Dicot-specific ATG8-interacting ATI3 proteins interact with conserved UBAC2 proteins and play critical roles in plant stress responses

Blocking constitutive autophagy rescues the loss of acquired heat resistance in Arabidopsis fes1a

High temperature is one of several major abiotic stresses that can cause substantial loss of crop yields. Heat shock proteins (HSPs) are key components of heat stress resistance. Mutation of FES1A, an auxiliary molecular chaperone of HSP70, leads to defective acquired thermotolerance. Autophagy is a positive regulator of basal thermotolerance and a negative regulator of heat stress memory, but its function in acquired thermotolerance is unclear. We found that blocking constitutive autophagy rescued the heat sensitivity of fes1a in Arabidopsis thaliana. Immunoblot and proteomic analyses showed that the rescue was not due to increased HSP levels. Instead, proteomic analysis and confocal microscopy studies revealed that knocking out the core autophagy-related (ATG) genes leads to accumulation of peroxisomes, thus upregulating the metabolic pathways within the peroxisomes. Accumulation of peroxisomes promotes both reactive oxygen species scavenging and indole-3-acetic acid (IAA) production in atg7 fes1a. Overexpression of ABCD1/PXA1/CTS, a peroxisomal ATP-binding cassette transporter, in atg7 fes1a leads to abnormal peroxisomal function and subsequently thermosensitivity. Moreover, we found that exogenous application of indole-3-butyric acid, IAA or naphthalene-1-acetic acid rescued fes1a heat sensitivity. We propose that autophagy is detrimental to the survival of the fes1a mutant, which has acquired thermosensitivity.

The ASPARAGINE-RICH PROTEIN-LYST-INTERACTING PROTEIN5 complex regulates noncanonical AUTOPHAGY8 degradation in Arabidopsis

The endocytic and autophagic pathways play important roles in abiotic stress responses and maintaining cellular homeostasis in plants. Asparagine-rich proteins (NRPs) are plant-specific, stress-responsive proteins that are involved in many abiotic stress-related signaling pathways. We previously demonstrated that NRP promotes PIN FORMED 2 (PIN2) vacuolar degradation to maintain PIN2 homeostasis under abscisic acid treatment in Arabidopsis (Arabidopsis thaliana). However, the molecular function and mechanism of NRP in cellular vesicle trafficking remain unknown. In this study, we report that NRP directly interacts with LIP5 and ATG8, critical components of the endocytic and autophagic pathways, respectively. Genetic analyses show that NRP overexpression rescues canonical autophagy defects in a LIP5-dependent manner. Cellular and biochemical evidence indicates that NRP-LIP5 recruits ATG8 to multivesicular bodies for further vacuolar degradation, implying that a novel NRP-mediated endocytic pathway is utilized to compensate for the canonical autophagy defects that occur during plant stress responses. These findings provide insights into the crosstalk between the endocytic and autophagic pathways and uncover a function of ATG8 distinct from its canonical role in autophagy. The mechanism revealed here confers an evolutionary advantage to plants and provides a molecular basis for breeding crops with greater stress tolerance.

Multifaceted Roles of the ATG8 Protein Family in Plant Autophagy: From Autophagosome Biogenesis to Cargo Recognition

In plant cells, autophagy is an essential quality control process by forming a double-membrane structure named the autophagosome, which envelopes and transports the cargoes to the vacuole for degradation/recycling. Autophagy-related (ATG) 8, a key regulator in autophagy, exerts multifunctional roles during autophagy. ATG8 anchors on the phagophore membrane through the ATG8 conjugation system and participates in different steps during autophagosome formation. Accumulating evidence has demonstrated that ATG8 cooperates with other ATG or non-ATG proteins in autophagosome biogenesis. Meanwhile, ATG8 plays an important role in cargo recognition, which is mainly attributed by the specific interactions between ATG8 and the selective autophagy receptors (SARs) or cargos for selective autophagy. Emerging roles of ATG8 in non-canonical autophagy have been recently reported in plants for different stress adaptations. Here, we review the diverse functions of ATG8 in plants, focusing on autophagosome biogenesis and cargo recognition in canonical and non-canonical autophagy.

Strigolactones positively regulate HY5-dependent autophagy and the degradation of ubiquitinated proteins in response to cold stress in tomato

Autophagy, involved in protein degradation and amino acid recycling, plays a key role in plant development and stress responses. However, the relationship between autophagy and phytohormones remains unclear. We used diverse methods, including CRISPR/Cas9, ultra-performance liquid chromatography coupled with tandem mass spectrometry, chromatin immunoprecipitation, electrophoretic mobility shift assays, and dual-luciferase assays to explore the molecular mechanism of strigolactones in regulating autophagy and the degradation of ubiquitinated proteins under cold stress in tomato (Solanum lycopersicum). We show that cold stress induced the accumulation of ubiquitinated proteins. Mutants deficient in strigolactone biosynthesis were more sensitive to cold stress with increased accumulation of ubiquitinated proteins. Conversely, treatment with the synthetic strigolactone analog GR245DS enhanced cold tolerance in tomato, with elevated levels of accumulation of autophagosomes and transcripts of autophagy-related genes (ATGs), and reduced accumulation of ubiquitinated proteins. Meanwhile, cold stress induced the accumulation of ELONGATED HYPOCOTYL 5 (HY5), which was triggered by strigolactones. HY5 further trans-activated ATG18a transcription, resulting in autophagy formation. Mutation of ATG18a compromised strigolactone-induced cold tolerance, leading to decreased formation of autophagosomes and increased accumulation of ubiquitinated proteins. These findings reveal that strigolactones positively regulate autophagy in an HY5-dependent manner and facilitate the degradation of ubiquitinated proteins under cold conditions in tomato.

Comprehensive analysis of housekeeping genes, tissue-specific genes, and dynamic regulation across developmental stages in pearl millet

BACKGROUND

Pearl millet (Pennisetum glaucum (L.) R. Br.) is a vital cereal crop, predominantly cultivated in arid and semi-arid regions of Asia and Africa. It serves as a staple food for millions, while also being utilized as forage and an energy crop. The crop's resistance to heat and drought, coupled with its high biomass, positions it as a promising candidate for climate-resilient agriculture. A detailed understanding of its gene expression patterns across various tissues and developmental stages is essential for enhancing its yield and quality. This study aims to fill this knowledge gap by employing RNA-seq to identify housekeeping genes (HKGs) and tissue-specific genes (TSGs) in pearl millet.

RESULTS

Our analysis of RNA-seq data from nine tissues (seed, germ, radicle, leaf, root, tillering tissue, stem, spike, and grain) across eight developmental stages in pearl millet accession Tifleaf3 revealed a comprehensive gene expression profile. We identified 461 HKGs that exhibited stable expression across all tissues and stages, providing robust internal references for RT-qPCR. Additionally, 8091 TSGs were discovered, many of which showed distinctive expression patterns in tissues such as spike, stem, and leaf. Functional enrichment analysis of these genes using GO and KEGG pathways highlighted their roles in key biological processes and pathways, indicating their potential in crop trait enhancement. Protein-protein interaction networks constructed for stem and leaf tissues further illuminated the regulatory mechanisms underlying the transition from vegetative to reproductive growth stages.

CONCLUSION

This study presents a detailed transcriptomic landscape of pearl millet, identifying a set of HKGs and TSGs that are crucial for understanding the molecular basis of its growth and development. We provided valuable options for transcript normalization and crucial targets for exploring gene function for the plant growth and development in pearl millet. The insights gained from this work are instrumental for breeding programs aimed at enhancing the productivity of pearl millet, thereby contributing to food and energy security.

