALS SOD1 G93A mice. Mol Neurodegener 2018; 13:42. [PMID: 30092791 PMCID: PMC6085701 DOI: 10.1186/s13024-018-0271-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/27/2018] [Accepted: 07/02/2018] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND The major histocompatibility complex I (MHCI) is a key molecule for the interaction of mononucleated cells with CD8+T lymphocytes. We previously showed that MHCI is upregulated in the spinal cord microglia and motor axons of transgenic SOD1G93A mice. METHODS To assess the role of MHCI in the disease, we examined transgenic SOD1G93A mice crossbred with β2 microglobulin-deficient mice, which express little if any MHCI on the cell surface and are defective for CD8+ T cells. RESULTS The lack of MHCI and CD8+ T cells in the sciatic nerve affects the motor axon stability, anticipating the muscle atrophy and the disease onset. In contrast, MHCI depletion in resident microglia and the lack of CD8+ T cell infiltration in the spinal cord protect the cervical motor neurons delaying the paralysis of forelimbs and prolonging the survival of SOD1G93A mice. CONCLUSIONS We provided straightforward evidence for a dual role of MHCI in the peripheral nervous system (PNS) compared to the CNS, pointing out regional and temporal differences in the clinical responses of ALS mice. These findings offer a possible explanation for the failure of systemic immunomodulatory treatments and suggest new potential strategies to prevent the progression of ALS.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Giovanni Nardo
- Laboratory of Molecular Neurobiology, Department of Neuroscience, IRCCS - Istituto di Ricerche Farmacologiche Mario Negri, Via La Masa 19, 20156, Milan, Italy.
| | - Maria Chiara Trolese
- Laboratory of Molecular Neurobiology, Department of Neuroscience, IRCCS - Istituto di Ricerche Farmacologiche Mario Negri, Via La Masa 19, 20156, Milan, Italy
| | - Mattia Verderio
- Laboratory of Molecular Neurobiology, Department of Neuroscience, IRCCS - Istituto di Ricerche Farmacologiche Mario Negri, Via La Masa 19, 20156, Milan, Italy
| | - Alessandro Mariani
- Laboratory of Analytical Biochemistry, Department of Environmental Health Sciences, IRCCS - Istituto di Ricerche Farmacologiche Mario Negri, Via La Masa 19, 20156, Milan, Italy
| | - Massimiliano de Paola
- Laboratory of Analytical Biochemistry, Department of Environmental Health Sciences, IRCCS - Istituto di Ricerche Farmacologiche Mario Negri, Via La Masa 19, 20156, Milan, Italy
| | - Nilo Riva
- Neuropathology Unit, Department of Neurology, INSPE- San Raffaele Scientific Institute, Dibit II, Via Olgettina 48, 20132, Milan, Italy
| | - Giorgia Dina
- Neuropathology Unit, Department of Neurology, INSPE- San Raffaele Scientific Institute, Dibit II, Via Olgettina 48, 20132, Milan, Italy
| | - Nicolò Panini
- Laboratory of Cancer Pharmacology Department of Oncology, Flow Cytometry Unit, IRCCS - Istituto di Ricerche Farmacologiche Mario Negri, via La Masa 19, 20156, Milan, Italy
| | - Eugenio Erba
- Laboratory of Cancer Pharmacology Department of Oncology, Flow Cytometry Unit, IRCCS - Istituto di Ricerche Farmacologiche Mario Negri, via La Masa 19, 20156, Milan, Italy
| | - Angelo Quattrini
- Neuropathology Unit, Department of Neurology, INSPE- San Raffaele Scientific Institute, Dibit II, Via Olgettina 48, 20132, Milan, Italy
| | - Caterina Bendotti
- Laboratory of Molecular Neurobiology, Department of Neuroscience, IRCCS - Istituto di Ricerche Farmacologiche Mario Negri, Via La Masa 19, 20156, Milan, Italy
| |
Collapse
|
6
|
Ciurkiewicz M, Herder V, Khan MA, Uhde AK, Teich R, Floess S, Baumgärtner W, Huehn J, Beineke A. Cytotoxic CD8 + T cell ablation enhances the capacity of regulatory T cells to delay viral elimination in Theiler's murine encephalomyelitis. Brain Pathol 2017; 28:349-368. [PMID: 28452087 DOI: 10.1111/bpa.12518] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/01/2016] [Accepted: 04/18/2017] [Indexed: 12/28/2022] Open
Abstract
Theiler's murine encephalomyelitis (TME) of susceptible mouse strains is a commonly used infectious animal model for multiple sclerosis. The study aim was to test the hypothesis whether cytotoxic T cell responses account for the limited impact of regulatory T cells on antiviral immunity in TME virus-induced demyelinating disease (TMEV-IDD) resistant C57BL/6 mice. TME virus-infected C57BL/6 mice were treated with (i) interleukin-2/-anti-interleukin-2-antibody-complexes to expand regulatory T cells ("Treg-expansion"), (ii) anti-CD8-antibodies to deplete cytotoxic T cells ("CD8-depletion") or (iii) with a combination of Treg-expansion and CD8-depletion ("combined treatment") prior to infection. Results showed that "combined treatment", but neither sole "Treg-expansion" nor "CD8-depletion," leads to sustained hippocampal infection and virus spread to the spinal cord in C57BL/6 mice. Prolonged infection reduces myelin basic protein expression in the spinal cord together with increased accumulation of β-amyloid precursor protein in axons, characteristic of myelin loss and axonal damage, respectively. Chronic spinal cord infection upon "combined treatment" was also associated with increased T and B cell recruitment, accumulation of CD107b+ microglia/macrophages and enhanced mRNA expression of interleukin (IL)-1α, IL-10 and tumor necrosis factor α. In conclusion, data revealed that the suppressive capacity of Treg on viral elimination is efficiently boosted by CD8-depletion, which renders C57BL/6 mice susceptible to develop chronic neuroinfection and TMEV-IDD.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Malgorzata Ciurkiewicz
- Department of Pathology, University of Veterinary Medicine Hannover, Hannover, Germany.,Center for Systems Neuroscience, Hannover, Germany
| | - Vanessa Herder
- Department of Pathology, University of Veterinary Medicine Hannover, Hannover, Germany.,Center for Systems Neuroscience, Hannover, Germany
| | - Muhammad Akram Khan
- Department of Pathology, University of Veterinary Medicine Hannover, Hannover, Germany.,Center for Systems Neuroscience, Hannover, Germany.,Department of Pathobiology, Faculty of Veterinary & Animal Sciences, PMAS-Arid Agriculture University, Rawalpindi, Pakistan
| | - Ann-Kathrin Uhde
- Department of Pathology, University of Veterinary Medicine Hannover, Hannover, Germany
| | - René Teich
- Department of Experimental Immunology, Helmholtz Centre for Infection Research, Braunschweig, Germany
| | - Stephan Floess
- Department of Experimental Immunology, Helmholtz Centre for Infection Research, Braunschweig, Germany
| | - Wolfgang Baumgärtner
- Department of Pathology, University of Veterinary Medicine Hannover, Hannover, Germany.,Center for Systems Neuroscience, Hannover, Germany
| | - Jochen Huehn
- Department of Experimental Immunology, Helmholtz Centre for Infection Research, Braunschweig, Germany
| | - Andreas Beineke
- Department of Pathology, University of Veterinary Medicine Hannover, Hannover, Germany.,Center for Systems Neuroscience, Hannover, Germany
| |
Collapse
|
7
|
DePaula-Silva AB, Hanak TJ, Libbey JE, Fujinami RS. Theiler's murine encephalomyelitis virus infection of SJL/J and C57BL/6J mice: Models for multiple sclerosis and epilepsy. J Neuroimmunol 2017; 308:30-42. [PMID: 28237622 DOI: 10.1016/j.jneuroim.2017.02.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 58] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/27/2016] [Revised: 02/01/2017] [Accepted: 02/10/2017] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
Abstract
Mouse models are great tools to study the mechanisms of disease development. Theiler's murine encephalomyelitis virus is used in two distinct viral infection mouse models to study the human diseases multiple sclerosis (MS) and epilepsy. Intracerebral (i.c.) infection of the SJL/J mouse strain results in persistent viral infection of the central nervous system and a MS-like disease, while i.c. infection of the C57BL/6J mouse strain results in acute seizures and epilepsy. Our understanding of how the immune system contributes to the development of two disparate diseases caused by the same virus is presented.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Ana Beatriz DePaula-Silva
- Department of Pathology, University of Utah School of Medicine, 15 North Medical Drive East, 2600 EEJMRB, Salt Lake City, UT 84112, USA
| | - Tyler J Hanak
- Department of Pathology, University of Utah School of Medicine, 15 North Medical Drive East, 2600 EEJMRB, Salt Lake City, UT 84112, USA
| | - Jane E Libbey
- Department of Pathology, University of Utah School of Medicine, 15 North Medical Drive East, 2600 EEJMRB, Salt Lake City, UT 84112, USA
| | - Robert S Fujinami
- Department of Pathology, University of Utah School of Medicine, 15 North Medical Drive East, 2600 EEJMRB, Salt Lake City, UT 84112, USA.
