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Peled A, Sprecher E. Proteolytic and Antiproteolytic Activity in the Skin: Gluing the Pieces Together. J Invest Dermatol 2024; 144:466-473. [PMID: 37865898 DOI: 10.1016/j.jid.2023.08.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/06/2023] [Accepted: 08/22/2023] [Indexed: 10/23/2023]
Abstract
Epidermal differentiation is ultimately aimed at the formation of a functional barrier capable of protecting the organism from the environment while preventing loss of biologically vital elements. Epidermal differentiation entails a delicately regulated process of cell-cell junction formation and dissolution to enable upward cell migration and desquamation. Over the past two decades, the deciphering of the genetic basis of a number of inherited conditions has delineated the pivotal role played in this process by a series of proteases and protease inhibitors, including serpins, cathepsins, and cystatins, suggesting novel avenues for therapeutic intervention in both rare and common disorders of cornification.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alon Peled
- Division of Dermatology, Tel Aviv Sourasky Medical Center, Tel Aviv, Israel
| | - Eli Sprecher
- Division of Dermatology, Tel Aviv Sourasky Medical Center, Tel Aviv, Israel; Department of Human Molecular Genetics and Biochemistry, Faculty of Medicine, Tel Aviv University, Tel Aviv, Israel.
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Hüttmann N, Li Y, Poolsup S, Zaripov E, D’Mello R, Susevski V, Minic Z, Berezovski MV. Surface Proteome of Extracellular Vesicles and Correlation Analysis Reveal Breast Cancer Biomarkers. Cancers (Basel) 2024; 16:520. [PMID: 38339272 PMCID: PMC10854524 DOI: 10.3390/cancers16030520] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/23/2023] [Revised: 01/13/2024] [Accepted: 01/23/2024] [Indexed: 02/12/2024] Open
Abstract
Breast cancer (BC) is the second most frequently diagnosed cancer and accounts for approximately 25% of new cancer cases in Canadian women. Using biomarkers as a less-invasive BC diagnostic method is currently under investigation but is not ready for practical application in clinical settings. During the last decade, extracellular vesicles (EVs) have emerged as a promising source of biomarkers because they contain cancer-derived proteins, RNAs, and metabolites. In this study, EV proteins from small EVs (sEVs) and medium EVs (mEVs) were isolated from BC MDA-MB-231 and MCF7 and non-cancerous breast epithelial MCF10A cell lines and then analyzed by two approaches: global proteomic analysis and enrichment of EV surface proteins by Sulfo-NHS-SS-Biotin labeling. From the first approach, proteomic profiling identified 2459 proteins, which were subjected to comparative analysis and correlation network analysis. Twelve potential biomarker proteins were identified based on cell line-specific expression and filtered by their predicted co-localization with known EV marker proteins, CD63, CD9, and CD81. This approach resulted in the identification of 11 proteins, four of which were further investigated by Western blot analysis. The presence of transmembrane serine protease matriptase (ST14), claudin-3 (CLDN3), and integrin alpha-7 (ITGA7) in each cell line was validated by Western blot, revealing that ST14 and CLDN3 may be further explored as potential EV biomarkers for BC. The surface labeling approach enriched proteins that were not identified using the first approach. Ten potential BC biomarkers (Glutathione S-transferase P1 (GSTP1), Elongation factor 2 (EEF2), DEAD/H box RNA helicase (DDX10), progesterone receptor (PGR), Ras-related C3 botulinum toxin substrate 2 (RAC2), Disintegrin and metalloproteinase domain-containing protein 10 (ADAM10), Aconitase 2 (ACO2), UTP20 small subunit processome component (UTP20), NEDD4 binding protein 2 (N4BP2), Programmed cell death 6 (PDCD6)) were selected from surface proteins commonly identified from MDA-MB-231 and MCF7, but not identified in MCF10A EVs. In total, 846 surface proteins were identified from the second approach, of which 11 were already known as BC markers. This study supports the proposition that Evs are a rich source of known and novel biomarkers that may be used for non-invasive detection of BC. Furthermore, the presented datasets could be further explored for the identification of potential biomarkers in BC.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nico Hüttmann
- Department of Chemistry and Biomolecular Sciences, University of Ottawa, Ottawa, ON K1N 6N5, Canada; (N.H.); (Y.L.); (S.P.); (E.Z.); (R.D.); (V.S.)
- John L. Holmes Mass Spectrometry Facility, Faculty of Science, University of Ottawa, Ottawa, ON K1N 6N5, Canada;
| | - Yingxi Li
- Department of Chemistry and Biomolecular Sciences, University of Ottawa, Ottawa, ON K1N 6N5, Canada; (N.H.); (Y.L.); (S.P.); (E.Z.); (R.D.); (V.S.)
| | - Suttinee Poolsup
- Department of Chemistry and Biomolecular Sciences, University of Ottawa, Ottawa, ON K1N 6N5, Canada; (N.H.); (Y.L.); (S.P.); (E.Z.); (R.D.); (V.S.)
| | - Emil Zaripov
- Department of Chemistry and Biomolecular Sciences, University of Ottawa, Ottawa, ON K1N 6N5, Canada; (N.H.); (Y.L.); (S.P.); (E.Z.); (R.D.); (V.S.)
| | - Rochelle D’Mello
- Department of Chemistry and Biomolecular Sciences, University of Ottawa, Ottawa, ON K1N 6N5, Canada; (N.H.); (Y.L.); (S.P.); (E.Z.); (R.D.); (V.S.)
| | - Vanessa Susevski
- Department of Chemistry and Biomolecular Sciences, University of Ottawa, Ottawa, ON K1N 6N5, Canada; (N.H.); (Y.L.); (S.P.); (E.Z.); (R.D.); (V.S.)
| | - Zoran Minic
- John L. Holmes Mass Spectrometry Facility, Faculty of Science, University of Ottawa, Ottawa, ON K1N 6N5, Canada;
| | - Maxim V. Berezovski
- Department of Chemistry and Biomolecular Sciences, University of Ottawa, Ottawa, ON K1N 6N5, Canada; (N.H.); (Y.L.); (S.P.); (E.Z.); (R.D.); (V.S.)
- John L. Holmes Mass Spectrometry Facility, Faculty of Science, University of Ottawa, Ottawa, ON K1N 6N5, Canada;
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Wang Y, Zhao J, Gu Y, Wang H, Jiang M, Zhao S, Qing H, Ni J. Cathepsin H: molecular characteristics and clues to function and mechanism. Biochem Pharmacol 2023; 212:115585. [PMID: 37148981 DOI: 10.1016/j.bcp.2023.115585] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/13/2023] [Revised: 04/26/2023] [Accepted: 04/28/2023] [Indexed: 05/08/2023]
Abstract
Cathepsin H (CatH) is a lysosomal cysteine protease with a unique aminopeptidase activity that is extensively expressed in the lung, pancreas, thymus, kidney, liver, skin, and brain. Owing to its specific enzymatic activity, CatH has critical effects on the regulation of biological behaviours of cancer cells and pathological processes in brain diseases. Moreover, a neutral pH level is optimal for CatH activity, so it is expected to be active in the extra-lysosomal and extracellular space. In the present review, we describe the expression, maturation, and enzymatic properties of CatH, and summarize the available experimental evidence that mechanistically links CatH to various physiological and pathological processes. Finally, we discuss the challenges and potentials of CatH inhibitors in CatH-induced disease therapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yanfeng Wang
- Key Laboratory of Molecular Medicine and Biotherapy, Department of Biology, School of Life Science, Beijing Institute of Technology, Beijing, 100081, China
| | - Juan Zhao
- Key Laboratory of Molecular Medicine and Biotherapy, Department of Biology, School of Life Science, Beijing Institute of Technology, Beijing, 100081, China; Aerospace Medical Center, Aerospace Center Hospital, Beijing, 100081, China
| | - Yebo Gu
- Department of Stomatology, Shanghai Tenth People's Hospital, School of Medicine, Tongji University, Shanghai, 200072, China
| | - Haiping Wang
- School of Pharmaceutical Science, Nanjing Tech University, Nanjing, China
| | - Muzhou Jiang
- Department of Periodontics, Liaoning Provincial Key Laboratory of Oral Diseases, School and Hospital of Stomatology, China Medical University, Shenyang, 110002, China
| | - Shuxuan Zhao
- Key Laboratory of Molecular Medicine and Biotherapy, Department of Biology, School of Life Science, Beijing Institute of Technology, Beijing, 100081, China
| | - Hong Qing
- Key Laboratory of Molecular Medicine and Biotherapy, Department of Biology, School of Life Science, Beijing Institute of Technology, Beijing, 100081, China.
| | - Junjun Ni
- Key Laboratory of Molecular Medicine and Biotherapy, Department of Biology, School of Life Science, Beijing Institute of Technology, Beijing, 100081, China.