Visualizing ER-phagy and ER architecture in vivo

ER-phagy is an evolutionarily conserved mechanism crucial for maintaining cellular homeostasis. However, significant gaps persist in our understanding of how ER-phagy and the ER network vary across cell subtypes, tissues, and organs. Furthermore, the pathophysiological relevance of ER-phagy remains poorly elucidated. Addressing these questions requires developing quantifiable methods to visualize ER-phagy and ER architecture in vivo. We generated two transgenic mouse lines expressing an ER lumen-targeting tandem RFP-GFP (ER-TRG) tag, either constitutively or conditionally. This approach enables precise spatiotemporal measurements of ER-phagy and ER structure at single-cell resolution in vivo. Systemic analysis across diverse organs, tissues, and primary cultures derived from these ER-phagy reporter mice unveiled significant variations in basal ER-phagy, both in vivo and ex vivo. Furthermore, our investigation uncovered substantial remodeling of ER-phagy and the ER network in different tissues under stressed conditions such as starvation, oncogenic transformation, and tissue injury. In summary, both reporter models represent valuable resources with broad applications in fundamental research and translational studies.

Autophagy modulates Arabidopsis male gametophyte fertility and controls actin organization

Autophagy, a crucial mechanism for cellular degradation, is regulated by conserved autophagy-related (ATG) core proteins across species. Impairments in autophagy result in significant developmental and reproductive aberrations in mammals. However, autophagy is thought to be functionally dispensable in Arabidopsis thaliana since most of the ATG mutants lack severe growth and reproductive defects. Here, we challenge this perception by unveiling a role for autophagy in male gametophyte development and fertility in Arabidopsis. A detailed re-assessment of atg5 and atg7 mutants found that reduced autophagy activity in germinated pollen accompanied by partial aberrations in sperm cell biogenesis and pollen tube growth, leading to compromised seed formation. Furthermore, we revealed autophagy modulates the spatial organization of actin filaments via targeted degradation of actin depolymerization factors ADF7 and Profilin2 in pollen grains and tubes through a key receptor, Neighbor of BRCA1 (NBR1). Our findings advance the understanding of the evolutionary conservation and diversification of autophagy in modulating male fertility in plants contrasting to mammals.

Overexpression of SlATG8f gene enhanced autophagy and pollen protection in tomato under heat stress

Autophagy is a mechanism for the degradation of cellular components in eukaryotes and plays a critical role in plant responses to abiotic stress. As a core member of the autophagy process, ATG8's role in how plants respond to heat stress remains unclear. To investigate the response of the tomato autophagy core member ATG8f to heat stress, we studied the key gene ATG8f and generated tomato lines overexpressing SlATG8f using the recombinant expression vector pBWA(V)HS. We observed that under heat stress, SlATG8f overexpression (OE) plants exhibited decreased heat tolerance compared to wild-type (WT) plants. Specifically, OE plants showed increased relative electrolyte leakage, reduced soluble solid content, elevated chlorophyll content, and higher autophagosome numbers, with less damage to chloroplasts and mitochondria. Additionally, expression of some ATG8 family genes and heat shock protein-related genes was upregulated. Moreover, SlATG8f overexpressing plants had higher pollen vitality and more intact pollen morphology. These results suggest that while SlATG8f overexpression renders plants more sensitive to heat, it helps mitigate high-temperature damage to tomato pollen by maintaining chloroplast integrity and interacting with heat shock proteins to respond to heat stress.

ER-phagy restrains inflammatory responses through its receptor UBAC2

ER-phagy, a selective form of autophagic degradation of endoplasmic reticulum (ER) fragments, plays an essential role in governing ER homeostasis. Dysregulation of ER-phagy is associated with the unfolded protein response (UPR), which is a major clue for evoking inflammatory diseases. However, the molecular mechanism underpinning the connection between ER-phagy and disease remains poorly defined. Here, we identified ubiquitin-associated domain-containing protein 2 (UBAC2) as a receptor for ER-phagy, while at the same time being a negative regulator of inflammatory responses. UBAC2 harbors a canonical LC3-interacting region (LIR) in its cytoplasmic domain, which binds to autophagosomal GABARAP. Upon ER-stress or autophagy activation, microtubule affinity-regulating kinase 2 (MARK2) phosphorylates UBAC2 at serine (S) 223, promoting its dimerization. Dimerized UBAC2 interacts more strongly with GABARAP, thus facilitating selective degradation of the ER. Moreover, by affecting ER-phagy, UBAC2 restrains inflammatory responses and acute ulcerative colitis (UC) in mice. Our findings indicate that ER-phagy directed by a MARK2-UBAC2 axis may provide targets for the treatment of inflammatory disease.

Autophagosome biogenesis and organelle homeostasis in plant cells

Autophagy is one of the major highly inducible degradation processes in response to plant developmental and environmental signals. In response to different stimuli, cellular materials, including proteins and organelles, can be sequestered into a double membrane autophagosome structure either selectively or nonselectively. The formation of an autophagosome as well as its delivery into the vacuole involves complex and dynamic membrane processes. The identification and characterization of the conserved autophagy-related (ATG) proteins and their related regulators have greatly advanced our understanding of the molecular mechanism underlying autophagosome biogenesis and function in plant cells. Autophagosome biogenesis is tightly regulated by the coordination of multiple ATG and non-ATG proteins and by selective cargo recruitment. This review updates our current knowledge of autophagosome biogenesis, with special emphasis on the core molecular machinery that drives autophagosome formation and autophagosome-organelle interactions under abiotic stress conditions.

Vacuolar degradation of plant organelles

Plants continuously remodel and degrade their organelles due to damage from their metabolic activities and environmental stressors, as well as an integral part of their cell differentiation programs. Whereas certain organelles use local hydrolytic enzymes for limited remodeling, most of the pathways that control the partial or complete dismantling of organelles rely on vacuolar degradation. Specifically, selective autophagic pathways play a crucial role in recognizing and sorting plant organelle cargo for vacuolar clearance, especially under cellular stress conditions induced by factors like heat, drought, and damaging light. In these short reviews, we discuss the mechanisms that control the vacuolar degradation of chloroplasts, mitochondria, endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi, and peroxisomes, with an emphasis on autophagy, recently discovered selective autophagy receptors for plant organelles, and crosstalk with other catabolic pathways.

A RabGAP negatively regulates plant autophagy and immune trafficking

Plants rely on autophagy and membrane trafficking to tolerate stress, combat infections, and maintain cellular homeostasis. However, the molecular interplay between autophagy and membrane trafficking is poorly understood. Using an AI-assisted approach, we identified Rab3GAP-like (Rab3GAPL) as a key membrane trafficking node that controls plant autophagy negatively. Rab3GAPL suppresses autophagy by binding to ATG8, the core autophagy adaptor, and deactivating Rab8a, a small GTPase essential for autophagosome formation and defense-related secretion. Rab3GAPL reduces autophagic flux in three model plant species, suggesting that its negative regulatory role in autophagy is conserved in land plants. Beyond autophagy regulation, Rab3GAPL modulates focal immunity against the oomycete pathogen Phytophthora infestans by preventing defense-related secretion. Altogether, our results suggest that Rab3GAPL acts as a molecular rheostat to coordinate autophagic flux and defense-related secretion by restraining Rab8a-mediated trafficking. This unprecedented interplay between a RabGAP-Rab pair and ATG8 sheds new light on the intricate membrane transport mechanisms underlying plant autophagy and immunity.

Autophagy: a key player in the recovery of plants from heat stress

Plants can be primed to withstand otherwise lethal heat stress (HS) through exposure to a preceding temporary and mild HS, commonly known as the 'thermopriming stimulus'. Plants have also evolved mechanisms to establish 'memories' of a previous stress encounter, or to reset their physiology to the original cellular state once the stress has ended. The priming stimulus triggers a widespread change of transcripts, proteins, and metabolites, which is crucial for maintaining the memory state but may not be required for growth and development under optimal conditions or may even be harmful. In such a scenario, recycling mechanisms such as autophagy are crucial for re-establishing cellular homeostasis and optimizing resource use for post-stress growth. While pivotal for eliminating heat-induced protein aggregates and protecting plants from the harmful impact of HS, recent evidence implies that autophagy also breaks down heat-induced protective macromolecules, including heat shock proteins, functioning as a resetting mechanism during the recovery from mild HS. This review provides an overview of the latest advances in understanding the multifaceted functions of autophagy in HS responses, with a specific emphasis on its roles in recovery from mild HS, and the modulation of HS memory.