| |
Collapse
|
8
|
Nardo G, Trolese MC, de Vito G, Cecchi R, Riva N, Dina G, Heath PR, Quattrini A, Shaw PJ, Piazza V, Bendotti C. Immune response in peripheral axons delays disease progression in SOD1 G93A mice. J Neuroinflammation 2016; 13:261. [PMID: 27717377 PMCID: PMC5055725 DOI: 10.1186/s12974-016-0732-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 51] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/19/2016] [Accepted: 09/23/2016] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Increasing evidence suggests that the immune system has a beneficial role in the progression of amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) although the mechanism remains unclear. Recently, we demonstrated that motor neurons (MNs) of C57SOD1G93A mice with slow disease progression activate molecules classically involved in the cross-talk with the immune system. This happens a lot less in 129SvSOD1G93A mice which, while expressing the same amount of transgene, had faster disease progression and earlier axonal damage. The present study investigated whether and how the immune response is involved in the preservation of motor axons in the mouse model of familial ALS with a more benign disease course. Methods First, the extent of axonal damage, Schwann cell proliferation, and neuromuscular junction (NMJ) denervation were compared between the two ALS mouse models at the disease onset. Then, we compared the expression levels of different immune molecules, the morphology of myelin sheaths, and the presence of blood-derived immune cell infiltrates in the sciatic nerve of the two SOD1G93A mouse strains using immunohistochemical, immunoblot, quantitative reverse transcription PCR, and rotating-polarization Coherent Anti-Stokes Raman Scattering techniques. Results Muscle denervation, axonal dysregulation, and myelin disruption together with reduced Schwann cell proliferation are prominent in 129SvSOD1G93A compared to C57SOD1G93A mice at the disease onset, and this correlates with a faster disease progression in the first strain. On the contrary, a striking increase of immune molecules such as CCL2, MHCI, and C3 was seen in sciatic nerves of slow progressor C57SOD1G93A mice and this was accompanied by heavy infiltration of CD8+ T lymphocytes and macrophages. These phenomena were not detectable in the peripheral nervous system of fast-progressing mice. Conclusions These data show for the first time that damaged MNs in SOD1-related ALS actively recruit immune cells in the peripheral nervous system to delay muscle denervation and prolong the lifespan. On the contrary, the lack of this response has a negative impact on the disease course. Electronic supplementary material The online version of this article (doi:10.1186/s12974-016-0732-2) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Giovanni Nardo
- Laboratory of Molecular Neurobiology, Department of Neuroscience, IRCCS - Istituto di Ricerche Farmacologiche Mario Negri, Via La Masa 19, 20156, Milan, Italy.
| | - Maria Chiara Trolese
- Laboratory of Molecular Neurobiology, Department of Neuroscience, IRCCS - Istituto di Ricerche Farmacologiche Mario Negri, Via La Masa 19, 20156, Milan, Italy
| | - Giuseppe de Vito
- NEST, Scuola Normale Superiore, Piazza San Silvestro 12, I-56127, Pisa, Italy.,Center for Nanotechnology Innovation @NEST, Istituto Italiano di Tecnologia, Piazza San Silvestro 12, I-56127, Pisa, Italy
| | - Roberta Cecchi
- NEST, Scuola Normale Superiore, Piazza San Silvestro 12, I-56127, Pisa, Italy
| | - Nilo Riva
- Neuropathology Unit, Department of Neurology, INSPE, San Raffaele Scientific Institute, Dibit II, Via Olgettina 48, 20132, Milan, Italy
| | - Giorgia Dina
- Neuropathology Unit, Department of Neurology, INSPE, San Raffaele Scientific Institute, Dibit II, Via Olgettina 48, 20132, Milan, Italy
| | - Paul R Heath
- Department of Neuroscience, Academic Neurology Unit, Faculty of Medicine, Dentistry and Health, Sheffield Institute for Translational Neuroscience, University of Sheffield, 385 Glossop Road, Sheffield, S10 2HQ, UK
| | - Angelo Quattrini
- Neuropathology Unit, Department of Neurology, INSPE, San Raffaele Scientific Institute, Dibit II, Via Olgettina 48, 20132, Milan, Italy
| | - Pamela J Shaw
- Department of Neuroscience, Academic Neurology Unit, Faculty of Medicine, Dentistry and Health, Sheffield Institute for Translational Neuroscience, University of Sheffield, 385 Glossop Road, Sheffield, S10 2HQ, UK
| | - Vincenzo Piazza
- Center for Nanotechnology Innovation @NEST, Istituto Italiano di Tecnologia, Piazza San Silvestro 12, I-56127, Pisa, Italy
| | - Caterina Bendotti
- Laboratory of Molecular Neurobiology, Department of Neuroscience, IRCCS - Istituto di Ricerche Farmacologiche Mario Negri, Via La Masa 19, 20156, Milan, Italy.
| |
Collapse
|
9
|
Olson JK. Effect of the innate immune response on development of Theiler's murine encephalomyelitis virus-induced demyelinating disease. J Neurovirol 2014; 20:427-36. [PMID: 24981833 DOI: 10.1007/s13365-014-0262-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/08/2013] [Revised: 05/13/2014] [Accepted: 06/03/2014] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Abstract
Theiler's murine encephalomyelitis virus (TMEV) infection of susceptible mice leads to the development of demyelinating disease in the central nervous system (CNS) associated with an inflammatory immune response. The demyelinating disease in mice has similarities to multiple sclerosis in humans and is used as an experimental model for the human disease. The innate immune response initiates the immune response to TMEV through innate immune receptors on cells that recognize components of the virus and activate intracellular signaling that leads to the expression of innate immune cytokines, chemokines, and effector molecules. The innate immune response directly affects the development of the adaptive immune response, especially the T cell response, which mediates viral clearance. However, infection of Swiss Jim Laboratory (SJL) mice with TMEV leads to a persistent virus infection of the microglia/macrophage in the CNS which contributes to the development of demyelinating disease. Susceptibility to demyelinating disease has been linked to the T cell response against the virus. However, the current studies will examine the role of the innate immune response to TMEV and the affect it has on the adaptive immune response and development of demyelinating disease following TMEV infection. The innate immune cytokines, chemokines, and effector molecules as well as the innate immune cells, both CNS resident and infiltrating peripheral cells, all contribute to the innate immune response following TMEV and may affect susceptibility to demyelinating disease.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Julie K Olson
- Department of Diagnostic and Biological Sciences, School of Dentistry, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN, USA,
| |
Collapse
|
10
|
Attfield KE, Fugger L. TCR transgenic mice that shed light on immune and environmental regulators in multiple sclerosis. THE JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY 2013; 190:3015-7. [PMID: 23526826 DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.1300427] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Kathrine E Attfield
- Nuffield Department of Clinical Neurosciences, Weatherall Institute of Molecular Medicine, University of Oxford, John Radcliffe Hospital, Oxford OX3 9DS, United Kingdom
| | | |
Collapse
|
11
|
Myoung J, Kang HS, Hou W, Meng L, Dal Canto MC, Kim BS. Epitope-specific CD8+ T cells play a differential pathogenic role in the development of a viral disease model for multiple sclerosis. J Virol 2012; 86:13717-28. [PMID: 23055563 PMCID: PMC3503089 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.01733-12] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/05/2012] [Accepted: 10/03/2012] [Indexed: 01/01/2023] Open
Abstract
Theiler's virus-induced demyelinating disease has been extensively investigated as a model for persistent viral infection and multiple sclerosis (MS). However, the role of CD8(+) T cells in the development of disease remains unclear. To assess the role of virus-specific CD8(+) T cells in the pathogenesis of demyelinating disease, a single amino acid substitution was introduced into the predominant viral epitope (VP3 from residues 159 to 166 [VP3(159-166)]) and/or a subdominant viral epitope (VP3(173-181)) of susceptible SJL/J mice by site-directed mutagenesis. The resulting variant viruses (N160V, P179A, and N160V/P179A) failed to induce CD8(+) T cell responses to the respective epitopes. Surprisingly, mice infected with N160V or N160V/P179A virus, which lacks CD8(+) T cells against VP3(159-166), did not develop demyelinating disease, in contrast to wild-type virus or P179A virus lacking VP3(173-181)-specific CD8(+) T cells. Our findings clearly show that the presence of VP3(159-166)-specific CD8(+) T cells, rather than viral persistence itself, is strongly correlated with disease development. VP3(173-181)-specific CD8(+) T cells in the central nervous system (CNS) of these virus-infected mice expressed higher levels of transforming growth factor β, forkhead box P3, interleukin-22 (IL-22), and IL-17 mRNA but caused minimal cytotoxicity compared to that caused by VP3(159-166)-specific CD8(+) T cells. VP3(159-166)-specific CD8(+) T cells exhibited high functional avidity for gamma interferon production, whereas VP3(173-181)-specific CD8(+) T cells showed low avidity. To our knowledge, this is the first report indicating that the induction of the IL-17-producing CD8(+) T cell type is largely epitope specific and that this specificity apparently plays a differential role in the pathogenicity of virus-induced demyelinating disease. These results strongly advocate for the careful consideration of CD8(+) T cell-mediated intervention of virus-induced inflammatory diseases.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | | | - Mauro C. Dal Canto
- Department of Pathology, Northwestern University Medical School, Chicago, Illinois, USA
| | - Byung S. Kim
- Department of Microbiology-Immunology
- Department of Pathology, Northwestern University Medical School, Chicago, Illinois, USA
| |
Collapse
|
12
|
Chronic social stress impairs virus specific adaptive immunity during acute Theiler's virus infection. J Neuroimmunol 2012; 254:19-27. [PMID: 23021485 DOI: 10.1016/j.jneuroim.2012.08.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/30/2012] [Revised: 08/08/2012] [Accepted: 08/23/2012] [Indexed: 01/12/2023]
Abstract
Prior exposure to social disruption (SDR) stress exacerbates Theiler's murine encephalomyelitis virus (TMEV) infection, a model of multiple sclerosis. Here we examined the impact of SDR on T cell responses to TMEV infection in SJL mice. SDR impaired viral clearance and exacerbated acute disease. Moreover, TMEV infection alone increased CD4 and CD8 mRNA expression in brain and spleen while SDR impaired this response. SDR decreased both CD4(+) and CD8(+) virus-specific T cells in CNS, but not spleen. These findings suggest that SDR-induced suppression of virus-specific T cell responses contributes to impairments in viral clearance and exacerbation of acute disease.