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Paul AA, Szulc NA, Kobiela A, Brown SJ, Pokrzywa W, Gutowska-Owsiak D. In silico analysis of the profilaggrin sequence indicates alterations in the stability, degradation route, and intracellular protein fate in filaggrin null mutation carriers. Front Mol Biosci 2023; 10:1105678. [PMID: 37200867 PMCID: PMC10185843 DOI: 10.3389/fmolb.2023.1105678] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/22/2022] [Accepted: 04/19/2023] [Indexed: 05/20/2023] Open
Abstract
Background: Loss of function mutation in FLG is the major genetic risk factor for atopic dermatitis (AD) and other allergic manifestations. Presently, little is known about the cellular turnover and stability of profilaggrin, the protein encoded by FLG. Since ubiquitination directly regulates the cellular fate of numerous proteins, their degradation and trafficking, this process could influence the concentration of filaggrin in the skin. Objective: To determine the elements mediating the interaction of profilaggrin with the ubiquitin-proteasome system (i.e., degron motifs and ubiquitination sites), the features responsible for its stability, and the effect of nonsense and frameshift mutations on profilaggrin turnover. Methods: The effect of inhibition of proteasome and deubiquitinases on the level and modifications of profilaggrin and processed products was assessed by immunoblotting. Wild-type profilaggrin sequence and its mutated variants were analysed in silico using the DEGRONOPEDIA and Clustal Omega tool. Results: Inhibition of proteasome and deubiquitinases stabilizes profilaggrin and its high molecular weight of presumably ubiquitinated derivatives. In silico analysis of the sequence determined that profilaggrin contains 18 known degron motifs as well as multiple canonical and non-canonical ubiquitination-prone residues. FLG mutations generate products with increased stability scores, altered usage of the ubiquitination marks, and the frequent appearance of novel degrons, including those promoting C-terminus-mediated degradation routes. Conclusion: The proteasome is involved in the turnover of profilaggrin, which contains multiple degrons and ubiquitination-prone residues. FLG mutations alter those key elements, affecting the degradation routes and the mutated products' stability.
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Affiliation(s)
- Argho Aninda Paul
- Experimental and Translational Immunology Group, Intercollegiate Faculty of Biotechnology of University of Gdansk and Medical University of Gdansk, University of Gdansk, Gdansk, Poland
| | - Natalia A. Szulc
- Laboratory of Protein Metabolism, International Institute of Molecular and Cell Biology in Warsaw, Warsaw, Poland
| | - Adrian Kobiela
- Experimental and Translational Immunology Group, Intercollegiate Faculty of Biotechnology of University of Gdansk and Medical University of Gdansk, University of Gdansk, Gdansk, Poland
| | - Sara J. Brown
- Centre for Genomic and Experimental Medicine, Institute of Genetics and Cancer, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, United Kingdom
| | - Wojciech Pokrzywa
- Laboratory of Protein Metabolism, International Institute of Molecular and Cell Biology in Warsaw, Warsaw, Poland
| | - Danuta Gutowska-Owsiak
- Experimental and Translational Immunology Group, Intercollegiate Faculty of Biotechnology of University of Gdansk and Medical University of Gdansk, University of Gdansk, Gdansk, Poland
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Investigations into the filaggrin null phenotype: showcasing the methodology for CRISPR/Cas9 editing of human keratinocytes. J Invest Dermatol 2023:S0022-202X(23)00165-3. [PMID: 36893939 DOI: 10.1016/j.jid.2023.02.021] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/23/2022] [Revised: 01/20/2023] [Accepted: 02/11/2023] [Indexed: 03/09/2023]
Abstract
Ever since the association between filaggrin (FLG) loss-of-function mutations and ichthyosis vulgaris and atopic dermatitis disease onset was identified, filaggrins function has been under investigation. Intra-individual genomic predisposition, immunological confounders, and environmental interactions complicate the comparison between FLG genotypes and related causal effects. Using CRISPR/Cas9, we generated human FLG knockout (ΔFLG) N/TERT-2G keratinocytes. Filaggrin deficiency was demonstrated by immunohistochemistry of human epidermal equivalent (HEE) cultures. Next to (partial) loss of structural proteins (IVL, HRNR, KRT2, and TGM1), the stratum corneum was more dense and lacked the typical basket weave appearance. In addition, electrical impedance spectroscopy and transepidermal water loss analyses highlighted a compromised epidermal barrier in ΔFLG-HEEs. Correction of FLG reinstated the presence of keratohyalin granules in the stratum granulosum, filaggrin protein expression, and expression of aforementioned proteins. The beneficial effects on stratum corneum formation were reflected by normalization of EIS and TEWL. This study demonstrates the causal phenotypical and functional consequences of filaggrin deficiency, indicating filaggrin is not only central in epidermal barrier function but also vital for epidermal differentiation by orchestrating the expression of other important epidermal proteins. These observations pave the way to fundamental investigations into the exact role of filaggrin in skin biology and disease.
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The serine protease matriptase inhibits migration and proliferation in multiple myeloma cells. Oncotarget 2022; 13:1175-1186. [PMID: 36268559 PMCID: PMC9584456 DOI: 10.18632/oncotarget.28300] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/25/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Multiple myeloma (MM) is an incurable malignancy of plasma cells. The serine protease matriptase is frequently dysregulated in human carcinomas, which facilitates tumor progression and metastatic dissemination. The importance of matriptase in hematological malignancies is yet to be clarified. In this study, we aimed to characterize the role of matriptase in MM. MATERIALS AND METHODS mRNA expression of matriptase and its inhibitors hepatocyte growth factor activator inhibitor (HAI)-1 and HAI-2 was studied in primary MM cells from patient samples and human myeloma cell lines (HMCLs). We further investigated the effect of matriptase on migration and proliferation of myeloma cells in vitro. By use of the CoMMpass database, we assessed the clinical relevance of matriptase in MM patients. RESULTS Matriptase was expressed in 96% of patient samples and all HMCLs tested. Overexpression of matriptase in vitro reduced proliferation, and significantly decreased cytokine-induced migration. Conversely, matriptase knockdown significantly enhanced migration. Mechanistically, overexpression of matriptase inhibited activation of Src kinase. CONCLUSIONS Our findings may suggest a novel role of matriptase as a tumor suppressor in MM pathogenesis.