Picky eaters: selective autophagy in plant cells

Autophagy, a fundamental cellular process, plays a vital role in maintaining cellular homeostasis by degrading damaged or unnecessary components. While selective autophagy has been extensively studied in animal cells, its significance in plant cells has only recently gained attention. In this review, we delve into the intriguing realm selective autophagy in plants, with specific focus on its involvement in nutrient recycling, organelle turnover, and stress response. Moreover, recent studies have unveiled the interesting interplay between selective autophagy and epigenetic mechanisms in plants, elucidating the significance of epigenetic regulation in modulating autophagy-related gene expression and finely tuning the selective autophagy process in plants. By synthesizing existing knowledge, this review highlights the emerging field of selective autophagy in plant cells, emphasizing its pivotal role in maintaining nutrient homeostasis, facilitating cellular adaptation, and shedding light on the epigenetic regulation that governs these processes. Our comprehensive study provides the way for a deeper understanding of the dynamic control of cellular responses to nutrient availability and stress conditions, opening new avenues for future research in this field of autophagy in plant physiology.

BAG8 positively regulates cold stress tolerance by modulating photosystem, antioxidant system and protein protection in Solanum lycopersicum

The B-cell lymphoma 2 (Bcl-2)-associated athanogene (BAG) family is a relatively conserved and multifunctional co-chaperones in animals and plants, which can flexibly interact with a variety of proteins and regulate various processes from growth and development to stress response. However, compared with animals, the function of BAG family in plant remains largely unknown, especially in response to cold stress. In this study, we have found that the expression of BAG8 was significantly induced in tomato under cold stress. Results showed that bag8 mutants exhibit significantly reduced tolerance towards cold stress, while BAG8 overexpressing lines were relatively resistant as reflected by the phenotype and membrane peroxidation. Measuring of gas exchange parameters, photosystem I (PSI) and photosystem II (PSII) of tomato leaves under cold stress further revealed that BAG8 mitigated cold-induced damage in photosynthetic system. Additionally, bag8 mutants exhibited more cold-induced reactive oxygen species, which were substantially normalized in BAG8 overexpressing plants. Nevertheless, the activities of antioxidant enzymes which were compromised in bag8 mutants were improved in BAG8 overexpressing plants facing cold stress. Additionally, BAG8 interacted with heat shock protein Hsp70 and protein phosphatase PP2A both in vitro and in vivo. Our results demonstrate that BAG8 plays a positive role in cold tolerance in tomato probably by the improvement of photosystems and antioxidant systems, and by interacting with Hsp70 involved in photosynthesis and PP2A involved in stomatal development.

Molecular Modulators and Receptors of Selective Autophagy: Disease Implication and Identification Strategies

Autophagy is a highly conserved physiological process that maintains cellular homeostasis by recycling cellular contents. Selective autophagy is based on the specificity of cargo recognition and has been implicated in various human diseases, including neurodegenerative diseases and cancer. Selective autophagy receptors and modulators play key roles in this process. Identifying these receptors and modulators and their roles is critical for understanding the machinery and physiological function of selective autophagy and providing therapeutic value for diseases. Using modern researching tools and novel screening technologies, an increasing number of selective autophagy receptors and modulators have been identified. A variety of Strategies and approaches, including protein-protein interactions (PPIs)-based identification and genome-wide screening, have been used to identify selective autophagy receptors and modulators. Understanding the strengths and challenges of these approaches not only promotes the discovery of even more such receptors and modulators but also provides a useful reference for the identification of regulatory proteins or genes involved in other cellular mechanisms. In this review, we summarize the functions, disease association, and identification strategies of selective autophagy receptors and modulators.

Silencing GmATG7 Leads to Accelerated Senescence and Enhanced Disease Resistance in Soybean

Autophagy plays a critical role in nutrient recycling/re-utilizing under nutrient deprivation conditions. However, the role of autophagy in soybeans has not been intensively investigated. In this study, the Autophay-related gene 7 (ATG7) gene in soybeans (referred to as GmATG7) was silenced using a virus-induced gene silencing approach mediated by Bean pod mottle virus (BPMV). Our results showed that ATG8 proteins were highly accumulated in the dark-treated leaves of the GmATG7-silenced plants relative to the vector control leaves (BPMV-0), which is indicative of an impaired autophagy pathway. Consistent with the impaired autophagy, the dark-treated GmATG7-silenced leaves displayed an accelerated senescence phenotype, which was not seen on the dark-treated BPMV-0 leaves. In addition, the accumulation levels of both H2O2 and salicylic acid (SA) were significantly induced in the GmATG7-silenced plants compared with the BPMV-0 plants, indicating an activated immunity. Consistently, the GmATG7-silenced plants were more resistant against both Pseudomonas syringae pv. glycinea (Psg) and Soybean mosaic virus (SMV) compared with the BPMV-0 plants. However, the activated immunity in the GmATG7-silenced plant was not dependent upon the activation of MPK3/MPK6. Collectively, our results demonstrated that the function of GmATG7 is indispensable for autophagy in soybeans, and the activated immunity in the GmATG7-silenced plant is a result of impaired autophagy.

TFEB SUMOylation in macrophages accelerates atherosclerosis by promoting the formation of foam cells through inhibiting lysosomal activity

Atherosclerosis (AS) is a serious cardiovascular disease. One of its hallmarks is hyperlipidemia. Inhibiting the formation of macrophage foam cells is critical for alleviating AS. Transcription factor EB (TFEB) can limit the formation of macrophage foam cells by upregulating lysosomal activity. We examined whether TFEB SUMOylation is involved in this progress during AS. In this study, we investigated the role of TFEB SUMOylation in macrophages in AS using TFEB SUMOylation deficiency Ldlr-/- (TFEB-KR: Ldlr-/-) transgenic mice and TFEB-KR bone marrow-derived macrophages. We observed that TFEB-KR: Ldlr-/- atherosclerotic mice had thinner plaques and macrophages with higher lysosomal activity when compared to WT: Ldlr-/- mice. TFEB SUMOylation in macrophages decreased after oxidized low-density lipoprotein (OxLDL) treatment in vitro. Compared with wild type macrophages, TFEB-KR macrophages exhibited less lipid deposition after OxLDL treatment. Our study demonstrated that in AS, deSUMOylation of TFEB could inhibit the formation of macrophage foam cells through enhancing lysosomal biogenesis and autophagy, further reducing the accumulation of lipids in macrophages, and ultimately alleviating the development of AS. Thus, TFEB SUMOylation can be a switch to modulate macrophage foam cells formation and used as a potential target for AS therapy.

Autophagy promotes jasmonate-mediated defense against nematodes

Autophagy, as an intracellular degradation system, plays a critical role in plant immunity. However, the involvement of autophagy in the plant immune system and its function in plant nematode resistance are largely unknown. Here, we show that root-knot nematode (RKN; Meloidogyne incognita) infection induces autophagy in tomato (Solanum lycopersicum) and different atg mutants exhibit high sensitivity to RKNs. The jasmonate (JA) signaling negative regulators JASMONATE-ASSOCIATED MYC2-LIKE 1 (JAM1), JAM2 and JAM3 interact with ATG8s via an ATG8-interacting motif (AIM), and JAM1 is degraded by autophagy during RKN infection. JAM1 impairs the formation of a transcriptional activation complex between ETHYLENE RESPONSE FACTOR 1 (ERF1) and MEDIATOR 25 (MED25) and interferes with transcriptional regulation of JA-mediated defense-related genes by ERF1. Furthermore, ERF1 acts in a positive feedback loop and regulates autophagy activity by transcriptionally activating ATG expression in response to RKN infection. Therefore, autophagy promotes JA-mediated defense against RKNs via forming a positive feedback circuit in the degradation of JAMs and transcriptional activation by ERF1.