Collapse
|
13
|
Attfield KE, Dendrou CA, Fugger L. Bridging the gap from genetic association to functional understanding: the next generation of mouse models of multiple sclerosis. Immunol Rev 2012; 248:10-22. [DOI: 10.1111/j.1600-065x.2012.01132.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
|
14
|
Denic A, Pirko I, Wootla B, Bieber A, Macura S, Rodriguez M. Deletion of beta-2-microglobulin ameliorates spinal cord lesion load and promotes recovery of brainstem NAA levels in a murine model of multiple sclerosis. Brain Pathol 2012; 22:698-708. [PMID: 22335434 DOI: 10.1111/j.1750-3639.2012.00576.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022] Open
Abstract
We used genetic deletion of β2-microglobulin to study the influence of CD8(+) T cells on spinal cord demyelination, remyelination, axonal loss and brainstem N-acetyl aspartate levels during the acute and chronic phases of Theiler's murine encephalomyelitis virus (TMEV) infection. We used β2m(-/-) and β2m(+/+) B10.Q mice (of H-2(q) background) normally susceptible to TMEV-induced demyelination. Over the disease course, β2m(+/+) mice had increasing levels of demyelination and minimal late-onset remyelination. In contrast, β2m(-/-) mice had steady levels of demyelination from 45-390 dpi and remyelination was extensive and more complete. Early in the disease, brainstem NAA levels drop in both strains, but accordingly with remyelination and axonal preservation, NAA recover in β2m(-/-) mice despite equivalent brainstem pathology. At 270 dpi, β2m(+/+) mice had significantly fewer spinal cord axons than β2m(-/-) mice (up to 28% less). In addition, β2m(+/+) mice lost axons of all calibers, whereas β2m(-/-) mice had a modest loss of only medium- and large-caliber axons. This study further supports the hypothesis that CD8(+) T cells are involved in demyelination, and axonal loss following Theiler's virus-induced demyelination.
Collapse
|
15
|
Richards MH, Getts MT, Podojil JR, Jin YH, Kim BS, Miller SD. Virus expanded regulatory T cells control disease severity in the Theiler's virus mouse model of MS. J Autoimmun 2011; 36:142-54. [PMID: 21273044 DOI: 10.1016/j.jaut.2010.12.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 55] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/14/2010] [Revised: 12/22/2010] [Accepted: 12/22/2010] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
Theiler's murine encephalomyelitis virus (TMEV)-induced demyelinating disease (TMEV-IDD) serves as virus-induced model of chronic progressive multiple sclerosis. Infection of susceptible SJL/J mice leads to life-long CNS virus persistence and a progressive autoimmune demyelinating disease mediated by myelin-specific T cells activated via epitope spreading. In contrast, virus is rapidly cleared by a robust CTL response in TMEV-IDD-resistant C57BL/6 mice. We investigated whether differential induction of regulatory T cells (Tregs) controls susceptibility to TMEV-IDD. Infection of disease-susceptible SJL/J, but not B6 mice, leads to rapid activation and expansion of Tregs resulting in an unfavorable CNS ratio of Treg:Teffector cells. In addition, anti-CD25-induced inactivation of Tregs in susceptible SJL/J, but not resistant B6, mice results in significantly decreased clinical disease concomitant with enhanced anti-viral CD4(+), CD8(+) and antibody responses resulting in decreased CNS viral titers. This is the first demonstration that virus-induced Treg activation regulates susceptibility to autoimmune disease differentially in susceptible and resistant strains of mice and provides a new mechanistic explanation for the etiology of infection-induced autoimmunity.
Collapse
MESH Headings
- Animals
- Antibodies, Monoclonal/immunology
- Antibodies, Monoclonal/pharmacology
- Cardiovirus Infections/immunology
- Cardiovirus Infections/metabolism
- Cardiovirus Infections/pathology
- Cardiovirus Infections/prevention & control
- Cell Proliferation
- Central Nervous System/immunology
- Central Nervous System/pathology
- Central Nervous System/virology
- Demyelinating Diseases/immunology
- Demyelinating Diseases/metabolism
- Demyelinating Diseases/pathology
- Demyelinating Diseases/prevention & control
- Disease Models, Animal
- Enzyme-Linked Immunosorbent Assay
- Female
- Flow Cytometry
- Forkhead Transcription Factors/genetics
- Forkhead Transcription Factors/immunology
- Forkhead Transcription Factors/metabolism
- Glucocorticoid-Induced TNFR-Related Protein
- Humans
- Interleukin-2 Receptor alpha Subunit/immunology
- Interleukin-2 Receptor alpha Subunit/metabolism
- Male
- Mice
- Mice, Inbred C57BL
- Mice, Inbred Strains
- Mice, Transgenic
- Multiple Sclerosis/immunology
- Multiple Sclerosis/metabolism
- Multiple Sclerosis/pathology
- Receptors, Nerve Growth Factor/immunology
- Receptors, Tumor Necrosis Factor/immunology
- Severity of Illness Index
- T-Lymphocytes, Regulatory/immunology
- T-Lymphocytes, Regulatory/metabolism
- Theilovirus/drug effects
- Theilovirus/immunology
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Maureen H Richards
- Department of Microbiology-immunology and Interdepartmental Immunobiology Center, Northwestern University Feinberg School of Medicine, Chicago, IL 60611, USA
| | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
16
|
Preferential induction of protective T cell responses to Theiler's virus in resistant (C57BL/6 x SJL)F1 mice. J Virol 2010; 85:3033-40. [PMID: 21191011 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.02400-10] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/12/2023] Open
Abstract
Infection of the central nervous system (CNS) with Theiler's murine encephalomyelitis virus (TMEV) induces an immune-mediated demyelinating disease in susceptible mouse strains such as SJL/J (H-2(s)) but not in strains such as C57BL/6 (H-2(b)). In addition, it has been shown that (C57BL/6 × SJL/J)F1 mice (F1 mice), which carry both resistant and susceptible MHC haplotypes (H-2(b/s)), are resistant to both viral persistence and TMEV-induced demyelinating disease. In this study, we further analyzed the immune responses underlying the resistance of F1 mice. Our study shows that the resistance of F1 mice is associated with a higher level of the initial virus-specific H-2(b)-restricted CD8(+) T cell responses than of the H-2(s)-restricted CD8(+) T cell responses. In contrast, pathogenic Th17 responses to viral epitopes are lower in F1 mice than in susceptible SJL/J mice. Dominant effects of resistant genes expressed in antigen-presenting cells of F1 mice on regulation of viral replication and induction of protective T cell responses appear to play a crucial role in disease resistance. Although the F1 mice are resistant to disease, the level of viral RNA in the CNS was intermediate between those of SJL/J and C57BL/6 mice, indicating the presence of a threshold of viral expression for pathogenesis.