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Improving the selectivity of 3-amidinophenylalanine-derived matriptase inhibitors. Eur J Med Chem 2022; 238:114437. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ejmech.2022.114437] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/12/2021] [Revised: 04/29/2022] [Accepted: 04/30/2022] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
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Moosbrugger-Martinz V, Leprince C, Méchin MC, Simon M, Blunder S, Gruber R, Dubrac S. Revisiting the Roles of Filaggrin in Atopic Dermatitis. Int J Mol Sci 2022; 23:5318. [PMID: 35628125 PMCID: PMC9140947 DOI: 10.3390/ijms23105318] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/15/2022] [Revised: 05/03/2022] [Accepted: 05/06/2022] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
The discovery in 2006 that loss-of-function mutations in the filaggrin gene (FLG) cause ichthyosis vulgaris and can predispose to atopic dermatitis (AD) galvanized the dermatology research community and shed new light on a skin protein that was first identified in 1981. However, although outstanding work has uncovered several key functions of filaggrin in epidermal homeostasis, a comprehensive understanding of how filaggrin deficiency contributes to AD is still incomplete, including details of the upstream factors that lead to the reduced amounts of filaggrin, regardless of genotype. In this review, we re-evaluate data focusing on the roles of filaggrin in the epidermis, as well as in AD. Filaggrin is important for alignment of keratin intermediate filaments, control of keratinocyte shape, and maintenance of epidermal texture via production of water-retaining molecules. Moreover, filaggrin deficiency leads to cellular abnormalities in keratinocytes and induces subtle epidermal barrier impairment that is sufficient enough to facilitate the ingress of certain exogenous molecules into the epidermis. However, although FLG null mutations regulate skin moisture in non-lesional AD skin, filaggrin deficiency per se does not lead to the neutralization of skin surface pH or to excessive transepidermal water loss in atopic skin. Separating facts from chaff regarding the functions of filaggrin in the epidermis is necessary for the design efficacious therapies to treat dry and atopic skin.
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Affiliation(s)
- Verena Moosbrugger-Martinz
- Department of Dermatology, Venereology and Allergology, Medical University of Innsbruck, Anichstraße 35, 6020 Innsbruck, Austria; (V.M.-M.); (S.B.); (R.G.)
| | - Corinne Leprince
- Toulouse Institute for Infectious and Inflammatory Diseases (Infinity), Toulouse University, CNRS UMR5051, Inserm UMR1291, UPS, 31059 Toulouse, France; (C.L.); (M.-C.M.); (M.S.)
| | - Marie-Claire Méchin
- Toulouse Institute for Infectious and Inflammatory Diseases (Infinity), Toulouse University, CNRS UMR5051, Inserm UMR1291, UPS, 31059 Toulouse, France; (C.L.); (M.-C.M.); (M.S.)
| | - Michel Simon
- Toulouse Institute for Infectious and Inflammatory Diseases (Infinity), Toulouse University, CNRS UMR5051, Inserm UMR1291, UPS, 31059 Toulouse, France; (C.L.); (M.-C.M.); (M.S.)
| | - Stefan Blunder
- Department of Dermatology, Venereology and Allergology, Medical University of Innsbruck, Anichstraße 35, 6020 Innsbruck, Austria; (V.M.-M.); (S.B.); (R.G.)
| | - Robert Gruber
- Department of Dermatology, Venereology and Allergology, Medical University of Innsbruck, Anichstraße 35, 6020 Innsbruck, Austria; (V.M.-M.); (S.B.); (R.G.)
| | - Sandrine Dubrac
- Department of Dermatology, Venereology and Allergology, Medical University of Innsbruck, Anichstraße 35, 6020 Innsbruck, Austria; (V.M.-M.); (S.B.); (R.G.)
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Hoober JK, Eggink LL. The Discovery and Function of Filaggrin. Int J Mol Sci 2022; 23:ijms23031455. [PMID: 35163390 PMCID: PMC8835998 DOI: 10.3390/ijms23031455] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/14/2021] [Revised: 01/17/2022] [Accepted: 01/26/2022] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Keratohyalin granules were discovered in the mid-19th century in cells that terminally differentiate to form the outer, cornified layer of the epidermis. The first indications of the composition of these structures emerged in the 1960s from a histochemical stain for histidine, followed by radioautographic evidence of a high incidence of histidine incorporation into newly synthesized proteins in cells containing the granules. Research during the next three decades revealed the structure and function of a major protein in these granules, which was initially called the ‘histidine-rich protein’. Steinert and Dale named the protein ‘filaggrin’ in 1981 because of its ability to aggregate keratin intermediate filaments. The human gene for the precursor, ‘profilaggrin,’ was reported in 1991 to encode 10, 11 or 12 nearly identical repeats. Remarkably, the mouse and rat genes encode up to 20 repeats. The lifetime of filaggrin is the time required for keratinocytes in the granular layer to move into the inner cornified layer. During this transition, filaggrin facilitates the collapse of corneocytes into ‘building blocks’ that become an impermeable surface barrier. The subsequent degradation of filaggrin is as remarkable as its synthesis, and the end-products aid in maintaining moisture in the cornified layer. It was apparent that ichthyosis vulgaris and atopic dermatitis were associated with the absence of this protein. McLean’s team in 2006 identified the cause of these diseases by discovering loss-of-function mutations in the profilaggrin gene, which led to dysfunction of the surface barrier. This story illustrates the complexity in maintaining a healthy, functional epidermis.
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Cracking the Skin Barrier: Liquid-Liquid Phase Separation Shines under the Skin. JID INNOVATIONS 2021; 1:100036. [PMID: 34909733 PMCID: PMC8659386 DOI: 10.1016/j.xjidi.2021.100036] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/27/2021] [Revised: 06/07/2021] [Accepted: 06/18/2021] [Indexed: 12/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Central to forming and sustaining the skin’s barrier, epidermal keratinocytes (KCs) fluxing to the skin surface undergo a rapid and enigmatic transformation into flat, enucleated squames. At the crux of this transformation are intracellular keratohyalin granules (KGs) that suddenly disappear as terminally differentiating KCs transition to the cornified skin surface. Defects in KGs have long been linked to skin barrier disorders. Through the biophysical lens of liquid-liquid phase separation (LLPS), these enigmatic KGs recently emerged as liquid-like membraneless organelles whose assembly and subsequent pH-triggered disassembly drive squame formation. To stimulate future efforts toward cracking the complex process of skin barrier formation, in this review, we integrate the key concepts and foundational work spanning the fields of LLPS and epidermal biology. We review the current progress in the skin and discuss implications in the broader context of membraneless organelles across stratifying epithelia. The discovery of environmentally sensitive LLPS dynamics in the skin points to new avenues for dissecting the skin barrier and for addressing skin barrier disorders. We argue that skin and its appendages offer outstanding models to uncover LLPS-driven mechanisms in tissue biology.
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Key Words
- 3D, three-dimensional
- AD, atopic dermatitis
- CE, cornified envelope
- EDC, epidermal differentiation complex
- ER, endoplasmic reticulum
- IDP, intrinsically-disordered protein
- KC, keratinocyte
- KG, keratohyalin granule
- LCST, lower critical solution temperature
- LLPS, liquid-liquid phase separation
- PTM, post-translational modification
- TG, trichohyalin granule
- UCST, upper critical solution temperature
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Experimental Models for the Study of Hereditary Cornification Defects. Biomedicines 2021; 9:biomedicines9030238. [PMID: 33652877 PMCID: PMC7996736 DOI: 10.3390/biomedicines9030238] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/12/2021] [Accepted: 02/23/2021] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Ichthyoses comprise a broad spectrum of keratinization disorders due to hereditary defects of cornification. Until now, mutations in more than 50 genes, mostly coding for structural proteins involved in epidermal barrier formation, have been identified as causes for different types of these keratinization disorders. However, due to the high heterogeneity and difficulties in the establishment of valid experimental models, research in this field remains challenging and translation of novel findings to clinical practice is difficult. In this review, we provide an overview of existing models to study hereditary cornification defects with focus on ichthyoses and palmoplantar keratodermas.