A positive feedback regulation of SnRK1 signaling by autophagy in plants

SnRK1, an evolutionarily conserved heterotrimeric kinase complex that acts as a key metabolic sensor in maintaining energy homeostasis in plants, is an important upstream activator of autophagy that serves as a cellular degradation mechanism for the healthy growth of plants. However, whether and how the autophagy pathway is involved in regulating SnRK1 activity remains unknown. In this study, we identified a clade of plant-specific and mitochondria-localized FCS-like zinc finger (FLZ) proteins as currently unknown ATG8-interacting partners that actively inhibit SnRK1 signaling by repressing the T-loop phosphorylation of the catalytic α subunits of SnRK1, thereby negatively modulating autophagy and plant tolerance to energy deprivation caused by long-term carbon starvation. Interestingly, these AtFLZs are transcriptionally repressed by low-energy stress, and AtFLZ proteins undergo a selective autophagy-dependent pathway to be delivered to the vacuole for degradation, thereby constituting a positive feedback regulation to relieve their repression of SnRK1 signaling. Bioinformatic analyses show that the ATG8-FLZ-SnRK1 regulatory axis first appears in gymnosperms and seems to be highly conserved during the evolution of seed plants. Consistent with this, depletion of ATG8-interacting ZmFLZ14 confers enhanced tolerance, whereas overexpression of ZmFLZ14 leads to reduced tolerance to energy deprivation in maize. Collectively, our study reveals a previously unknown mechanism by which autophagy contributes to the positive feedback regulation of SnRK1 signaling, thereby enabling plants to better adapt to stressful environments.

Autophagic degradation of membrane-bound organelles in plants

Eukaryotic cells have evolved membrane-bound organelles, including the endoplasmic reticulum (ER), Golgi, mitochondria, peroxisomes, chloroplasts (in plants and green algae) and lysosomes/vacuoles, for specialized functions. Organelle quality control and their proper interactions are crucial both for normal cell homeostasis and function and for environmental adaption. Dynamic turnover of organelles is tightly controlled, with autophagy playing an essential role. Autophagy is a programmed process for efficient clearing of unwanted or damaged macromolecules or organelles, transporting them to vacuoles for degradation and recycling and thereby enhancing plant environmental plasticity. The specific autophagic engulfment of organelles requires activation of a selective autophagy pathway, recognition of the organelle by a receptor, and selective incorporation of the organelle into autophagosomes. While some of the autophagy machinery and mechanisms for autophagic removal of organelles is conserved across eukaryotes, plants have also developed unique mechanisms and machinery for these pathways. In this review, we discuss recent progress in understanding autophagy regulation in plants, with a focus on autophagic degradation of membrane-bound organelles. We also raise some important outstanding questions to be addressed in the future.

Regulatory roles of selective autophagy through targeting of native proteins in plant adaptive responses

Selective autophagy functions as a regulatory mechanism by targeting native and functional proteins to ensure their proper levels and activities in plant adaptive responses. Autophagy is a cellular degradation and recycling pathway with a key role in cellular homeostasis and metabolism. Autophagy is initiated with the biogenesis of autophagosomes, which fuse with the lysosomes or vacuoles to release their contents for degradation. Under nutrient starvation or other adverse environmental conditions, autophagy usually targets unwanted or damaged proteins, organelles and other cellular components for degradation and recycling to promote cell survival. Over the past decade, however, a substantial number of studies have reported that autophagy in plants also functions as a regulatory mechanism by targeting enzymes, structural and regulatory proteins that are not necessarily damaged or dysfunctional to ensure their proper abundance and function to facilitate cellular changes required for response to endogenous and environmental conditions. During plant-pathogen interactions in particular, selective autophagy targets specific pathogen components as a defense mechanism and pathogens also utilize autophagy to target functional host factors to suppress defense mechanisms. Autophagy also targets native and functional protein regulators of plant heat stress memory, hormone signaling, and vesicle trafficking associated with plant responses to abiotic and other conditions. In this review, we discuss advances in the regulatory roles of selective autophagy through targeting of native proteins in plant adaptive responses, what questions remain and how further progress in the analysis of these special regulatory roles of autophagy can help understand biological processes important to plants.

Autophagy: a game changer for plant development and crop improvement

Manipulation of autophagic pathway represents a tremendous opportunity for designing climate-smart crops with improved yield and better adaptability to changing environment. For exploiting autophagy to its full potential, identification and comprehensive characterization of adapters/receptor complex and elucidation of its regulatory network in crop plants is highly warranted.  Autophagy is a major intracellular trafficking pathway in eukaryotes involved in vacuolar degradation of cytoplasmic constituents, mis-folded proteins, and defective organelles. Under optimum conditions, autophagy operates at a basal level to maintain cellular homeostasis, but under stressed conditions, it is induced further to provide temporal stress relief. Our understanding of this highly dynamic process has evolved exponentially in the past few years with special reference to several plant-specific roles of autophagy. Here, we review the most recent advances in the field of autophagy in plants and discuss its potential implications in designing crops with improved stress and disease-tolerance, enhanced yield potential, and improved capabilities for producing metabolites of high economic value. We also assess the current knowledge gaps and the possible strategies to develop a robust module for biotechnological application of autophagy to enhance bioeconomy and sustainability of agriculture.

The E3 ubiquitin ligase RING1 interacts with COP9 Signalosome Subunit 4 to positively regulate resistance to root-knot nematodes in Solanum lycopersicum L

Globally, root-knot nematodes (RKNs) cause massive production losses in all major crops. E3 ubiquitin ligases are involved in plant growth, development and immune response. But their roles in plant defense against RKNs are largely unclear. Here, we show that tomato E3 ubiquitin ligase RING1 interacts with COP9 Signalosome Subunit 4 (CSN4) which is essential for jasmonic acid (JA)-dependent basal defense against RKNs. Tissue-specific expression analysis showed that RING1 expression was the highest in tomato roots and the expression was significantly increased with RKN (Meloidogyne incognita) infection. Compared with the wild-type plants, the number of egg masses in roots significantly increased in the ring1 mutants, while RING1 overexpression conferred resistance against RKNs. Furthermore, RKN infection increased the accumulation of CSN4 protein in the roots of wild-type plants, which was largely compromised in the ring1 mutants but was enhanced in the RING1 overexpressing plants. The RKN-induced transcripts of JA biosynthetic and signaling genes as well as the accumulation of JA and JA-isoleucine were compromised in ring1 mutants but were increased in RING1 overexpressing plants. These results suggest that RING1 positively regulates JA-dependent basal defense against RKNs by interacting with CSN4 proteins.

BAG9 Confers Thermotolerance by Regulating Cellular Redox Homeostasis and the Stability of Heat Shock Proteins in Solanum lycopersicum

The Bcl-2-associated athanogene (BAG) family, a group of co-chaperones that share conservative domains in flora and fauna, is involved in plant growth, development, and stress tolerance. However, the function of tomato BAG genes on thermotolerance remains largely unknown. Herein, we found that the expression of BAG9 was induced during heat stress in tomato plants. Knockout of the BAG9 gene by CRISPR/Cas9 reduced, while its overexpression increased thermotolerance in tomato plants as reflected by the phenotype, photosynthesis rate, and membrane peroxidation. Heat-induced reactive oxygen species and oxidative/oxidized proteins were further increased in bag9 mutants and were normalized in BAG9 overexpressing plants. Furthermore, the activities of antioxidant enzymes, ascorbic acid (AsA)/dehydroascorbic acid (DHA), and reduced glutathione (GSH)/oxidized glutathione (GSSG) were reduced in bag9 mutants and were increased in BAG9 overexpressing plants under heat stress. Additionally, BAG9 interacted with Hsp20 proteins in vitro and in vivo. Accumulation of Hsp proteins induced by heat showed a reduction in bag9 mutants; meanwhile, it was increased in BAG9 overexpressing plants. Thus, BAG9 played a crucial role in response to heat stress by regulating cellular redox homeostasis and the stability of heat shock proteins.