Collapse
|
17
|
Deb C, LaFrance-Corey RG, Schmalstieg WF, Sauer BM, Wang H, German CL, Windebank AJ, Rodriguez M, Howe CL. CD8+ T cells cause disability and axon loss in a mouse model of multiple sclerosis. PLoS One 2010; 5:e12478. [PMID: 20814579 PMCID: PMC2930011 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0012478] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/19/2010] [Accepted: 08/05/2010] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Background The objective of this study was to test the hypothesis that CD8+ T cells directly mediate motor disability and axon injury in the demyelinated central nervous system. We have previously observed that genetic deletion of the CD8+ T cell effector molecule perforin leads to preservation of motor function and preservation of spinal axons in chronically demyelinated mice. Methodology/Principal Findings To determine if CD8+ T cells are necessary and sufficient to directly injure demyelinated axons, we adoptively transferred purified perforin-competent CD8+ spinal cord-infiltrating T cells into profoundly demyelinated but functionally preserved perforin-deficient host mice. Transfer of CD8+ spinal cord-infiltrating T cells rapidly and irreversibly impaired motor function, disrupted spinal cord motor conduction, and reduced the number of medium- and large-caliber spinal axons. Likewise, immunodepletion of CD8+ T cells from chronically demyelinated wildtype mice preserved motor function and limited axon loss without altering other disease parameters. Conclusions/Significance In multiple sclerosis patients, CD8+ T cells outnumber CD4+ T cells in active lesions and the number of CD8+ T cells correlates with the extent of ongoing axon injury and functional disability. Our findings suggest that CD8+ T cells may directly injure demyelinated axons and are therefore a viable therapeutic target to protect axons and motor function in patients with multiple sclerosis.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Chandra Deb
- Department of Neurology, Mayo Clinic College of Medicine, Rochester, Minnesota, United States of America
| | - Reghann G. LaFrance-Corey
- Department of Neurology, Mayo Clinic College of Medicine, Rochester, Minnesota, United States of America
| | - William F. Schmalstieg
- Department of Neurology, Mayo Clinic College of Medicine, Rochester, Minnesota, United States of America
| | - Brian M. Sauer
- Neurobiology of Disease PhD Program, Mayo Clinic College of Medicine, Rochester, Minnesota, United States of America
| | - Huan Wang
- Neurosurgery, Mayo Clinic College of Medicine, Rochester, Minnesota, United States of America
| | - Christopher L. German
- Neurobiology of Disease PhD Program, Mayo Clinic College of Medicine, Rochester, Minnesota, United States of America
| | - Anthony J. Windebank
- Department of Neurology, Mayo Clinic College of Medicine, Rochester, Minnesota, United States of America
| | - Moses Rodriguez
- Department of Neurology, Mayo Clinic College of Medicine, Rochester, Minnesota, United States of America
| | - Charles L. Howe
- Department of Neurology, Mayo Clinic College of Medicine, Rochester, Minnesota, United States of America
- Neuroscience, Mayo Clinic College of Medicine, Rochester, Minnesota, United States of America
- Neurobiology of Disease PhD Program, Mayo Clinic College of Medicine, Rochester, Minnesota, United States of America
- * E-mail:
| |
Collapse
|
18
|
Getts MT, Richards MH, Miller SD. A critical role for virus-specific CD8(+) CTLs in protection from Theiler's virus-induced demyelination in disease-susceptible SJL mice. Virology 2010; 402:102-11. [PMID: 20381109 DOI: 10.1016/j.virol.2010.02.031] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/27/2009] [Revised: 09/23/2009] [Accepted: 02/26/2010] [Indexed: 01/04/2023]
Abstract
Theiler's murine encephalomyelitis virus (TMEV)-induced demyelinating disease (TMEV-IDD) is a relevant mouse model of multiple sclerosis. Infection of susceptible SJL/J mice leads to life-long CNS virus persistence and development of a chronic T cell-mediated autoimmune demyelinating disease triggered via epitope spreading to endogenous myelin epitopes. Potent CNS-infiltrating CD8(+) T cell responses to TMEV epitopes have previously been shown to be induced in both disease-susceptible SJL/J and resistant C57BL/6 mice, in which the virus is rapidly cleared. Specific tolerization of SJL CD8(+) T cells specific for the immunodominant TMEV VP3(159)(-)(166) epitope has no effect on viral load or development of clinical TMEV-IDD, but adoptive transfer of activated CD8(+) VP3(159)(-)(166)-specific T cell blasts shortly after TMEV infection to boost the early anti-viral response leads to clearance of CNS virus and protection from subsequent TMEV-IDD. These studies have important implications for vaccine strategies and treatment of chronic infections in humans.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Meghann Teague Getts
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology and Interdepartmental Immunobiology Center, Northwestern University Feinberg School of Medicine, 303, E. Chicago Ave., Chicago, IL 60611, USA
| | | | | |
Collapse
|
19
|
Tsunoda I, Fujinami RS. Neuropathogenesis of Theiler's murine encephalomyelitis virus infection, an animal model for multiple sclerosis. J Neuroimmune Pharmacol 2009; 5:355-69. [PMID: 19894121 DOI: 10.1007/s11481-009-9179-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 81] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/01/2009] [Accepted: 10/04/2009] [Indexed: 02/05/2023]
Abstract
Theiler's murine encephalomyelitis virus (TMEV) infection of mice is an experimental model for multiple sclerosis (MS). TMEV induces a biphasic disease in susceptible mouse strains. During the acute phase, 1 week after infection, TMEV causes polioencephalomyelitis characterized by infection and apoptosis of neurons in the gray matter of the brain. During the chronic phase, about 1 month after infection, virus infects glial cells and macrophages, and induces inflammatory demyelination with oligodendrocyte apoptosis and axonal degeneration in the white matter of the spinal cord. Although antibody, CD4(+), and CD8(+) T cell responses against TMEV capsid proteins play important roles in neuropathogenesis, infectious virus with persistence is necessary to induce demyelination; in general, adoptive transfer of antibody or T cells alone did not induce central nervous system (CNS) disease. The TMEV model can be useful for testing new therapeutic strategies specifically as a viral model for MS. Therapies targeting adhesion molecules, axonal degeneration, and immunosuppression can be beneficial for pure autoimmune CNS demyelinating diseases, such as experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis, but could be detrimental in virus-induced demyelinating diseases, such as progressive multifocal leukoencephalopathy.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Ikuo Tsunoda
- Department of Pathology, University of Utah School of Medicine, 30 North 1900 East, 3R330 SOM, Salt Lake City, UT 84132, USA.
| | | |
Collapse
|
20
|
Schreiner B, Heppner FL, Becher B. Modeling multiple sclerosis in laboratory animals. Semin Immunopathol 2009; 31:479-95. [PMID: 19802608 DOI: 10.1007/s00281-009-0181-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/12/2009] [Accepted: 08/13/2009] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
Inflammatory demyelinating disease of the central nervous system is one of the most frequent causes of neurological disability in young adults. While in situ analysis and in vitro models do shed some light onto the processes of tissue damage and cellular interactions, the development of neuroinflammation and demyelination is a far too complex process to be adequately modeled by simple test tube systems. Thus, animal models using primarily genetically modified mice have been proven to be of paramount importance. In this chapter, we discuss recent advances in modeling brain diseases focusing on murine models and report on new tools to study the pathogenesis of complex diseases such as multiple sclerosis.
Collapse
|
21
|
Demyelinated axons and motor function are protected by genetic deletion of perforin in a mouse model of multiple sclerosis. J Neuropathol Exp Neurol 2009; 68:1037-48. [PMID: 19680139 DOI: 10.1097/nen.0b013e3181b5417e] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/26/2022] Open
Abstract
Axon injury is a major determinant of the loss of neurological function in patients with multiple sclerosis. It is unclear, however, whether damage to axons is an obligatory consequence of demyelination or whether it is an independent process that occurs in the permissive environment of demyelinated lesions. Previous investigations into the role of CD8 T cells and perforin in the Theiler murine encephalomyelitis virus model of multiple sclerosis have used mouse strains resistant to Theiler murine encephalomyelitis virus infection. To test the role of CD8 T cells in axon injury, we established a perforin-deficient mouse model on the H-2 major histocompatibility complex background thereby removing confounding factors related to viral biology in this Theiler murine encephalomyelitis virus-susceptible strain. This permitted direct comparison of clinical and pathological parameters between perforin-competent and perforin-deficient mice. The extent of demyelination was indistinguishable between perforin-competent and perforin-deficient H-2 mice, but chronically infected perforin-deficient mice exhibited preservation of motor function and spinal axons despite the presence of spinal cord demyelination. Thus, demyelination is necessary but insufficient for axon injury in this model; the absence of perforin protects axons without impacting demyelination. These results suggest that perforin is a key mediator of axon injury and lend additional support to the hypothesis that CD8 T cells are primarily responsible for axon damage in multiple sclerosis.
Collapse
|
22
|
Theiler's virus infection induces a predominant pathogenic CD4+ T cell response to RNA polymerase in susceptible SJL/J mice. J Virol 2009; 83:10981-92. [PMID: 19706717 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.01398-09] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Theiler's murine encephalomyelitis virus (TMEV)-induced immune-mediated demyelinating disease in susceptible mouse strains has been extensively investigated as a relevant model for human multiple sclerosis. Previous investigations of antiviral T-cell responses focus on immune responses to viral capsid proteins, while virtually nothing is reported on immune responses to nonstructural proteins. In this study, we have identified noncapsid regions recognized by CD4(+) T cells from TMEV-infected mice using an overlapping peptide library. Interestingly, a greater number of CD4(+) T cells recognizing an epitope (3D(21-36)) of the 3D viral RNA polymerase, in contrast to capsid epitopes, were detected in the CNS of TMEV-infected SJL mice, whereas only a minor population of CD4(+) T cells from infected C57BL/6 mice recognized this region. The effects of preimmunization and tolerization with these epitopes on the development of demyelinating disease indicated that capsid-specific CD4(+) T cells are protective during the early stages of viral infection, whereas 3D(21-36)-specific CD4(+) T cells exacerbate disease development. Therefore, protective versus pathogenic CD4(+) T-cell responses directed to TMEV appear to be epitope dependent, and the differences in CD4(+) T-cell responses to these epitopes between susceptible and resistant mice may play an important role in the resistance or susceptibility to virally induced demyelinating disease.