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Abstract
Skin barrier dysfunction caused by endogenous or exogenous factors can lead to various disorders such as xerosis cutis, ichthyoses, and atopic dermatitis. Filaggrin is a pivotal structural protein of the stratum corneum (SC) and provides natural moisturizing factors that play a role in skin barrier functions. Filaggrin aggregates keratin filaments, resulting in the formation of a keratin network, which binds cornified envelopes and collapse keratinocytes to flattened corneocytes. This complex network contributes to the physical strength of the skin. Filaggrin is degraded by caspase-14, calpain 1, and bleomycin hydrolases into amino acids and amino acid metabolites such as trans-urocanic acid and pyrrolidone carboxylic acid, which are pivotal natural moisturizing factors in the SC. Accordingly, filaggrin is important for the pathophysiology of skin barrier disorders, and its deficiency or dysfunction leads to a variety of skin disorders. Here, the roles and biology of filaggrin, related skin diseases, and a therapeutic strategy targeting filaggrin are reviewed. In addition, several drug candidates of different mode of actions targeting filaggrin, along with their clinical efficacy, are discussed.
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Basharat S, Gilani SA, Iftikhar F, Murtaza MA, Basharat A, Sattar A, Qamar MM, Ali M. Capsaicin: Plants of the Genus Capsicum and Positive Effect of Oriental Spice on Skin Health. Skin Pharmacol Physiol 2021; 33:331-341. [PMID: 33401283 DOI: 10.1159/000512196] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/26/2019] [Accepted: 08/28/2020] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Capsaicin, the main pungent ingredient in hot chili peppers, causes excitation of small sensory neurons. It also provides the basic pungent flavor in Capsicum fruits. SUMMARY Capsaicin plays a vital role as an agonist for the TRPV1 (transient receptor potential cation channel, subfamily V, member 1) receptor. TRPV1 is essential for the reduction of oxidative stress, pain sensations, and inflammation. Therefore, it has many pros related to health issue. Activation and positive impact of TRPV1 via capsaicin has been studied in various dermatological conditions and in other skin-related issues. Past studies documented that capsaicin plays a vital role in the prevention of atopic dermatitis as well as psoriasis. Moreover, TRPV1 is also very important for skin health because it acts as a capsaicin receptor. It is found in nociceptive nerve fibers and nonneural structures. It prompts the release of a compound that is involved in communicating pain between the spinal cord nerves and other parts of the body. Key Messages: Here, we summarize the growing evidence for the beneficial role of capsaicin and TRPV1 and how they help in the relief of skin diseases such as inflammation, permeation, dysfunction, atopic dermatitis, and psoriasis and in pain amplification syndrome.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shahnai Basharat
- University Institute of Diet & Nutritional Sciences, The University of Lahore, Sargodha, Pakistan,
| | - Syed Amir Gilani
- Dean, Faculty of Allied Health Sciences, The University of Lahore, Lahore, Pakistan
| | - Faiza Iftikhar
- University Institute of Diet & Nutritional Sciences, The University of Lahore, Sargodha, Pakistan
| | | | - Ayesha Basharat
- Sargodha Medical College, University of Sargodha, Sargodha, Pakistan
| | - Ahsan Sattar
- Food Microbiology and Technology, Bahaudin Zikriya University, Multan, Pakistan
| | - Muhammad Mustafa Qamar
- Department of Physical Therapy, Sargodha Medical College, The University of Sargodha, Sargodha, Pakistan
| | - Muhammad Ali
- Institute of Allied Health Sciences, Sargodha Medical College, The University of Sargodha, Sargodha, Pakistan
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Chang SC, Chiang CP, Lai CH, Du PWA, Hung YS, Chen YH, Yang HY, Fang HY, Lee SP, Tang HJ, Wang JK, Johnson MD, Lin CY. Matriptase and prostasin proteolytic activities are differentially regulated in normal and wounded skin. Hum Cell 2020; 33:990-1005. [PMID: 32617892 DOI: 10.1007/s13577-020-00385-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/21/2020] [Accepted: 06/02/2020] [Indexed: 01/27/2023]
Abstract
Orchestrated control of multiple overlapping and sequential processes is required for the maintenance of epidermal homeostasis and the response to and recovery from a variety of skin insults. Previous studies indicate that membrane-associated serine protease matriptase and prostasin play essential roles in epidermal development, differentiation, and barrier formation. The control of proteolysis is a highly regulated process, which depends not only on gene expression but also on zymogen activation and the balance between protease and protease inhibitor. Subcellular localization can affect the accessibility of protease inhibitors to proteases and, thus, also represents an integral component of the control of proteolysis. To understand how membrane-associated proteolysis is regulated in human skin, these key aspects of matriptase and prostasin were determined in normal and injured human skin by immunohistochemistry. This staining shows that matriptase is expressed predominantly in the zymogen form at the periphery of basal and spinous keratinocytes, and prostasin appears to be constitutively activated at high levels in polarized organelle-like structures of the granular keratinocytes in the adjacent quiescent skin. The membrane-associated proteolysis appears to be elevated via an increase in matriptase zymogen activation and prostasin protein expression in areas of skin recovering from epidermal insults. There was no noticeable change observed in other regulatory aspects, including the expression and tissue distribution of their cognate inhibitors HAI-1 and HAI-2. This study reveals that the membrane-associated proteolysis may be a critical epidermal mechanism involved in responding to, and recovering from, damage to human skin.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shun-Cheng Chang
- Division of Plastic Surgery, Integrated Burn and Wound Care Center, Department of Surgery, Shuang-Ho Hospital, New Taipei City, 235, Taiwan.,Department of Surgery, School of Medicine, College of Medicine, Taipei Medical University, Taipei, 110, Taiwan
| | - Chien-Ping Chiang
- Department of Dermatology, Tri-Service General Hospital, Taipei, 114, Taiwan.,Department of Biochemistry, National Defense Medical Center, No. 161, Sec. 6, Ming-Chung E. Rd, Taipei, 114, Taiwan
| | - Chih-Hsin Lai
- Department of Dentistry Renai Branch, Taipei City Hospital, Taipei, 106, Taiwan
| | - Po-Wen A Du
- Lombardi Comprehensive Cancer Center, Department of Oncology, Georgetown University, W412 Research Building, 3970 Reservoir Road NW, Washington, DC, 20057, USA
| | - Yu-Sin Hung
- Department of Biochemistry, National Defense Medical Center, No. 161, Sec. 6, Ming-Chung E. Rd, Taipei, 114, Taiwan
| | - Yu-Hsuan Chen
- Department of Biochemistry, National Defense Medical Center, No. 161, Sec. 6, Ming-Chung E. Rd, Taipei, 114, Taiwan
| | - Hui-Yu Yang
- Department of Biochemistry, National Defense Medical Center, No. 161, Sec. 6, Ming-Chung E. Rd, Taipei, 114, Taiwan
| | - Hao-Yu Fang
- Department of Biochemistry, National Defense Medical Center, No. 161, Sec. 6, Ming-Chung E. Rd, Taipei, 114, Taiwan
| | - Shiao-Pieng Lee
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, National Defense Medical Center, Taipei, 114, Taiwan.,Department of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery, Tri-Service General Hospital, Taipei, 114, Taiwan
| | - Hung-Jen Tang
- Section of Infectious Diseases, Internal Medicine, Chi-Mei Medical Center, No.901, Chung-Hwa Rd., Yung-Kang Dist., Tainan City, 71004, Taiwan, ROC.
| | - Jehng-Kang Wang
- Department of Biochemistry, National Defense Medical Center, No. 161, Sec. 6, Ming-Chung E. Rd, Taipei, 114, Taiwan.
| | - Michael D Johnson
- Lombardi Comprehensive Cancer Center, Department of Oncology, Georgetown University, W412 Research Building, 3970 Reservoir Road NW, Washington, DC, 20057, USA
| | - Chen-Yong Lin
- Lombardi Comprehensive Cancer Center, Department of Oncology, Georgetown University, W412 Research Building, 3970 Reservoir Road NW, Washington, DC, 20057, USA.