Mechanistic insights into an atypical interaction between ATG8 and SH3P2 in Arabidopsis thaliana

In selective macroautophagy/autophagy, cargo receptors are recruited to the forming autophagosome by interacting with Atg8 (autophagy-related 8)-family proteins and facilitate the selective sequestration of specific cargoes for autophagic degradation. In addition, Atg8 interacts with a number of adaptors essential for autophagosome biogenesis, including ATG and non-ATG proteins. The majority of these adaptors and receptors are characterized by an Atg8-family interacting motif (AIM) for binding to Atg8. However, the molecular basis for the interaction mode between ATG8 and regulators or cargo receptors in plants remains largely unclear. In this study, we unveiled an atypical interaction mode for Arabidopsis ATG8f with a plant unique adaptor protein, SH3P2 (SH3 domain-containing protein 2), but not with the other two SH3 proteins. By structure analysis of the unbound form of ATG8f, we identified the unique conformational changes in ATG8f upon binding to the AIM sequence of a plant known autophagic receptor, NBR1. To compare the binding affinity of SH3P2-ATG8f with that of ATG8f-NBR1, we performed a gel filtration assay to show that ubiquitin-associated domain of NBR1 outcompetes the SH3 domain of SH3P2 for ATG8f interaction. Biochemical and cellular analysis revealed that distinct interfaces were employed by ATG8f to interact with NBR1 and SH3P2. Further subcellular analysis showed that the AIM-like motif of SH3P2 is essential for its recruitment to the phagophore membrane but is dispensable for its trafficking in endocytosis. Taken together, our study provides an insightful structural basis for the ATG8 binding specificity toward a plant-specific autophagic adaptor and a conserved autophagic receptor.Abbreviations: ATG, autophagy-related; AIM, Atg8-family interacting motif; BAR, Bin-Amphiphysin-Rvs; BFA, brefeldin A; BTH, benzo-(1,2,3)-thiadiazole-7-carbothioic acid S-methyl ester; CCV, clathrin-coated-vesicle; CLC2, clathrin light chain 2; Conc A, concanamycin A; ER, endoplasmic reticulum; LDS, LIR docking site; MAP1LC3/LC3, microtubule associated protein 1 light chain 3; LIR, LC3-interacting region; PE, phosphatidylethanolamine; SH3P2, SH3 domain containing protein 2; SH3, Src-Homology-3; UBA, ubiquitin-associated; UIM, ubiquitin-interacting motif.

Coordinative regulation of ERAD and selective autophagy in plants

Endoplasmic reticulum-associated degradation (ERAD) plays important roles in plant development, hormone signaling, and plant-environment stress interactions by promoting the clearance of certain proteins or soluble misfolded proteins through the ubiquitin-proteasome system. Selective autophagy is involved in the autophagic degradation of protein aggregates mediated by specific selective autophagy receptors. These two major degradation routes co-operate with each other to relieve the cytotoxicity caused by ER stress. In this review, we analyze ERAD and different types of autophagy, including nonselective macroautophagy and ubiquitin-dependent and ubiquitin-independent selective autophagy in plants, and specifically summarize the selective autophagy receptors characterized in plants. In addition to being a part of selective autophagy, ERAD components also serve as their cargos. Moreover, an ubiquitinated substrate can be delivered to two distinguishable degradation systems, while the underlying determinants remain elusive. These excellent findings suggest an interdependent but complicated relationship between ERAD and selective autophagy. According to this point, we propose several key issues that need to be addressed in the future.

ER remodeling via ER-phagy

The endoplasmic reticulum (ER) is a hotspot for many essential cellular functions. The ER membrane is highly dynamic, which affects many cellular processes that take place within the ER. One such process is ER-phagy, a selective degradation of ER fragments (including membranes and luminal content), which serves to preserve the size of ER while adapting its morphology under basal and stress conditions. In order to be degraded, the ER undergoes selective fragmentation facilitated by specialized ER-shaping proteins that also act as ER-phagy receptors. Their ability to sense and induce membrane curvature, as well as to bridge the ER with autophagy machinery, allows for a successful ER fragmentation and delivery of these fragments to the lysosome for degradation and recycling. In this review, we provide insights into ER-phagy from the perspective of membrane remodeling. We highlight the importance of ER membrane dynamics during ER-phagy and emphasize how its dysregulation reflects on human physiology and pathology.

TaNBR1, a Novel Wheat NBR1-like Domain Gene Negatively Regulates Drought Stress Tolerance in Transgenic Arabidopsis

Drought stress is an important factor that severely affects crop yield and quality. Autophagy has a crucial role in the responses to abiotic stresses. In this study, we explore TaNBR1 in response to drought stress. Expression of the TaNBR1 gene was strongly induced by NaCl, PEG, and abscisic acid treatments. The TaNBR1 protein is localized in the Golgi apparatus and autophagosome. Transgenic Arabidopsis plants overexpressing TaNBR1 exhibited reduced drought tolerance. When subjected to drought stress, compared to the wild-type (WT) lines, the transgenic overexpressing TaNBR1 plants had a lower seed germination rate, relative water content, proline content, and reduced accumulation of antioxidant enzymes, i.e., superoxide dismutase, peroxidase, and catalase, as well as higher chlorophyll losses, malondialdehyde contents, and water loss. The transgenic plants overexpressing TaNBR1 produced much shorter roots in response to mannitol stress, in comparison to the WT plants, and they exhibited greater sensitivity to abscisic acid treatment. The expression levels of the genes related to stress in the transgenic plants were affected in response to drought stress. Our results indicate that TaNBR1 negatively regulates drought stress responses by affecting the expression of stress-related genes in Arabidopsis.

Autophagy in plant viral infection

Autophagy is a conserved degradation pathway that delivers dysfunctional cellular organelles or other cytosol components to degradative vesicular structures (vacuoles in plants and yeasts, lysosomes in mammals) for degradation and recycling. Viruses are intracellular parasites that hijack their host to live. Research on regulation of the trade-off between plant cells and viruses has indicated that autophagy is an integral part of the host responses to virus infection. Meanwhile, plants have evolved a diverse array of defense responses to counter pathogenic viruses. In this review, we focus on the roles of autophagy in plant virus infection and offer a glimpse of recent advances about how plant viruses evade autophagy or manipulate host autophagy pathways to complete their replication cycle.

Specialized endoplasmic reticulum-derived vesicles in plants: Functional diversity, evolution, and biotechnological exploitation

A central role of the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) is the synthesis, folding and quality control of secretory proteins. Secretory proteins usually exit the ER to enter the Golgi apparatus in coat protein complex II (COPII)-coated vesicles before transport to different subcellular destinations. However, in plants there are specialized ER-derived vesicles (ERDVs) that carry specific proteins but, unlike COPII vesicles, can exist as independent organelles or travel to the vacuole in a Golgi-independent manner. These specialized ERDVs include protein bodies and precursor-accumulating vesicles that accumulate storage proteins in the endosperm during seed development. Specialized ERDVs also include precursor protease vesicles that accumulate amino acid sequence KDEL-tailed cysteine proteases and ER bodies in Brassicales plants that accumulate myrosinases that hydrolyzes glucosinolates. These functionally specialized ERDVs act not only as storage organelles but also as platforms for signal-triggered processing, activation and deployment of specific proteins with important roles in plant growth, development and adaptive responses. Some specialized ERDVs have also been exploited to increase production of recombinant proteins and metabolites. Here we discuss our current understanding of the functional diversity, evolutionary mechanisms and biotechnological application of specialized ERDVs, which are associated with some of the highly remarkable characteristics important to plants.