Collapse
|
23
|
Steelman AJ, Dean DD, Young CR, Smith R, Prentice TW, Meagher MW, Welsh CJR. Restraint stress modulates virus specific adaptive immunity during acute Theiler's virus infection. Brain Behav Immun 2009; 23:830-43. [PMID: 19348911 PMCID: PMC2710426 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbi.2009.03.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/29/2008] [Revised: 03/21/2009] [Accepted: 03/22/2009] [Indexed: 10/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Multiple sclerosis (MS) is a devastating CNS disease of unknown origin. Multiple factors including genetic background, infection, and psychological stress affect the onset or progression of MS. Theiler's murine encephalomyelitis virus (TMEV) infection is an animal model of MS in which aberrant immunity leads to viral persistence and subsequently results in demyelination that resembles MS. Here, we examined how stress during acute TMEV infection altered virus-specific cell mediated responses. Using immunodominant viral peptides specific for either CD4(+) or CD8(+) T cells, we found that stress reduced IFN-gamma producing virus-specific CD4(+) and CD8(+) T cells in the spleen and CD8(+) T cells CNS. Cytokine production by cells isolated from the CNS or spleens following stimulation with virus or viral peptides, indicated that stress decreased both type 1 and type 2 responses. Glucocorticoids were implicated in the decreased T cell function as the effects of stress were partially reversed by concurrent RU486 administration but mimicked by dexamethasone. As T cells mediate viral clearance in this model, our data support the hypothesis that stress-induced immunosuppression may provide a mechanism for enhanced viral persistence within the CNS.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Andrew J. Steelman
- Dept of Veterinary Integrative Biosciences, College of Veterinary Medical & Biomedical Sciences, Texas A&M University, College Station, Texas 77843 U.S.A
| | - Dana D. Dean
- Dept of Veterinary Integrative Biosciences, College of Veterinary Medical & Biomedical Sciences, Texas A&M University, College Station, Texas 77843 U.S.A
| | - Colin R. Young
- Dept of Veterinary Integrative Biosciences, College of Veterinary Medical & Biomedical Sciences, Texas A&M University, College Station, Texas 77843 U.S.A
| | - Roger Smith
- Dept of Veterinary Pathobiology, College of Veterinary Medicine & Biomedical Sciences, Texas A&M University, College Station, Texas 77843 U.S.A
| | - Thomas W. Prentice
- Dept of Psychology, College of Liberal Arts, Texas A&M University, College Station, Texas 77843 U.S.A
| | - Mary W. Meagher
- Dept of Psychology, College of Liberal Arts, Texas A&M University, College Station, Texas 77843 U.S.A
| | - C. Jane R. Welsh
- Dept of Veterinary Integrative Biosciences, College of Veterinary Medical & Biomedical Sciences, Texas A&M University, College Station, Texas 77843 U.S.A, Dept of Veterinary Pathobiology, College of Veterinary Medicine & Biomedical Sciences, Texas A&M University, College Station, Texas 77843 U.S.A
| |
Collapse
|
24
|
Anticapsid immunity level, not viral persistence level, correlates with the progression of Theiler's virus-induced demyelinating disease in viral P1-transgenic mice. J Virol 2008; 82:5606-17. [PMID: 18353953 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.02442-07] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Intracranial infection of Theiler's murine encephalomyelitis virus (TMEV) induces demyelination and a neurological disease in susceptible SJL/J (SJL) mice that resembles multiple sclerosis. While the virus is cleared from the central nervous system (CNS) of resistant C57BL/6 (B6) mice, it persists in SJL mice. To investigate the role of viral persistence and its accompanying immune responses in the development of demyelinating disease, transgenic mice expressing the P1 region of the TMEV genome (P1-Tg) were employed. Interestingly, P1-Tg mice with the B6 background showed severe reductions in both CD4(+) and CD8(+) T-cell responses to capsid epitopes, while P1-Tg mice with the SJL background displayed transient reductions following viral infection. Reduced antiviral immune responses in P1-Tg mice led to >100- to 1,000-fold increases in viral persistence at 120 days postinfection in the CNS of mice with both backgrounds. Despite the increased CNS TMEV levels in these P1-Tg mice, B6 P1-Tg mice developed neither neuropathological symptoms nor demyelinating lesions, and SJL P1-Tg mice developed significantly less severe TMEV-induced demyelinating disease. These results strongly suggest that viral persistence alone is not sufficient to induce disease and that the level of T-cell immunity to viral capsid epitopes is critical for the development of demyelinating disease in SJL mice.
Collapse
|
25
|
Carpentier PA, Getts MT, Miller SD. Pro-inflammatory functions of astrocytes correlate with viral clearance and strain-dependent protection from TMEV-induced demyelinating disease. Virology 2008; 375:24-36. [PMID: 18289626 DOI: 10.1016/j.virol.2008.01.024] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/26/2007] [Revised: 01/03/2008] [Accepted: 01/15/2008] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
Intracerebral infection of susceptible strains of mice, e.g. SJL/J, with Theiler's murine encephalomyelitis virus (TMEV) leads to a persistent CNS infection accompanied by development of a chronic-progressive inflammatory CNS autoimmune demyelinating disease which is clinically and pathologically similar to human multiple sclerosis. In contrast, resistant strains of mice, e.g. C57BL/6 (B6), effectively clear TMEV from the CNS and do not develop demyelinating disease. Although CD8(+) T cells are crucial for viral clearance in B6 mice, SJL mice also mount potent CD8(+) T cell responses against virus, thus the reason for the viral persistence in the CNS in these mice is unclear. Here, we examined innate anti-viral responses of CNS-resident astrocytes as a potential determinant of viral persistence and disease susceptibility. We demonstrate that B6 astrocytes produce significantly higher levels of cytokines, chemokines and adhesion molecules in response to TMEV infection, or stimulation with IFN-gamma and TNF-alpha or poly I:C than SJL mice. In addition, TMEV more effectively induces MHC I molecules on B6 astrocytes than SJL, corresponding with an increased ability to activate TMEV-specific CD8(+) T cells directly ex vivo. These results suggest that enhanced anti-viral responses of B6 astrocytes contribute to the ability of these mice to clear TMEV from the CNS and therefore to their resistance to the development of autoimmune demyelinating disease.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Pamela A Carpentier
- Northwestern University Feinberg School of Medicine, Department of Microbiology-Immunology, Interdepartmental Immunobiology Center, 303 E. Chicago Avenue, Chicago, IL 60611, USA
| | | | | |
Collapse
|
26
|
Fuller A, Yahikozawa H, So EY, Dal Canto M, Koh CS, Welsh CJ, Kim BS. Castration of male C57L/J mice increases susceptibility and estrogen treatment restores resistance to Theiler's virus-induced demyelinating disease. J Neurosci Res 2007; 85:871-81. [PMID: 17253641 DOI: 10.1002/jnr.21184] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
Abstract
Intracerebral inoculation of Theiler's murine encephalomyelitis virus (TMEV) results in immune-mediated demyelination in selective mouse strains. We have previously demonstrated that the males of C57L mice are significantly more susceptible to TMEV-induced demyelinating disease. To assess further the hormonal influence for this gender-associated differential susceptibility, estrogen-treated, castrated C57L mice were infected with TMEV and compared with sham-operated and/or placebo-treated mice. Interestingly, castration further elevated the susceptibility to virally induced demyelinating disease compared with sham-castrated control mice, and prolonged treatment of castrated mice with estrogen restored the resistance to the level of control mice. These results strongly suggest that sex hormone levels contribute to the gender-biased susceptibility to TMEV-induced demyelinating disease. Mice treated with estrogen showed a significantly decreased level of virus-specific Th1 responses both in the periphery and in the CNS. In addition, in vitro estrogen treatment was able to inhibit viral replication directly in macrophages, consistent with the lower level of viral RNA in microglia/macrophages in the CNS from castrated estrogen-treated mice compared with controls. Also, estrogen treatment inhibited VCAM-1 expression induced by tumor necrosis factor-alpha in cerebral vascular endothelial (CVE) cells via inhibition of nuclear factor-kappaB (NFkappaB), which is produced in various glial cells upon TMEV infection. Overall, estrogen treatment appears to exert its effects on viral replication, induction of immune responses, as well as infiltration of activated immune cells into the CNS via inhibition of NFkappaB function.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Alyson Fuller
- Department of Microbiology-Immunology, Northwestern University Medical School, Chicago, Illinois 60611, USA
| | | | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
27
|
Kang BS, Yahikozawa H, Koh CS, Kim BS. Oral administration of live virus protects susceptible mice from developing Theiler's virus-induced demyelinating disease. Virology 2007; 366:185-96. [PMID: 17507073 PMCID: PMC2025699 DOI: 10.1016/j.virol.2007.04.017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/22/2007] [Revised: 03/26/2007] [Accepted: 04/16/2007] [Indexed: 02/04/2023]
Abstract
Intracerebral infection of susceptible mouse strains with Theiler's murine encephalomyelitis virus (TMEV) results in an immune-mediated demyelinating disease similar to human multiple sclerosis. TMEV infection is widely spread via fecal-oral routes among wild mouse populations, yet these infected mice rarely develop clinical disease. Oral vaccination has often been used to protect the host against many different infectious agents, although the underlying protective mechanism of prior oral exposure is still unknown. To understand the mechanisms involved in protection from demyelinating disease following previous oral infection, immune parameters and disease progression of mice perorally infected with TMEV were compared with those of mice immunized intraperitoneally following intracerebral infection. Mice infected perorally, but not intraperitoneally, prior to CNS viral infection showed lower chronic viral persistence in the CNS and reduced TMEV-induced demyelinating disease. However, a prolonged period of post-oral infection was necessary for effective protection. Mice orally pre-exposed to the virus displayed markedly elevated levels of antibody response to TMEV in the serum, although T cell responses to TMEV in the periphery were not significantly different between perorally and intraperitoneally immunized mice. In addition, orally vaccinated mice showed higher levels of early CNS-infiltration of B cells producing anti-TMEV antibody as well as virus-specific CD4(+) and CD8(+) T cells in the CNS compared to intraperitoneally immunized mice. Therefore, the generation of a sufficient level of protective immune responses appears to require a prolonged time period to confer protection from TMEV-induced demyelinating disease.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Bong-Su Kang
- Department of Microbiology-Immunology, Northwestern University Medical School, 303 East Chicago Avenue, Chicago, IL 60611, USA
| | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
28
|
CD8+ T cells directed against a viral peptide contribute to loss of motor function by disrupting axonal transport in a viral model of fulminant demyelination. J Neuroimmunol 2007; 188:13-21. [PMID: 17493690 DOI: 10.1016/j.jneuroim.2007.04.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/07/2007] [Revised: 04/03/2007] [Accepted: 04/04/2007] [Indexed: 01/17/2023]
Abstract
Demyelination, a pathological hallmark of multiple sclerosis, may be a necessary but not a sufficient condition for motor dysfunction associated with this disease. We favor a neurodegenerative model of multiple sclerosis and suggest that demyelination creates a permissive environment wherein the denuded axon becomes susceptible to immune-mediated injury. Unfortunately, the cellular effectors responsible for eliciting such axonal injury are currently unknown. Based on previous observations implicating cytotoxic T cells in this injury, we assessed motor function, axon dropout, and axon injury following peptide depletion of the immunodominant CD8+ antiviral T cell response in the IFNgamma receptor-deficient mouse model of acute demyelination. We found that the targeted removal of this population of cytotoxic effector cells prior to infection with the Theiler's murine encephalomyelitis virus caused a substantial preservation of motor function at 45 days postinfection that was associated with preservation of retrograde axonal transport in a subpopulation of surviving axons within the spinal cord. We conclude that cytotoxic T cells may be responsible for the initiation of axon injury following demyelination.