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15
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Boyden LM, Zhou J, Hu R, Zaki T, Loring E, Scott J, Traupe H, Paller AS, Lifton RP, Choate KA. Mutations in ASPRV1 Cause Dominantly Inherited Ichthyosis. Am J Hum Genet 2020; 107:158-163. [PMID: 32516568 DOI: 10.1016/j.ajhg.2020.05.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/08/2020] [Accepted: 05/18/2020] [Indexed: 10/24/2022] Open
Abstract
The discovery of genetic causes of inherited skin disorders has been pivotal to the understanding of epidermal differentiation, function, and renewal. Here we show via exome sequencing that mutations in ASPRV1 (aspartic peptidase retroviral-like 1) cause a dominant Mendelian disorder featuring palmoplantar keratoderma and lamellar ichthyosis, a phenotype that has otherwise been exclusively recessive. ASPRV1 encodes a mammalian-specific and stratified epithelia-specific protease important in processing of filaggrin, a critical component of the uppermost epidermal layer. Three different heterozygous ASPRV1 missense mutations in four unrelated ichthyosis kindreds segregate with disease and disrupt protein residues within close proximity to each other and autocatalytic cleavage sites. Expression of mutant ASPRV1 proteins demonstrates that all three mutations alter ASPRV1 auto-cleavage and filaggrin processing, a function vital to epidermal barrier integrity.
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16
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Di Paolo CT, Diamandis EP, Prassas I. The role of kallikreins in inflammatory skin disorders and their potential as therapeutic targets. Crit Rev Clin Lab Sci 2020; 58:1-16. [PMID: 32568598 DOI: 10.1080/10408363.2020.1775171] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
The skin is a vital organ of the human body, serving numerous protective and functional roles that are essential for survival. Residing in the epidermis are various epidermal proteases responsible for the establishment and regulation of barrier function. The human tissue kallikrein-related peptidase family conserves homeostasis of the skin barrier through their roles in desquamation, antimicrobial defense, innate immune response, and barrier maintenance. The activity of kallikreins is tightly regulated and dysregulation of kallikrein activity is seen to contribute to the formation of several inflammatory skin disorders. This review highlights the roles of kallikreins in skin homeostasis and pathologies. Due to their part in these skin disorders, inhibitors of the skin kallikreins have become attractive therapeutics. Over the past few years, both natural and synthetic inhibitors of several kallikreins have been identified and are undergoing further development as treatments to restore compromised barrier function. This review summarizes the kallikrein inhibitors under development for this purpose. These inhibitors remain promising therapeutics in cases of severe skin inflammation not well managed by current therapies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Caitlin T Di Paolo
- Department of Laboratory Medicine and Pathobiology, University of Toronto, Toronto, Canada.,Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, Mount Sinai Hospital, Toronto, Canada
| | - Eleftherios P Diamandis
- Department of Laboratory Medicine and Pathobiology, University of Toronto, Toronto, Canada.,Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, Mount Sinai Hospital, Toronto, Canada.,Department of Clinical Biochemistry, University Health Network, Toronto, Canada
| | - Ioannis Prassas
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, Mount Sinai Hospital, Toronto, Canada
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17
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Touati A, Saeidian AH, Youssefian L, Faghankhani M, Niaziorimi F, Pajouhanfar S, Vahidnezhad H, Uitto J. The matriptase-prostasin proteolytic cascade in dermatologic diseases. Exp Dermatol 2020; 29:580-587. [PMID: 32347581 DOI: 10.1111/exd.14104] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/05/2020] [Revised: 04/14/2020] [Accepted: 04/21/2020] [Indexed: 01/17/2023]
Abstract
The proper development and function of skin and hair are dependent on proteolytic activities. Specifically, the matriptase-prostasin cascade is a series of proteolytic reactions in the epidermis integral to normal regulation of desquamation. An increasing amount of research describing this pathway has recently become available, and the importance of this pathway is exhibited by the association of genetic defects in this pathway with human diseases of the skin and hair. Given the relevance of this pathway to dermatology, we provide a review of the current understanding of its relevance to distinct clinical entities, including ichthyosis-hypotrichosis and Netherton syndromes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrew Touati
- Department of Dermatology and Cutaneous Biology, Sidney Kimmel Medical College and Jefferson Institute of Molecular Medicine, Thomas Jefferson University, Philadelphia, PA, USA
| | - Amir Hossein Saeidian
- Department of Dermatology and Cutaneous Biology, Sidney Kimmel Medical College and Jefferson Institute of Molecular Medicine, Thomas Jefferson University, Philadelphia, PA, USA
| | - Leila Youssefian
- Department of Dermatology and Cutaneous Biology, Sidney Kimmel Medical College and Jefferson Institute of Molecular Medicine, Thomas Jefferson University, Philadelphia, PA, USA.,Department of Medical Genetics, School of Medicine, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
| | - Masoomeh Faghankhani
- Department of Dermatology and Cutaneous Biology, Sidney Kimmel Medical College and Jefferson Institute of Molecular Medicine, Thomas Jefferson University, Philadelphia, PA, USA
| | - Fatemeh Niaziorimi
- Department of Dermatology and Cutaneous Biology, Sidney Kimmel Medical College and Jefferson Institute of Molecular Medicine, Thomas Jefferson University, Philadelphia, PA, USA
| | - Sara Pajouhanfar
- Department of Dermatology and Cutaneous Biology, Sidney Kimmel Medical College and Jefferson Institute of Molecular Medicine, Thomas Jefferson University, Philadelphia, PA, USA
| | - Hassan Vahidnezhad
- Department of Dermatology and Cutaneous Biology, Sidney Kimmel Medical College and Jefferson Institute of Molecular Medicine, Thomas Jefferson University, Philadelphia, PA, USA.,Biotechnology Research Center, Department of Molecular Medicine, Pasteur Institute of Iran, Tehran, Iran
| | - Jouni Uitto
- Department of Dermatology and Cutaneous Biology, Sidney Kimmel Medical College and Jefferson Institute of Molecular Medicine, Thomas Jefferson University, Philadelphia, PA, USA.,Jefferson Institute of Molecular Medicine, Thomas Jefferson University, Philadelphia, PA, USA
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18
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Wu CJ, Lu M, Feng X, Nakato G, Udey MC. Matriptase Cleaves EpCAM and TROP2 in Keratinocytes, Destabilizing Both Proteins and Associated Claudins. Cells 2020; 9:cells9041027. [PMID: 32326212 PMCID: PMC7226414 DOI: 10.3390/cells9041027] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/17/2020] [Revised: 04/17/2020] [Accepted: 04/19/2020] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
The homologs EpCAM and TROP2, which both interact with claudin-1 and claudin-7, are frequently coexpressed in epithelia including skin. Intestine uniquely expresses high levels of EpCAM but not TROP2. We previously identified EpCAM as a substrate of the membrane-anchored protease matriptase and linked HAI-2, matriptase, EpCAM and claudin-7 in a pathway that is pivotal for intestinal epithelial cells (IEC) homeostasis. Herein, we reveal that TROP2 is also a matriptase substrate. Matriptase cleaved TROP2 when purified recombinant proteins were mixed in vitro. TROP2, like EpCAM, was also cleaved after co-transfection of matriptase in 293T cells. Neither EpCAM nor TROP2 cleavage was promoted by protease-disabled matriptase or matriptase that harbored the ichthyosis-associated G827R mutation. We confirmed that EpCAM and TROP2 are both expressed in skin and detected cleavage of these proteins in human keratinocytes (HaCaT cells) after the physiologic inhibition of matriptase by HAI proteins was relieved by siRNA knockdown. Knockdown of EpCAM or TROP2 individually had only small effects on claudin-1 and claudin-7 levels, whereas elimination of both markedly diminished claudin levels. HAI-1 knockdown promoted EpCAM and TROP2 cleavage accompanied by reductions in claudins, whereas HAI-2 knockdown had little impact. Double knockdown of HAI-1 and HAI-2 induced nearly complete cleavage of EpCAM and TROP2 and drastic reductions of claudins. These effects were eliminated by concurrent matriptase knockdown. Decreases in claudin levels were also diminished by the lysosomal inhibitor chloroquine and cleaved EpCAM/TROP2 fragments accumulated preferentially. We demonstrate that TROP2 and EpCAM exhibit redundancies with regard to regulation of claudin metabolism and that an HAI, matriptase, EpCAM and claudin pathway analogous to what we described in IECs exists in keratinocytes. This study may offer insights into the mechanistic basis for matriptase dysregulation-induced ichthyosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chuan-Jin Wu
- Laboratory of Immune Cell Biology, National Cancer Institute, Bethesda, MD 20892, USA
- Correspondence: (C.-J.W.); (M.C.U.); Tel.: +1-301-760-7452 (C.-J.W.); +1-314-454-8547 (M.C.U.)