Identification of New ATG8s-Binding Proteins with Canonical LC3-Interacting Region in Autophagosomes of Barley Callus

Autophagy is essential to maintain cellular homeostasis for normal cell growth and development. In selective autophagy, ATG8 plays a crucial role in cargo target recognition by binding to various adaptors and receptors with the ATG8-interacting motif, also known as the LC3-interacting region (LIR). However, the process of autophagy in the callus, as a proliferating cell type, is largely unknown. In this study, we overexpressed green fluorescent protein (GFP)-ATG8a and GFP-ATG8b transgenic barley callus and checked their autophagic activities. We identified five new ATG8 candidate interactors containing the canonical LIR motif by using immunoprecipitation coupled with mass spectrometry: RPP3, COPE, NCLN, RAE1, and CTSL. The binding activities between these candidate interactors and ATG8 were further demonstrated in the punctate structure. Notably, RPP3 was colocalized in ATG8-labeled autophagosomes under tunicamycin-induced ER stress. GST pull-down assays showed that the interaction between RPP3 and ATG8 could be prevented by mutating the LIRs region of RPP3 or the LIR docking site (LDS) of ATG8, suggesting that RPP3 directly interacted with ATG8 in an LIR-dependent manner via the LDS. Our findings would provide the basis for further investigations on novel receptors and functions of autophagy in plants, especially in the physiological state of cell de-differentiation.

Autophagic degradation of the chloroplastic 2-phosphoglycolate phosphatase TaPGLP1 in wheat

KEY MESSAGE

TaPGLP1, a chloroplast stromal 2-phosphoglycolate phosphatase of wheat, is an ATG8-interacting protein and undergoes autophagic degradation in starvation-treated wheat mesophyll protoplasts. Selective autophagy in plants has been shown to target diverse cellular cargoes including whole chloroplasts (Chlorophagy) and several chloroplast components (Piecemeal chlorophagy). Most cargoes of selective autophagy are captured by the autophagic machinery through their direct or indirect interactions with the autophagy-essential factor ATG8. Here, we reported a new ATG8-interacting cargo of piecemeal chlorophagy, the wheat photorespiratory 2-phosphoglycolate phosphatase TaPGLP1. The TaPGLP1-mCherry fusions expressed in wheat protoplasts located in the chloroplast stroma. Strikingly, these fusions are translocated into newly formed chloroplast surface protrusions after a long time incubation of protoplasts in a nutrition-free solution. Visualization of co-expressed TaPGLP1-mCherry and the autophagy marker GFP-TaATG8a revealed physical associations of TaPGLP1-mCherry-accumulating chloroplast protrusions with autophagic structures, implying the delivery of TaPGLP1-mCherry fusions from chloroplasts to the autophagic machinery. TaPGLP1-mCherry fusions were also detected in the GFP-TaATG8a-labelled autophagic bodies undergoing degradation in the vacuoles, which suggested the autophagic degradation of TaPGLP1. This autophagic degradation of TaPGLP1 was further demonstrated by the enhanced stability of TaPGLP1-mCherry in protoplasts with impaired autophagy. Expression of TaPGLP1-mCherry in protoplasts stimulated an enhanced autophagy level probably adopted by cells to degrade the over-produced TaPGLP1-mCherry fusions. Results from gene silencing assays showed the requirement of ATG2s and ATG7s in the autophagic degradation of TaPGLP1. Additionally, TaPGLP1 was shown to interact with ATG8 family members. Collectively, our data suggest that autophagy mediates the degradation of the chloroplast stromal protein TaPGLP1 in starvation-treated mesophyll protoplasts.

Two ubiquitin-associated ER proteins interact with COPT copper transporters and modulate their accumulation

The endoplasmic reticulum (ER) contains an elaborate protein quality control network that promotes protein folding and prevents accumulation of misfolded proteins. Evolutionarily conserved UBIQUITIN-ASSOCIATED DOMAIN-CONTAINING PROTEIN 2 (UBAC2) is involved in ER-associated protein degradation in metazoans. We have previously reported that two close UBAC2 homologs from Arabidopsis (Arabidopsis thaliana) not only participate in selective autophagy of ER components but also interact with plant-specific PATHOGEN-ASSOCIATED MOLECULAR PATTERN (PAMP)-INDUCED COILED COIL (PICC) protein to increase the accumulation of POWDERY MILDEW-RESISTANT 4 callose synthase. Here, we report that UBAC2s also interacted with COPPER (Cu) TRANSPORTER 1 (COPT1) and plasma membrane-targeted members of the Cu transporter family. The ubac2 mutants were significantly reduced in both the accumulation of COPT proteins and Cu content, and also displayed increased sensitivity to a Cu chelator. Therefore, UBAC2s positively regulate the accumulation of COPT transporters, thereby increasing Cu uptake by plant cells. Unlike with POWDERY MILDEW RESISTANCE 4, however, the positive role of UBAC2s in the accumulation of COPT1 is not dependent on PICC or the UBA domain of UBAC2s. When COPT1 was overexpressed under the CaMV 35S promoter, the increased accumulation of COPT1 was strongly UBAC2-dependent, particularly when a signal peptide was added to the N-terminus of COPT1. Further analysis using inhibitors of protein synthesis and degradation strongly suggested that UBAC2s stabilize newly synthesized COPT proteins against degradation by the proteasome system. These results indicate that plant UBAC2s are multifunctional proteins that regulate the degradation and accumulation of specific ER-synthesized proteins.

An Overview of the Molecular Mechanisms and Functions of Autophagic Pathways in Plants

Autophagy is an evolutionarily conserved pathway for the degradation of damaged or toxic components. Under normal conditions, autophagy maintains cellular homeostasis. It can be triggered by senescence and various stresses. In the process of autophagy, autophagy-related (ATG) proteins not only function as central signal regulators but also participate in the development of complex survival mechanisms when plants suffer from adverse environments. Therefore, ATGs play significant roles in metabolism, development and stress tolerance. In the past decade, both the molecular mechanisms of autophagy and a large number of components involved in the assembly of autophagic vesicles have been identified. In recent studies, an increasing number of components, mechanisms, and receptors have appeared in the autophagy pathway. In this paper, we mainly review the recent progress of research on the molecular mechanisms of plant autophagy, as well as its function under biotic stress and abiotic stress.

Silencing Autophagy-Related Gene 2 (ATG2) Results in Accelerated Senescence and Enhanced Immunity in Soybean

Autophagy plays a critical role in nutrient recycling and stress adaptations. However, the role of autophagy has not been extensively investigated in crop plants. In this study, soybean autophagy-related gene 2 (GmATG2) was silenced, using virus-induced silencing (VIGS) mediated by Bean pod mottle virus (BPMV). An accelerated senescence phenotype was exclusively observed for the GmATG2-silenced plants under dark conditions. In addition, significantly increased accumulation of both ROS and SA as well as a significantly induced expression of the pathogenesis-related gene 1 (PR1) were also observed on the leaves of the GmATG2-silenced plants, indicating an activated immune response. Consistent with this, GmATG2-silenced plants exhibited a significantly enhanced resistance to Pseudomonas syringae pv. glycinea (Psg) relative to empty vector control plants (BPMV-0). Notably, the activated immunity of the GmATG2-silenced plants was independent of the MAPK signaling pathway. The fact that the accumulation levels of ATG8 protein and poly-ubiquitinated proteins were significantly increased in the dark-treated GmATG2-silenced plants relative to the BPMV-0 plants indicated that the autophagic degradation is compromised in the GmATG2-silenced plants. Together, our results indicated that silencing GmATG2 compromises the autophagy pathway, and the autophagy pathway is conserved in different plant species.