Collapse
|
29
|
Howe CL, Adelson JD, Rodriguez M. Absence of perforin expression confers axonal protection despite demyelination. Neurobiol Dis 2006; 25:354-9. [PMID: 17112732 PMCID: PMC1857307 DOI: 10.1016/j.nbd.2006.10.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 48] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/18/2006] [Revised: 09/09/2006] [Accepted: 10/09/2006] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Current evidence suggests that demyelination may be a necessary but not a sufficient condition for neurologic deficits associated with multiple sclerosis. Axon injury that occurs within the permissive environment of the demyelinated lesion is better correlated with functional deficits, but the mechanisms and cellular effectors of this injury are largely unknown. In an effort to identify potential axon injury mediators, we examined demyelination, motor function, and the number of spinal axons in perforin-deficient mice. Perforin is a critical molecular mediator of cytotoxic immunological injury and we hypothesized that genetic deletion of perforin expression would protect demyelinated axons. Indeed, we found that while perforin-deficient mice had considerable spinal cord demyelination 180 days after infection with Theiler's murine encephalomyelitis virus, such mice exhibited functional and axonal preservation comparable to non-demyelinated perforin-competent controls. We conclude that perforin-dependent effector cells such as cytotoxic T cells, gammadelta T cells, and natural killer cells may play a role in axon damage that is dependent upon but separable from demyelination.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Charles L Howe
- Department of Neuroscience, Mayo Clinic College of Medicine, 200 First St SW, Rochester, MN 55905, USA.
| | | | | |
Collapse
|
30
|
Myoung J, Hou W, Kang B, Lyman MA, Kang JA, Kim BS. The immunodominant CD8+ T cell epitope region of Theiler's virus in resistant C57BL/6 mice is critical for anti-viral immune responses, viral persistence, and binding to the host cells. Virology 2006; 360:159-71. [PMID: 17095033 PMCID: PMC1857342 DOI: 10.1016/j.virol.2006.09.045] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/11/2006] [Revised: 09/07/2006] [Accepted: 09/26/2006] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Theiler's virus infection induces an immune-mediated demyelinating disease, providing a relevant animal model of human multiple sclerosis. VP2(121-130)-specific CD8+ T cells in resistant H-2b mice account for the majority of CNS-infiltrating CD8+ T cells. To further study the role of the CD8(+) T cells, we generated a panel of mutant viruses substituted with L, G, or T at the anchor residue (M130) of the VP2(121-130) epitope. M130L virus (M130L-V) with a substitution of M with L displayed similar properties as wild-type virus (WT-V). However, M130G-V and M130T-V could not establish a persistent infection in the CNS. The level of both virus-specific CD8+ and CD4+ T cell responses is significantly reduced in mice infected with these variant viruses. While all mutant and wild-type viruses replicate comparably in BHK cells, replication of M130G-V and M130T-V in macrophages was significantly lower compared to those infected with WT-V and M130L-V. Interestingly, these mutant viruses deficient in replication in primary mouse cells showed drastically reduced binding ability to the cells. These results suggest that the anchor residue of the predominant CD8+ T cell epitope of TMEV in resistant mice is critical for the virus to infect target cells and this deficiency may result in poor viral persistence leading to correspondingly low T cell responses in the periphery and CNS. Thus, selection of the cellular binding region of the virus as the predominant epitope for CD8+ T cells in resistant mice may provide a distinct advantage in controlling viral persistence by preventing escape mutations.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | | | | | - Byung S. Kim
- * All correspondence should be made to Dr. Byung S. Kim, Department of Microbiology-Immunology, Northwestern University Medical School, 303 East Chicago Ave., Chicago, IL 60611. E-mail: ; Tel. (312) 503-8693; Fax. (312) 503-1339
| |
Collapse
|
31
|
Kang BS, Palma JP, Lyman MA, Dal Canto M, Kim BS. Antibody response is required for protection from Theiler's virus-induced encephalitis in C57BL/6 mice in the absence of CD8+ T cells. Virology 2005; 340:84-94. [PMID: 16039687 DOI: 10.1016/j.virol.2005.06.028] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/31/2005] [Revised: 05/11/2005] [Accepted: 06/15/2005] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
Intracerebral infection of susceptible mice with Theiler's murine encephalomyelitis virus (TMEV) induces immune-mediated demyelinating disease and this system serves as a relevant infectious model for human multiple sclerosis. It was previously shown that beta2M-deficient C57BL/6 mice lacking functional CD8+ T cells display increased viral persistence and enhanced susceptibility to TMEV-induced demyelination, and yet the majority of mice are free of clinical signs. To understand the mechanisms involved in this general resistance of C57BL/6 mice in the absence of CTL responses, mice (muMT) deficient in the B-cell compartment lacking membrane IgM molecules were treated with anti-CD8 antibody and then infected with TMEV. Although little difference in the proliferative responses of peripheral T cells to UV-inactivated TMEV and the resistance to demyelinating disease was observed between virus-infected muMT and control B6 mice, the levels of CD4(+) T cells were higher in the CNS of muMT mice. However, after treatment with anti-CD8 antibody, 100% of the mice displayed clinical gray matter disease and prolonged viral persistence in muMT mice, while only 10% of B6 mice showed clinical symptoms and very low viral persistence. Transfusion of sera from TMEV-infected B6 mice into anti-CD8 antibody-treated muMT mice partially restored resistance to virus-induced encephalitis. These results indicate that the early anti-viral antibody response is also important in the protection from TMEV-induced encephalitis particularly in the absence of CD8+ T cells.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Bong-Su Kang
- Department of Microbiology-Immunology, Northwestern University, Medical School, Chicago, IL 60611, USA
| | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
32
|
Linker RA, Rott E, Hofstetter HH, Hanke T, Toyka KV, Gold R. EAE in beta-2 microglobulin-deficient mice: axonal damage is not dependent on MHC-I restricted immune responses. Neurobiol Dis 2005; 19:218-28. [PMID: 15837577 DOI: 10.1016/j.nbd.2004.12.017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/13/2004] [Revised: 12/06/2004] [Accepted: 12/08/2004] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
There is accumulating evidence that CD8-positive (CD8+) T-cells and MHC-I expression may also play a role in neurodegeneration associated with multiple sclerosis (MS). We investigated the role of MHC-I and CD8+ T-cells by studying experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE) in beta-2 microglobulin knockout mice induced by myelin oligodendrocyte glycoprotein (MOG) peptide 35-55 or whole rat myelin basic protein (rMBP). For both encephalitogens and even after reconstitution of the immune system with MHC-I-positive bone marrow and transfer of mature CD8+ T-cells (iMHC-I+ CD8+ beta2m-/- mice), the disease course in beta2m-/- mice was significantly more severe with a 10-fold increased mortality in the beta2m-/- mice as compared to wild-type C57BL/6 mice. EAE in beta2m-/- mice caused more severe demyelination after immunization with MOG than with rMBP and axonal damage was more marked with rMBP as well as MOG even in iMHC-I+ CD8+ beta2m-/- mice. Immunocytochemical analysis of spinal cord tissue revealed a significant increase in macrophage and microglia infiltration in beta2m-/- and iMHC-I+ CD8+ beta2m-/- mice. The different pattern of T-cell infiltration was underscored by a 2.5-fold increase in CD4-positive (CD4+) T-cells in beta2m-/- mice after induction of MOG 35-55 EAE. We conclude that lack of functional MHC-I molecules and CD8+ T-cells aggravates autoimmune tissue destruction in the CNS. Enhanced axonal damage speaks for pathways of tissue damage independent of CD8+ T-cells and neuronal MHC-I expression.