| | - Michael Lu
- Experimental Immunology Branch, National Cancer Institute, Bethesda, MD 20892, USA;
| | - Xu Feng
- Retired from National Cancer Institute, Bethesda, MD 20892, USA;
| | - Gaku Nakato
- Kanagawa Institute of Industrial Science and Technology, Tonomachi, Kawasaki-ku, Kawasaki-shi, Kanagawa 210-0821, Japan;
| | - Mark C. Udey
- Dermatology Division, Department of Medicine, Washington University School of Medicine, Saint Louis, MO 63110, USA
- Correspondence: (C.-J.W.); (M.C.U.); Tel.: +1-301-760-7452 (C.-J.W.); +1-314-454-8547 (M.C.U.)
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19
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Lin CY, Wang JK, Johnson MD. The spatiotemporal control of human matriptase action on its physiological substrates: a case against a direct role for matriptase proteolytic activity in profilaggrin processing and desquamation. Hum Cell 2020; 33:459-469. [DOI: 10.1007/s13577-020-00361-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/31/2020] [Accepted: 04/08/2020] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
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20
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Abstract
Over the last two decades, a novel subgroup of serine proteases, the cell surface-anchored serine proteases, has emerged as an important component of the human degradome, and several members have garnered significant attention for their roles in cancer progression and metastasis. A large body of literature describes that cell surface-anchored serine proteases are deregulated in cancer and that they contribute to both tumor formation and metastasis through diverse molecular mechanisms. The loss of precise regulation of cell surface-anchored serine protease expression and/or catalytic activity may be contributing to the etiology of several cancer types. There is therefore a strong impetus to understand the events that lead to deregulation at the gene and protein levels, how these precipitate in various stages of tumorigenesis, and whether targeting of selected proteases can lead to novel cancer intervention strategies. This review summarizes current knowledge about cell surface-anchored serine proteases and their role in cancer based on biochemical characterization, cell culture-based studies, expression studies, and in vivo experiments. Efforts to develop inhibitors to target cell surface-anchored serine proteases in cancer therapy will also be summarized.
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21
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Callies LK, Tadeo D, Simper J, Bugge TH, Szabo R. Iterative, multiplexed CRISPR-mediated gene editing for functional analysis of complex protease gene clusters. J Biol Chem 2019; 294:15987-15996. [PMID: 31501243 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.ra119.009773] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/21/2019] [Revised: 08/19/2019] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Elucidation of gene function by reverse genetics in animal models frequently is complicated by the functional redundancy of homologous genes. This obstacle often is compounded by the tight clustering of homologous genes, which precludes the generation of multigene-deficient animals through standard interbreeding of single-deficient animals. Here, we describe an iterative, multiplexed CRISPR-based approach for simultaneous gene editing in the complex seven-member human airway trypsin-like protease/differentially expressed in a squamous cell carcinoma (HAT/DESC) cluster of membrane-anchored serine proteases. Through four cycles of targeting, we generated a library of 18 unique congenic mouse strains lacking combinations of HAT/DESC proteases, including a mouse strain deficient in all seven proteases. Using this library, we demonstrate that HAT/DESC proteases are dispensable for term development, postnatal health, and fertility and that the recently described function of the HAT-like 4 protease in epidermal barrier formation is unique among all HAT/DESC proteases. The study demonstrates the potential of iterative, multiplexed CRISPR-mediated gene editing for functional analysis of multigene clusters, and it provides a large array of new congenic mouse strains for the study of HAT/DESC proteases in physiological and in pathophysiological processes.
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Affiliation(s)
- LuLu K Callies
- Proteases and Tissue Remodeling Section, NIDCR, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland 20892
| | - Daniel Tadeo
- Proteases and Tissue Remodeling Section, NIDCR, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland 20892
| | - Jan Simper
- Proteases and Tissue Remodeling Section, NIDCR, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland 20892
| | - Thomas H Bugge
- Proteases and Tissue Remodeling Section, NIDCR, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland 20892
| | - Roman Szabo
- Proteases and Tissue Remodeling Section, NIDCR, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland 20892
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22
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Vasiljeva O, Hostetter DR, Moore SJ, Winter MB. The multifaceted roles of tumor-associated proteases and harnessing their activity for prodrug activation. Biol Chem 2019; 400:965-977. [PMID: 30913028 DOI: 10.1515/hsz-2018-0451] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/01/2018] [Accepted: 03/18/2019] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
The role of proteases in cancer was originally thought to be limited to the breakdown of basement membranes and extracellular matrix (ECM), thereby promoting cancer cell invasion into surrounding normal tissues. It is now well understood that proteases play a much more complicated role in all stages of cancer progression and that not only tumor cells, but also stromal cells are an important source of proteases in the tumor microenvironment. Among all the proteolytic enzymes potentially associated with cancer, some proteases have taken on heightened importance due to their significant up-regulation and ability to participate at multiple stages of cancer progression and metastasis. In this review, we discuss some of the advances in understanding of the roles of several key proteases from different classes in the development and progression of cancer and the potential to leverage their upregulated activity for the development of novel targeted treatment strategies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Olga Vasiljeva
- CytomX Therapeutics Inc., Platform Biology, 151 Oyster Point Blvd, South San Francisco, CA 94080, USA
| | - Daniel R Hostetter
- CytomX Therapeutics Inc., Platform Biology, 151 Oyster Point Blvd, South San Francisco, CA 94080, USA
| | - Stephen J Moore
- CytomX Therapeutics Inc., Platform Biology, 151 Oyster Point Blvd, South San Francisco, CA 94080, USA
| | - Michael B Winter
- CytomX Therapeutics Inc., Platform Biology, 151 Oyster Point Blvd, South San Francisco, CA 94080, USA
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23
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Kim S, Back SK, Na HS, Kee SH. Capsaicin induces atopic dermatitis-like manifestations through dysregulation of proteolytic system and alteration of filaggrin processing in rats. Exp Dermatol 2019; 27:332-339. [PMID: 29509988 DOI: 10.1111/exd.13527] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 02/23/2018] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
Abstract
Atopic dermatitis (AD) is a complex disease featuring pruritic skin inflammation. Many animal models have been developed. In a rat model, subcutaneous capsaicin injection within 48 hours after birth induces AD-like skin manifestations of dermatitis and scratching behaviour 3 weeks after the injection. When 2- to 4-week-old rats were injected with capsaicin, the lag period was shortened, and the severity of skin manifestations was significantly reduced, suggesting influences of postnatal development. Lgr6 is an epidermal stem cell marker that is normally restricted to the isthmus area of hair follicles at postnatal 2 weeks. Lgr6 persisted in the interfollicular epidermis of capsaicin-injected rats beyond 3 weeks after birth, indicating that capsaicin-induced skin manifestations were influenced by postnatal epidermal development. Capsaicin injection induced alteration of proteolytic processing of filaggrin and corneodesmosin, suggesting epidermal barrier dysfunction. Inappropriate degradation of matriptase was observed. Degrees of proteolysis of these proteins were corelated with the severity of manifestations, suggesting that inappropriate proteolysis might be a possible cause of the skin manifestations. These results strongly suggest that capsaicin may dysregulate the protease system, resulting in alteration of profilaggrin and corneodesmosin proteolysis and skin manifestations. These events may be influenced by postnatal epidermal development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sewon Kim