A small peptide inhibits siRNA amplification in plants by mediating autophagic degradation of SGS3/RDR6 bodies

Selective autophagy mediates specific degradation of unwanted cytoplasmic components to maintain cellular homeostasis. The suppressor of gene silencing 3 (SGS3) and RNA-dependent RNA polymerase 6 (RDR6)-formed bodies (SGS3/RDR6 bodies) are essential for siRNA amplification in planta. However, whether autophagy receptors regulate selective turnover of SGS3/RDR6 bodies is unknown. By analyzing the transcriptomic response to virus infection in Arabidopsis, we identified a virus-induced small peptide 1 (VISP1) composed of 71 amino acids, which harbor a ubiquitin-interacting motif that mediates interaction with autophagy-related protein 8. Overexpression of VISP1 induced selective autophagy and compromised antiviral immunity by inhibiting SGS3/RDR6-dependent viral siRNA amplification, whereas visp1 mutants exhibited opposite effects. Biochemistry assays demonstrate that VISP1 interacted with SGS3 and mediated autophagic degradation of SGS3/RDR6 bodies. Further analyses revealed that overexpression of VISP1, mimicking the sgs3 mutant, impaired biogenesis of endogenous trans-acting siRNAs and up-regulated their targets. Collectively, we propose that VISP1 is a small peptide receptor functioning in the crosstalk between selective autophagy and RNA silencing.

Autophagy complements metalloprotease FtsH6 in degrading plastid heat shock protein HSP21 during heat stress recovery

Moderate and temporary heat stresses (HS) prime plants to tolerate, and survive, a subsequent severe HS. Such acquired thermotolerance can be maintained for several days under normal growth conditions, and create a HS memory. We recently demonstrated that plastid-localized small heat shock protein HSP21 is a key component of HS memory in Arabidopsis thaliana. A sustained high abundance of HSP21 during the HS recovery phase extends HS memory. The level of HSP21 is negatively controlled by plastid-localized metalloprotease FtsH6 during HS recovery. Here, we demonstrate that autophagy, a cellular recycling mechanism, exerts additional control over HSP21 degradation. Genetic and chemical disruption of both, metalloprotease activity and autophagy trigger superior HSP21 accumulation, thereby improving memory. Furthermore, we provide evidence that autophagy cargo receptor ATG8-INTERACTING PROTEIN1 (ATI1) is associated with HS memory. ATI1 bodies colocalize with both autophagosomes and HSP21, and their abundance and transport to the vacuole increase during HS recovery. Together, our results provide new insights into the control module for the regulation of HS memory, in which two distinct protein degradation pathways act in concert to degrade HSP21, thereby enabling cells to recover from the HS effect at the cost of reducing the HS memory.

MdHARBI1, a MdATG8i-interacting protein, plays a positive role in plant thermotolerance

Autophagy is a major degradation pathway in plants for maintaining cellular homeostasis in response to various environmental stressors. ATG8 is one of a series of autophagy-related (ATG) proteins and plays a central role in both bulk and selective autophagy. Previously, we characterized MdATG8i in apple and demonstrated that it has a positive role in apple stress resistance. Although many ATG8-interacting proteins have been found in Arabidopsis, no protein has been reported to interact with MdATG8 in apple. Here, we identified MdHARBI1 as a MdATG8i-interacting protein in apple, however, the functions of HARBI1-like proteins have not been explored in plants. Expression analysis of MdHARBI1 and pro-MdHARBI1-GUS staining of transgenic Arabidopsis exposed to high temperature demonstrated that MdHARBI1 was significantly induced by heat stress. Moreover, heat-treated MdHARBI1-trangenic tomato plants maintained higher autophagic activity, accumulated fewer ROS, and displayed stronger chlorophyll fluorescence than wild-type plants. Because these phenotypes were consistent with those displayed by MdATG8i-overexpressing apple plants under high temperature, we concluded that the MdATG8i-interacting protein MdHARBI1 plays a critical role in the basal thermotolerance of plants, mainly by influencing autophagy pathways.

Autophagy in Plant Abiotic Stress Management

Plants can be considered an open system. Throughout their life cycle, plants need to exchange material, energy and information with the outside world. To improve their survival and complete their life cycle, plants have developed sophisticated mechanisms to maintain cellular homeostasis during development and in response to environmental changes. Autophagy is an evolutionarily conserved self-degradative process that occurs ubiquitously in all eukaryotic cells and plays many physiological roles in maintaining cellular homeostasis. In recent years, an increasing number of studies have shown that autophagy can be induced not only by starvation but also as a cellular response to various abiotic stresses, including oxidative, salt, drought, cold and heat stresses. This review focuses mainly on the role of autophagy in plant abiotic stress management.

A guide to the regulation of selective autophagy receptors

Autophagy is a highly conserved catabolic process cells use to maintain their homeostasis by degrading misfolded, damaged and excessive proteins, nonfunctional organelles, foreign pathogens and other cellular components. Hence, autophagy can be nonselective, where bulky portions of the cytoplasm are degraded upon stress, or a highly selective process, where preselected cellular components are degraded. To distinguish between different cellular components, autophagy employs selective autophagy receptors, which will link the cargo to the autophagy machinery, thereby sequestering it in the autophagosome for its subsequent degradation in the lysosome. Autophagy receptors undergo post-translational and structural modifications to fulfil their role in autophagy, or upon executing their role, for their own degradation. We highlight the four most prominent protein modifications - phosphorylation, ubiquitination, acetylation and oligomerisation - that are essential for autophagy receptor recruitment, function and turnover. Understanding the regulation of selective autophagy receptors will provide deeper insights into the pathway and open up potential therapeutic avenues.

Transcriptome analysis of the role of autophagy in plant response to heat stress

Autophagy plays a critical role in plant heat tolerance in part by targeting heat-induced nonnative proteins for degradation. Autophagy also regulates metabolism, signaling and other processes and it is less understood how the broad function of autophagy affects plant heat stress responses. To address this issue, we performed transcriptome profiling of Arabidopsis wild-type and autophagy-deficient atg5 mutant in response to heat stress. A large number of differentially expressed genes (DEGs) were identified between wild-type and atg5 mutant even under normal conditions. These DEGs are involved not only in metabolism, hormone signaling, stress responses but also in regulation of nucleotide processing and DNA repair. Intriguingly, we found that heat treatment resulted in more robust changes in gene expression in wild-type than in the atg5 mutant plants. The dampening effect of autophagy deficiency on heat-regulated gene expression was associated with already altered expression of many heat-regulated DEGs prior to heat stress in the atg5 mutant. Altered expression of a large number of genes involved in metabolism and signaling in the autophagy mutant prior to heat stress may affect plant response to heat stress. Furthermore, autophagy played a positive role in the expression of defense- and stress-related genes during the early stage of heat stress responses but had little effect on heat-induced expression of heat shock genes. Taken together, these results indicate that the broad role of autophagy in metabolism, cellular homeostasis and other processes can also potentially affect plant heat stress responses and heat tolerance.

Cargo Recognition and Function of Selective Autophagy Receptors in Plants

Autophagy is a major quality control system for degradation of unwanted or damaged cytoplasmic components to promote cellular homeostasis. Although non-selective bulk degradation of cytoplasm by autophagy plays a role during cellular response to nutrient deprivation, the broad roles of autophagy are primarily mediated by selective clearance of specifically targeted components. Selective autophagy relies on cargo receptors that recognize targeted components and recruit them to autophagosomes through interaction with lapidated autophagy-related protein 8 (ATG8) family proteins anchored in the membrane of the forming autophagosomes. In mammals and yeast, a large collection of selective autophagy receptors have been identified that mediate the selective autophagic degradation of organelles, aggregation-prone misfolded proteins and other unwanted or nonnative proteins. A substantial number of selective autophagy receptors have also been identified and functionally characterized in plants. Some of the autophagy receptors in plants are evolutionarily conserved with homologs in other types of organisms, while a majority of them are plant-specific or plant species-specific. Plant selective autophagy receptors mediate autophagic degradation of not only misfolded, nonactive and otherwise unwanted cellular components but also regulatory and signaling factors and play critical roles in plant responses to a broad spectrum of biotic and abiotic stresses. In this review, we summarize the research on selective autophagy in plants, with an emphasis on the cargo recognition and the biological functions of plant selective autophagy receptors.