Collapse
MESH Headings
- Animals
- Axons/immunology
- Axons/metabolism
- Axons/pathology
- Encephalomyelitis, Autoimmune, Experimental/genetics
- Encephalomyelitis, Autoimmune, Experimental/immunology
- Encephalomyelitis, Autoimmune, Experimental/metabolism
- Encephalomyelitis, Autoimmune, Experimental/pathology
- Genes, MHC Class I
- Mice
- Mice, Inbred C57BL
- Mice, Knockout
- T-Lymphocytes/pathology
- beta 2-Microglobulin/deficiency
- beta 2-Microglobulin/genetics
- beta 2-Microglobulin/physiology
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Ralf A Linker
- Department of Neurology, Clinical Research Group for Multiple Sclerosis, Julius-Maximilians-Universität Würzburg, Josef-Schneider-Str. 11, D-97080 Würzburg, Germany
| | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
33
|
Bradl M, Bauer J, Flügel A, Wekerle H, Lassmann H. Complementary contribution of CD4 and CD8 T lymphocytes to T-cell infiltration of the intact and the degenerative spinal cord. THE AMERICAN JOURNAL OF PATHOLOGY 2005; 166:1441-50. [PMID: 15855644 PMCID: PMC1606398 DOI: 10.1016/s0002-9440(10)62361-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
Abstract
The central role of T cells in inflammatory reactions of the central nervous system (CNS) is well documented. However, there is little information about the few T cells found within the noninflamed CNS. In particular, the contribution of CD4+ and CD8+ T cells to the lymphocyte pool infiltrating the intact CNS, the location of these cells in CNS white and gray matter, and changes in the cellular composition of T-cell infiltrates coinciding with degeneration are primarily undefined. To address these points, we studied T cells in the intact and degenerative rat spinal cord. In the intact spinal cord, T cells were preferentially located within the gray matter. CD8+ T cells were more numerous than CD4+ lymphocytes. In cases of neuroaxonal degeneration or myelin degeneration/oligodendrocyte death, T cells were predominantly seen in areas of degeneration and were present in increased numbers. These effects were more pronounced for the CD4+ than for the CD8+ T-cell subset. Collectively, these data provide evidence for a clear cellular and compartmental bias in T-cell infiltration of the intact and degenerative spinal cord. This could indicate that CD4+ and CD8+ T cells might fulfill complementary roles in the intact and the diseased organ.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Monika Bradl
- Department of Neuroimmunology, Brain Research Institute, Center for Brain Research, Medical University of Vienna, Spitalgasse 4, A-1090 Vienna, Austria.
| | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
34
|
Linker RA, Sendtner M, Gold R. Mechanisms of axonal degeneration in EAE—lessons from CNTF and MHC I knockout mice. J Neurol Sci 2005; 233:167-72. [PMID: 15949503 DOI: 10.1016/j.jns.2005.03.021] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
The major pathological hallmarks of multiple sclerosis (MS) comprise inflammation, demyelination with associated gliosis and axonal damage, which most likely correlates with persisting disability. Axonal damage can occur by several mechanisms. This article focuses on myelin disintegration and direct immune attack on axons by CD8-positive T-cells as two possible scenarios for axonal injury. As protoypic models, we investigated experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE) in ciliary neurotrophic factor gene knockout mice (CNTF-/- mice) with severe myelin pathology and EAE in beta-2 microglobulin gene knockout mice (beta2m-/- mice) lacking CD8-positive T-cells. The results from these studies indicate that the trigger attack for axonal injury even in a well-defined experimental design can be multi-faceted. No single factor seems to be absolutely necessary for the initiation of the process, but they rather act in concert and orchestrate tissue destruction, inflammation and regeneration. Some mechanisms of primary or secondary axonal damage may be shared between inflammatory and degenerative diseases of the nervous system, thereby establishing a link which might be of importance for future therapeutic strategies.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Ralf A Linker
- Department of Neurology, Clinical Research Group for Multiple Sclerosis, University of Würzburg, Josef-Schneider-Strasse 11, D-97080 Würzburg, Germany
| | | | | |
Collapse
|
35
|
Lipton HL, Kallio P, Jelachich ML. Simplified quantitative analysis of spinal cord cells from Theiler's virus-infected mice without the requirement for myelin debris removal. J Immunol Methods 2005; 299:107-15. [PMID: 15914195 DOI: 10.1016/j.jim.2005.01.017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/06/2004] [Accepted: 01/30/2005] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
Abstract
Flow cytometry is routinely used to analyze mononuclear cell populations in experimental CNS infections and autoimmune diseases in mice and other rodents. Previous analysis of mononuclear cell samples has involved centrifugation of single cell suspensions from minced CNS tissues on discontinuous gradients to separate cells from myelin debris: however, loss of cells that occurs on gradients necessitates pooling of CNS tissues. We have developed a method of analyzing cells in CNS tissues by flow cytometry without removing myelin debris, and applied this method to assess mononuclear cells and oligodendrocytes in SJL mice with Theiler's murine encephalomyelitis virus (TMEV)-induced demyelinating disease. This approach also allowed the determination of the TMEV burden in these cell populations.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Howard L Lipton
- Department of Neurology, Evanston Hospital, 2650 Ridge Avenue, Evanston, IL 60201, United States.
| | | | | |
Collapse
|
36
|
Trottier M, Schlitt BP, Kung AY, Lipton HL. Transition from acute to persistent Theiler's virus infection requires active viral replication that drives proinflammatory cytokine expression and chronic demyelinating disease. J Virol 2004; 78:12480-8. [PMID: 15507635 PMCID: PMC525090 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.78.22.12480-12488.2004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/30/2004] [Accepted: 06/25/2004] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
The dynamics of Theiler's murine encephalomyelitis virus (TMEV) RNA replication in the central nervous systems of susceptible and resistant strains of mice were examined by quantitative real-time reverse transcription-PCR and were found to correlate with host immune responses. During the acute phase of infection in both susceptible and resistant mice, levels of viral replication were high in the brain and brain stem, while levels of viral genome equivalents were 10- to 100-fold lower in the spinal cord. In the brain, viral RNA replication decreased after a peak at 5 days postinfection (p.i.), in parallel with the appearance of virus-specific antibody responses; however, by 15 days p.i., viral RNA levels began to increase in the spinal cords of susceptible mice. During the transition to and the persistent phase of infection, the numbers of viral genome equivalents in the spinal cord varied substantially for individual mice, but high levels were consistently associated with high levels of proinflammatory Th1 cytokine and chemokine mRNAs. Moreover, a large number of viral genome equivalents and high proinflammatory cytokine mRNA levels in spinal cords were only observed for susceptible SJL/J mice who developed demyelinating disease. These results suggest that TMEV persistence requires active viral replication beginning about day 11 p.i. and that active viral replication with high viral genome loads leads to increased levels of Th1 cytokines that drive disease progression in infected mice.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Mark Trottier
- Evanston Northwestern Healthcare Research Institute, 2650 Ridge Avenue, Evanston, IL 60201, USA
| | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
37
|
Anderson AC, Reddy J, Nazareno R, Sobel RA, Nicholson LB, Kuchroo VK. IL-10 Plays an Important Role in the Homeostatic Regulation of the Autoreactive Repertoire in Naive Mice. THE JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY 2004; 173:828-34. [PMID: 15240669 DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.173.2.828] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
We have previously shown that naive SJL (H-2(s)) mice, which are highly susceptible to myelin proteolipid protein (PLP)-induced experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE), have a very high frequency (1/20,000 CD4 T cells) of PLP(139-151)-reactive T cells in the naive repertoire. In this study, we examine the function of this endogenous PLP(139-151)-reactive repertoire in vivo and find that this repertoire encompasses the precursors of pathogenic T cells. Because SJL mice do not develop spontaneous EAE, we have explored the mechanisms that keep this autopathogenic repertoire in check and prevent the development of spontaneous autoimmunity. We crossed IL-4 and IL-10 deficiency onto the SJL background and analyzed the roles of these two immunoregulatory cytokines in regulating the size and effector function of the endogenous PLP(139-151)-reactive repertoire and development of autoimmune disease. We find that IL-10 is important in the homeostatic regulation of the endogenous PLP(139-151)-reactive repertoire in that it both limits the size of the repertoire and prevents development of effector autoaggressive T cells. SJL IL-10(-/-) mice with high numbers of PLP(139-151)-specific precursors in the repertoire did not develop spontaneous EAE, but when they were injected with pertussis toxin, they showed atypical clinical signs of EAE with small numbers of typical mononuclear cell infiltrates predominantly in the meninges. EAE could be inhibited by prior tolerization of the mice with soluble PLP(139-151) peptide. These findings indicate that IL-10 may contribute to the regulation of the endogenous autoimmune repertoire.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Ana C Anderson
- Center for Neurologic Diseases, Brigham and Women's Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02115, USA
| | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
38
|
Oleszak EL, Chang JR, Friedman H, Katsetos CD, Platsoucas CD. Theiler's virus infection: a model for multiple sclerosis. Clin Microbiol Rev 2004; 17:174-207. [PMID: 14726460 PMCID: PMC321460 DOI: 10.1128/cmr.17.1.174-207.2004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 206] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/05/2023] Open
Abstract
Both genetic background and environmental factors, very probably viruses, appear to play a role in the etiology of multiple sclerosis (MS). Lessons from viral experimental models suggest that many different viruses may trigger inflammatory demyelinating diseases resembling MS. Theiler's virus, a picornavirus, induces in susceptible strains of mice early acute disease resembling encephalomyelitis followed by late chronic demyelinating disease, which is one of the best, if not the best, animal model for MS. During early acute disease the virus replicates in gray matter of the central nervous system but is eliminated to very low titers 2 weeks postinfection. Late chronic demyelinating disease becomes clinically apparent approximately 2 weeks later and is characterized by extensive demyelinating lesions and mononuclear cell infiltrates, progressive spinal cord atrophy, and axonal loss. Myelin damage is immunologically mediated, but it is not clear whether it is due to molecular mimicry or epitope spreading. Cytokines, nitric oxide/reactive nitrogen species, and costimulatory molecules are involved in the pathogenesis of both diseases. Close similarities between Theiler's virus-induced demyelinating disease in mice and MS in humans, include the following: major histocompatibility complex-dependent susceptibility; substantial similarities in neuropathology, including axonal damage and remyelination; and paucity of T-cell apoptosis in demyelinating disease. Both diseases are immunologically mediated. These common features emphasize the close similarities of Theiler's virus-induced demyelinating disease in mice and MS in humans.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Emilia L Oleszak
- Department of Anatomy and Cell Biology, Temple University School of Medicine, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania 19106, USA.
| | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
39
|
Experimental Models of Virus-Induced Demyelination. MYELIN BIOLOGY AND DISORDERS 2004. [PMCID: PMC7155523 DOI: 10.1016/b978-012439510-7/50097-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
Abstract
This chapter reviews two of the most widely studied animal models of virus-induced demyelinating disease. These are Theiler's murine encephalomyelitis virus and murine hepatitis virus. Both viruses produce acute inflammatory encephalitis that is followed by chronic central-nervous-system (CNS) demyelinating disease. The clinical and pathologic correlates of virus-induced demyelination are largely immune mediated. Furthermore, several pathologic mechanisms have been proposed to explain the development of myelin damage and neurologic deficits, and each of the proposed mechanisms may play a role in disease progression depending on the genetic constitution of the infected animal. The induction of demyelinating disease by virus may be directly relevant to human MS. Several viruses are known to cause demyelination in humans and viral infection is an epidemiologic factor that is consistently associated with clinical exacerbation of MS. It is suggested that viral infection may be a cause of MS, although no specific virus has been identified as a causative agent.
Collapse
|
40
|
Abstract
A number of viruses can initiate central nervous system (CNS) diseases that include demyelination as a major feature of neuropathology. In humans, the most prominent demyelinating diseases are progressive multifocal leukoencephalopathy, caused by JC papovirus destruction of oligodendrocytes, and subacute sclerosing panencephalitis, an invariably fatal childhood disease caused by persistent measles virus. The most common neurological disease of young adults in the developed world, multiple sclerosis, is also characterized by lesions of inflammatory demyelination; however, the etiology of this disease remains an enigma. A viral etiology is possible, because most demyelinating diseases of known etiology in both man and animals are viral. Understanding of the pathogenesis of virus-induced demyelination derives for the most part from the study of animal models. Studies with neurotropic strains of mouse hepatitis virus, Theiler's virus, and Semliki Forest virus have been at the forefront of this research. These models demonstrate how viruses enter the brain, spread, persist, and interact with immune responses. Common features are an ability to infect and persist in glial cells, generation of predominantly CD8(+) responses, which control and clear the early phase of virus replication but which fail to eradicate the infection, and lesions of inflammatory demyelination. In most cases demyelination is to a limited extent the result of direct virus destruction of oligodendrocytes, but for the most part is the consequence of immune and inflammatory responses. These models illustrate the roles of age and genetic susceptibility and establish the concept that persistent CNS infection can lead to the generation of CNS autoimmune responses.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- John K Fazakerley
- Centre for Infectious Diseases, University of Edinburgh, Summerhall, Edinburgh, United Kingdom.
| | | |
Collapse
|
41
|
Kang BS, Lyman MA, Kim BS. Differences in avidity and epitope recognition of CD8(+) T cells infiltrating the central nervous systems of SJL/J mice infected with BeAn and DA strains of Theiler's murine encephalomyelitis virus. J Virol 2002; 76:11780-4. [PMID: 12388742 PMCID: PMC136797 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.76.22.11780-11784.2002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Theiler's murine encephalomyelitis virus (TMEV) infection induces immune-mediated demyelinating disease in susceptible mouse strains and serves as a relevant infectious model for human multiple sclerosis. To investigate the pathogenic mechanisms, two strains of TMEV (DA and BeAn), capable of inducing chronic demyelination in the central nervous system (CNS), have primarily been used. Here, we have compared the T-cell responses induced after infection with DA and BeAn strains in highly susceptible SJL/J mice. CD4(+) T-cell responses to known epitopes induced by these two strains were virtually identical. However, the CD8(+) T-cell response induced following DA infection in susceptible SJL/J mice was unable to recognize two of three H-2K(s)-restricted epitope regions of BeAn, due to single-amino-acid substitutions. Interestingly, T cells specific for the H-2K(s)-restricted epitope (VP1(11-20)) recognized by both strains showed a drastic increase in frequency as well as avidity after infection with DA virus. These results strongly suggest that the level and avidity of virus-specific CD8(+) T cells infiltrating the CNS could be drastically different after infection with these two strains of TMEV and may differentially influence the pathogenic and/or protective outcome.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Bong-Su Kang
- Department of Microbiology-Immunology, Northwestern University Medical School, Chicago, Illinois 60611, USA
| | | | | |
Collapse
|
42
|
Olson JK, Eagar TN, Miller SD. Functional activation of myelin-specific T cells by virus-induced molecular mimicry. JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY (BALTIMORE, MD. : 1950) 2002; 169:2719-26. [PMID: 12193746 DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.169.5.2719] [Citation(s) in RCA: 47] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
Molecular mimicry is the process by which T cells activated in response to determinants on an infecting microorganism cross-react with self epitopes, leading to an autoimmune disease. Normally, infection of SJL/J mice with the BeAn strain of Theiler's murine encephalomyelitis virus (TMEV) results in a persistent CNS infection, leading to a chronic progressive, CD4(+) T cell-mediated demyelinating disease. Myelin damage is initiated by T cell responses to virus persisting in CNS APCs, and progressive demyelinating disease (50 days postinfection) is perpetuated by myelin epitope-specific CD4(+) T cells activated by epitope spreading. We developed an infectious model of molecular mimicry by inserting a sequence encompassing the immunodominant myelin epitope, proteolipid protein (PLP) 139-151, into the coding region of a nonpathogenic TMEV variant. PLP139-TMEV-infected mice developed a rapid onset paralytic inflammatory, demyelinating disease paralleled by the activation of PLP139-151-specific CD4(+) Th1 responses within 10-14 days postinfection. The current studies demonstrate that the early onset demyelinating disease induced by PLP139-TMEV is the direct result of autoreactive PLP139-151-specific CD4(+) T cell responses. PLP139-151-specific CD4(+) T cells from PLP139-TMEV-infected mice transferred demyelinating disease to naive recipients and PLP139-151-specific tolerance before infection prevented clinical disease. Finally, infection with the mimic virus at sites peripheral to the CNS induced early demyelinating disease, suggesting that the PLP139-151-specific CD4(+) T cells could be activated in the periphery and traffic to the CNS. Collectively, infection with PLP139-151 mimic encoding TMEV serves as an excellent model for molecular mimicry by inducing pathologic myelin-specific CD4(+) T cells via a natural virus infection.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Julie K Olson
- Department of Microbiology-Immunology and Interdepartmental Immunobiology Center, Northwestern University Medical School, Chicago, IL 60611, USA
| | | | | |
Collapse
|
43
|
Kang BS, Lyman MA, Kim BS. The majority of infiltrating CD8+ T cells in the central nervous system of susceptible SJL/J mice infected with Theiler's virus are virus specific and fully functional. J Virol 2002; 76:6577-85. [PMID: 12050370 PMCID: PMC136254 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.76.13.6577-6585.2002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 46] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/09/2023] Open
Abstract
Theiler's virus infection of the central nervous system (CNS) induces an immune-mediated demyelinating disease in susceptible mouse strains, such as SJL/J, and serves as a relevant infectious model for human multiple sclerosis. It has been previously suggested that susceptible SJL/J mice do not mount an efficient cytotoxic T-lymphocyte (CTL) response to the virus. In addition, genetic studies have shown that resistance to Theiler's virus-induced demyelinating disease is linked to the H-2D major histocompatibility complex class I locus, suggesting that a compromised CTL response may contribute to the susceptibility of SJL/J mice. Here we show that SJL/J mice do, in fact, generate a CD8(+) T-cell response in the CNS that is directed against one dominant (VP3(159-166)) and two subdominant (VP1(11-20) and VP3(173-181)) capsid protein epitopes. These virus-specific CD8(+) T cells produce gamma interferon (IFN-gamma) and lyse target cells in the presence of the epitope peptides, indicating that these CNS-infiltrating CD8(+) T cells are fully functional effector cells. Intracellular IFN-gamma staining analysis indicates that greater than 50% of CNS-infiltrating CD8(+) T cells are specific for these viral epitopes at 7 days postinfection. Therefore, the susceptibility of SJL/J mice is not due to the lack of an early functional Theiler's murine encephalomyelitis virus-specific CTL response. Interestingly, T-cell responses to all three epitopes are restricted by the H-2K(s) molecule, and this skewed class I restriction may be associated with susceptibility to demyelinating disease.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Bong-Su Kang
- Department of Microbiology-Immunology, Northwestern University Medical School, 303 E Chicago Avenue, Chicago, IL 60611, USA
| | | | | |
Collapse
|