- Department of Microbiology, College of Medicine, Korea University, Seoul, Korea
| | - Seung Keun Back
- Department of Biomedical Laboratory Science, College of Medical Science, Konyang University, Chungnam, Korea
| | - Heung Sik Na
- Department of Physiology, College of Medicine, Korea University, Seoul, Korea
| | - Sun-Ho Kee
- Department of Microbiology, College of Medicine, Korea University, Seoul, Korea
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24
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Drees L, Königsmann T, Jaspers MHJ, Pflanz R, Riedel D, Schuh R. Conserved function of the matriptase-prostasin proteolytic cascade during epithelial morphogenesis. PLoS Genet 2019; 15:e1007882. [PMID: 30601807 PMCID: PMC6331135 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pgen.1007882] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/10/2018] [Revised: 01/14/2019] [Accepted: 12/06/2018] [Indexed: 01/08/2023] Open
Abstract
Extracellular matrix (ECM) assembly and remodelling is critical during development and organ morphogenesis. Dysregulation of ECM is implicated in many pathogenic conditions, including cancer. The type II transmembrane serine protease matriptase and the serine protease prostasin are key factors in a proteolytic cascade that regulates epithelial ECM differentiation during development in vertebrates. Here, we show by rescue experiments that the Drosophila proteases Notopleural (Np) and Tracheal-prostasin (Tpr) are functional homologues of matriptase and prostasin, respectively. Np mediates morphogenesis and remodelling of apical ECM during tracheal system development and is essential for maintenance of the transepithelial barrier function. Both Np and Tpr degrade the zona pellucida-domain (ZP-domain) protein Dumpy, a component of the transient tracheal apical ECM. Furthermore, we demonstrate that Tpr zymogen and the ZP domain of the ECM protein Piopio are cleaved by Np and matriptase in vitro. Our data indicate that the evolutionarily conserved ZP domain, present in many ECM proteins of vertebrates and invertebrates, is a novel target of the conserved matriptase-prostasin proteolytic cascade. Epithelial tissue covers the outside of the animal body and lines internal organs. Its disorganization is the source of approximately 90% of all human cancers. Elaboration of the basic epithelial characteristics has led to an understanding of how complex structures such as the branched tubular networks of vertebrate lung or invertebrate tracheal system are organized. Aside from obvious morphological differences, specific compositions of the epithelial extracellular matrix (ECM) have been noted. For example, while the flexible ECM of the vertebrate skin mainly consists of collagen and elastic fibers, the rigid ECM of invertebrates is chitin-based to serve as an inflexible exoskeleton. We show that a central regulator of ECM differentiation and epithelial development in vertebrates, the matriptase-prostasin proteolytic cascade (MPPC), is conserved and essential for both Drosophila ECM morphogenesis and physiology. The functionally conserved components of the MPPC mediate cleavage of zona pellucida-domain (ZP-domain) proteins, which play crucial roles in organizing apical structures of the ECM in both vertebrates and invertebrates. Our data indicate that ZP-proteins are molecular targets of the conserved MPPC and that cleavage within the ZP-domains is a conserved mechanism of ECM development and differentiation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Leonard Drees
- Research Group Molecular Organogenesis, Max-Planck-Institute for Biophysical Chemistry, Göttingen, Germany
| | - Tatiana Königsmann
- Research Group Molecular Organogenesis, Max-Planck-Institute for Biophysical Chemistry, Göttingen, Germany
| | - Martin H. J. Jaspers
- Research Group Molecular Organogenesis, Max-Planck-Institute for Biophysical Chemistry, Göttingen, Germany
| | - Ralf Pflanz
- Research Group Mass Spectrometry, Max-Planck-Institute for Biophysical Chemistry, Göttingen, Germany
| | - Dietmar Riedel
- Electron Microscopy Group, Max-Planck-Institute for Biophysical Chemistry, Göttingen, Germany
| | - Reinhard Schuh
- Research Group Molecular Organogenesis, Max-Planck-Institute for Biophysical Chemistry, Göttingen, Germany
- * E-mail:
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25
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Gedon NKY, Mueller RS. Atopic dermatitis in cats and dogs: a difficult disease for animals and owners. Clin Transl Allergy 2018; 8:41. [PMID: 30323921 PMCID: PMC6172809 DOI: 10.1186/s13601-018-0228-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/02/2018] [Accepted: 09/10/2018] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
The purpose of this review article is to give an overview of atopic dermatitis in companion animals and of recent developments including knowledge on immunological background, novel treatment options and difficulties in disease management. The prevalence of hypersensitivities seems to be increasing. The pathogenetic mechanisms are not fully understood, yet multiple gene abnormalities and altered immunological processes are involved. In dogs and cats, the diagnosis of atopic dermatitis is based on history, clinical examination and exclusion of other differential diagnoses. Intradermal testing or testing for serum allergen-specific Immunoglobulin E is only used to identify allergens for inclusion in the extract for allergen immunotherapy. Symptomatic therapy includes glucocorticoids, ciclosporin, essential fatty acids and antihistamines. A selective janus kinase 1 inhibitor and a caninized monoclonal interleukin-31 antibody are the newest options for symptomatic treatment, although longterm effects still need to be assessed. The chronic and often severe nature of the disease, the costly diagnostic workup, frequent clinical flares and lifelong treatment are challenging for owners, pets and veterinarians. Patience and excellent communication skills are needed to achieve a good owner compliance and satisfactory clinical outcome for the animal.
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Affiliation(s)
- Natalie Katharina Yvonne Gedon
- Small Animal Medicine Clinic, Centre for Clinical Veterinary Medicine, Ludwig Maximilian University, Veterinaerstraße 13, 80539 Munich, Germany
| | - Ralf Steffen Mueller
- Small Animal Medicine Clinic, Centre for Clinical Veterinary Medicine, Ludwig Maximilian University, Veterinaerstraße 13, 80539 Munich, Germany
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26
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Activated matriptase as a target to treat breast cancer with a drug conjugate. Oncotarget 2018; 9:25983-25992. [PMID: 29899836 PMCID: PMC5995259 DOI: 10.18632/oncotarget.25414] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/24/2018] [Accepted: 03/21/2018] [Indexed: 01/01/2023] Open
Abstract
The antitumor effects of a novel antibody drug conjugate (ADC) was tested against human solid tumor cell lines and against human triple negative breast cancer (TNBC) xenografts in immunosuppressed mice. The ADC targeting activated matriptase of tumor cells was synthesized by using the potent anti-tubulin toxin, monomethyl auristatin-E linked to the activated matriptase-specific monoclonal antibody (M69) via a lysosomal protease-cleavable dipeptide linker. This ADC was found to be cytotoxic against multiple activated matriptase-positive epithelial carcinoma cell lines in vitro and markedly inhibited growth of triple negative breast cancer xenografts and a primary human TNBC (PDX) in vivo. Overexpression of activated matriptase may be a biomarker for response to this ADC. The ADC had potent anti-tumor activity, while the unconjugated M69 antibody was ineffective in a mouse model study using MDA-MB-231 xenografts in mice. Treatment of a human TNBC (MDA-MB-231) showed potent anti-tumor effects in combination with cisplatin in mice. This ADC alone or in combination with cisplatin has the potential to improve the treatment outcomes of patients with TNBC as well as other tumors overexpressing activated matriptase.