Recent advances in plant thermomemory

This review summarizes the process of thermal acquired tolerance in plants and the knowledge gap compared to systemic acquired resistance that a plant shows after pathogen inoculation. Plants are continuously challenged by several biotic stresses such as pests and pathogens, or abiotic stresses like high light, UV radiation, drought, salt, and very high or low temperature. Interestingly, for most stresses, prior exposure makes plants more tolerant during the subsequent exposures, which is often referred to as acclimatization. Research of the last two decades reveals that the memory of most of the stresses is associated with epigenetic changes. Heat stress causes damage to membrane proteins, denaturation and inactivation of various enzymes, and accumulation of reactive oxygen species leading to cell injury and death. Plants are equipped with thermosensors that can recognize certain specific changes and activate protection machinery. Phytochrome and calcium signaling play critical roles in sensing sudden changes in temperature and activate cascades of signaling, leading to the production of heat shock proteins (HSPs) that keep protein-unfolding under control. Heat shock factors (HSFs) are the transcription factors that read the activation of thermosensors and induce the expression of HSPs. Epigenetic modifications of HSFs are likely to be the key component of thermal acquired tolerance (TAT). Despite the advances in understanding the process of thermomemory generation, it is not known whether plants are equipped with systemic activation thermal protection, as happens in the form of systemic acquired resistance (SAR) upon pathogen infection. This review describes the recent advances in the understanding of thermomemory development in plants and the knowledge gap in comparison with SAR.

Broad and Complex Roles of NBR1-Mediated Selective Autophagy in Plant Stress Responses

Selective autophagy is a highly regulated degradation pathway for the removal of specific damaged or unwanted cellular components and organelles such as protein aggregates. Cargo selectivity in selective autophagy relies on the action of cargo receptors and adaptors. In mammalian cells, two structurally related proteins p62 and NBR1 act as cargo receptors for selective autophagy of ubiquitinated proteins including aggregation-prone proteins in aggrephagy. Plant NBR1 is the structural and functional homolog of mammalian p62 and NBR1. Since its first reports almost ten years ago, plant NBR1 has been well established to function as a cargo receptor for selective autophagy of stress-induced protein aggregates and play an important role in plant responses to a broad spectrum of stress conditions including heat, salt and drought. Over the past several years, important progress has been made in the discovery of specific cargo proteins of plant NBR1 and their roles in the regulation of plant heat stress memory, plant-viral interaction and special protein secretion. There is also new evidence for a possible role of NBR1 in stress-induced pexophagy, sulfur nutrient responses and abscisic acid signaling. In this review, we summarize these progresses and discuss the potential significance of NBR1-mediated selective autophagy in broad plant responses to both biotic and abiotic stresses.

Autophagy and Its Regulators in Response to Stress in Plants

To survive in stressful conditions, plants have developed multiple strategies to relieve damage. One of the strategies is to clear the damaged protein and organelles. Autophagy is a highly conservative degradation process, which refers to the recycling of damaged protein and organelles. Over the past decades, increasing evidence has revealed the important roles of autophagy in response to stress conditions, and many factors have been revealed involved in the sophisticated regulation of the autophagy signaling pathway. However, the accurate regulation pathway of the autophagy pathway is largely unknown. The current review proposes how stress-response factors respond to stress conditions involved in regulating the autophagy signaling pathway. In short, clarifying the regulating pathway of autophagy in response to stress conditions is beneficial to plant breeding.

Emerging Roles of the Selective Autophagy in Plant Immunity and Stress Tolerance

Autophagy is a conserved recycling system required for cellular homeostasis. Identifications of diverse selective receptors/adaptors that recruit appropriate autophagic cargoes have revealed critical roles of selective autophagy in different biological processes in plants. In this review, we summarize the emerging roles of selective autophagy in both biotic and abiotic stress tolerance and highlight the new features of selective receptors/adaptors and their interactions with both the cargoes and Autophagy-related gene 8s (ATG8s). In addition, we review how the two major degradation systems, namely the ubiquitin-proteasome system (UPS) and selective autophagy, are coordinated to cope with stress in plants. We especially emphasize how plants develop the selective autophagy as a weapon to fight against pathogens and how adapted pathogens have evolved the strategies to counter and/or subvert the immunity mediated by selective autophagy.

The dual roles of melatonin biosynthesis enzymes in the coordination of melatonin biosynthesis and autophagy in cassava

Both autophagy and melatonin play important roles in plant development and stress response. However, the direct correlation between autophagy and melatonin as well as the underlying mechanism remains elusive in plants. In this study, we discovered that the expression of three autophagy-associated genes (MeATG8b, 8c, and 8e) and autophagic activity were induced by exogenous melatonin treatment in cassava. In addition, three melatonin biosynthesis enzymes (tryptophan decarboxylase 2 (MeTDC2), N-aceylserotonin O-methyltransferase 2 (MeASMT2), and MeASMT3) positively regulate endogenous melatonin level and autophagic activity. Further investigation showed that these melatonin biosynthesis enzymes interacted with MeATG8b/8c/8e in vivo and in vitro. Consistently, MeTDC2, MeASMT2, and MeASMT3 also positively regulate endogenous melatonin level and autophagic activity in cassava. Notably, overexpression of MeATG8b, 8c, and 8e facilitated the protein expression level of MeTDC2, MeASMT2, and MeASMT3 in vivo. Taken together, melatonin synthesis enzymes (MeTDC2, MeASMT2/3) interact with MeATG8b/8c/8e and thus coordinate the dynamics of melatonin biosynthesis and autophagic activity in cassava, highlighting the links between melatonin biosynthesis and autophagic activity in cassava.

Multiple Functions of ATG8 Family Proteins in Plant Autophagy

Autophagy is a major degradation process of cytoplasmic components in eukaryotes, and executes both bulk and selective degradation of targeted cargos. A set of autophagy-related (ATG) proteins participate in various stages of the autophagic process. Among ATGs, ubiquitin-like protein ATG8 plays a central role in autophagy. The ATG8 protein is conjugated to the membrane lipid phosphatidylethanolamine in a ubiquitin-like conjugation reaction that is essential for autophagosome formation. In addition, ATG8 interacts with various adaptor/receptor proteins to recruit specific cargos for degradation by selective autophagy. The ATG8-interacting proteins usually contain the ATG8-interacting motif (AIM) or the ubiquitin-interacting motif (UIM) for ATG8 binding. Unlike a single ATG8 gene in yeast, multiple ATG8 orthologs have been identified in the plant kingdom. The large diversity within the ATG8 family may explain the various functions of selective autophagy in plants. Here, we discuss and summarize the current view of the structure and function of ATG8 proteins in plants.

Coordination and Crosstalk between Autophagosome and Multivesicular Body Pathways in Plant Stress Responses

In eukaryotic cells, autophagosomes and multivesicular bodies (MVBs) are two closely related partners in the lysosomal/vacuolar protein degradation system. Autophagosomes are double membrane-bound organelles that transport cytoplasmic components, including proteins and organelles for autophagic degradation in the lysosomes/vacuoles. MVBs are single-membrane organelles in the endocytic pathway that contain intraluminal vesicles whose content is either degraded in the lysosomes/vacuoles or recycled to the cell surface. In plants, both autophagosome and MVB pathways play important roles in plant responses to biotic and abiotic stresses. More recent studies have revealed that autophagosomes and MVBs also act together in plant stress responses in a variety of processes, including deployment of defense-related molecules, regulation of cell death, trafficking and degradation of membrane and soluble constituents, and modulation of plant hormone metabolism and signaling. In this review, we discuss these recent findings on the coordination and crosstalk between autophagosome and MVB pathways that contribute to the complex network of plant stress responses.