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27
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Szabo R, Bugge TH. Loss of HAI-2 in mice with decreased prostasin activity leads to an early-onset intestinal failure resembling congenital tufting enteropathy. PLoS One 2018; 13:e0194660. [PMID: 29617460 PMCID: PMC5884512 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0194660] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/25/2017] [Accepted: 03/07/2018] [Indexed: 01/15/2023] Open
Abstract
Prostasin (CAP1/PRSS8) is a glycosylphosphatidylinositol (GPI)-anchored serine protease that is essential for epithelial development and overall survival in mice. Prostasin is regulated primarily by the transmembrane serine protease inhibitor, hepatocyte growth factor activator inhibitor (HAI)-2, and loss of HAI-2 function leads to early embryonic lethality in mice due to an unregulated prostasin activity. We have recently reported that critical in vivo functions of prostasin can be performed by proteolytically-inactive or zymogen-locked variants of the protease. Here we show that the zymogen form of prostasin does not bind to HAI-2 and, as a result, loss of HAI-2 does not affect prenatal development and survival of mice expressing only zymogen-locked variant of prostasin (Prss8 R44Q). Indeed, HAI-2-deficient mice homozygous for R44Q mutation (Spint2-/-;Prss8R44Q/R44Q) are born in the expected numbers and do not exhibit any obvious developmental abnormality at birth. However, postnatal growth in these mice is severely impaired and they all die within 4 to 7 days after birth due to a critical failure in the development of small and large intestines, characterized by a widespread villous atrophy, tufted villi, near-complete loss of mucin-producing goblet cells, loss of colonic crypt structure, and bleeding into the intestinal lumen. Intestines of Spint2-/-;Prss8R44Q/R44Q mice showed altered expression of epithelial junctional proteins, including reduced levels of EpCAM, E-cadherin, occludin, claudin-1 and -7, as well as an increased level of claudin-4, indicating that the loss of HAI-2 compromises intestinal epithelial barrier function. Our data indicate that the loss of HAI-2 in Prss8R44Q/R44Q mice leads to development of progressive intestinal failure that at both histological and molecular level bears a striking resemblance to human congenital tufting enteropathy, and may provide important clues for understanding and treating this debilitating human disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Roman Szabo
- Proteases and Tissue Remodeling Section, National Institute of Dental and Craniofacial Research, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD, United States of America
- * E-mail: (RS); (THB)
| | - Thomas H. Bugge
- Proteases and Tissue Remodeling Section, National Institute of Dental and Craniofacial Research, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD, United States of America
- * E-mail: (RS); (THB)
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Böttcher-Friebertshäuser E, Garten W, Klenk HD. Membrane-Anchored Serine Proteases: Host Cell Factors in Proteolytic Activation of Viral Glycoproteins. ACTIVATION OF VIRUSES BY HOST PROTEASES 2018. [PMCID: PMC7122464 DOI: 10.1007/978-3-319-75474-1_8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Over one third of all known proteolytic enzymes are serine proteases. Among these, the trypsin-like serine proteases comprise one of the best characterized subfamilies due to their essential roles in blood coagulation, food digestion, fibrinolysis, or immunity. Trypsin-like serine proteases possess primary substrate specificity for basic amino acids. Most of the well-characterized trypsin-like proteases such as trypsin, plasmin, or urokinase are soluble proteases that are secreted into the extracellular environment. At the turn of the millennium, a number of novel trypsin-like serine proteases have been identified that are anchored in the cell membrane, either by a transmembrane domain at the N- or C-terminus or via a glycosylphosphatidylinositol (GPI) linkage. Meanwhile more than 20 membrane-anchored serine proteases (MASPs) have been identified in human and mouse, and some of them have emerged as key regulators of mammalian development and homeostasis. Thus, the MASP corin and TMPRSS6/matriptase-2 have been demonstrated to be the activators of the atrial natriuretic peptide (ANP) and key regulator of hepcidin expression, respectively. Furthermore, MASPs have been recognized as host cell factors activating respiratory viruses including influenza virus as well as severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS) and Middle East respiratory syndrome (MERS) coronaviruses. In particular, transmembrane protease serine S1 member 2 (TMPRSS2) has been shown to be essential for proteolytic activation and consequently spread and pathogenesis of a number of influenza A viruses in mice and as a factor associated with severe influenza virus infection in humans. This review gives an overview on the physiological functions of the fascinating and rapidly evolving group of MASPs and a summary of the current knowledge on their role in proteolytic activation of viral fusion proteins.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Wolfgang Garten
- 0000 0004 1936 9756grid.10253.35Institut für Virologie, Philipps Universität, Marburg, Germany
| | - Hans Dieter Klenk
- 0000 0004 1936 9756grid.10253.35Institut für Virologie, Philipps-Universität, Marburg, Germany
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Kim S, Yang JW, Kim C, Kim MG. Impact of suppression of tumorigenicity 14 (ST14)/serine protease 14 (Prss14) expression analysis on the prognosis and management of estrogen receptor negative breast cancer. Oncotarget 2017; 7:34643-63. [PMID: 27167193 PMCID: PMC5085182 DOI: 10.18632/oncotarget.9155] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/18/2016] [Accepted: 04/16/2016] [Indexed: 01/06/2023] Open
Abstract
To elucidate the role of a type II transmembrane serine protease, ST14/Prss14, during breast cancer progression, we utilized publically accessible databases including TCGA, GEO, NCI-60, and CCLE. Survival of breast cancer patients with high ST14/Prss14 expression is significantly poor in estrogen receptor (ER) negative populations regardless of the ratios of ST14/Prss14 to its inhibitors, SPINT1 or SPINT2. In a clustering of 1085 selected EMT signature genes, ST14/Prss14 is located in the same cluster with CDH3, and closer to post-EMT markers, CDH2, VIM, and FN1 than to the pre-EMT marker, CDH1. Coexpression analyses of known ST14/Prss14 substrates and transcription factors revealed context dependent action. In cell lines, paradoxically, ST14/Prss14 expression is higher in the ER positive group and located closer to CDH1 in clustering. This apparent contradiction is not likely due to ST14/Prss14 expression in a cancer microenvironment, nor due to negative regulation by ER. Genes consistently coexpressed with ST14/Prss14 include transcription factors, ELF5, GRHL1, VGLL1, suggesting currently unknown mechanisms for regulation. Here, we report that ST14/Prss14 is an emerging therapeutic target for breast cancer where HER2 is not applicable. In addition we suggest that careful conclusions should be drawn not exclusively from the cell line studies for target development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sauryang Kim
- Inha University, Department of Biological Sciences, Incheon, Republic of Korea
| | - Jae Woong Yang
- Inha University, Department of Biological Sciences, Incheon, Republic of Korea
| | - Chungho Kim
- Department of Life Sciences, Korea University, Seoul, Republic of Korea
| | - Moon Gyo Kim
- Inha University, Department of Biological Sciences, Incheon, Republic of Korea.,Convergent Research Institute for Metabolism and Immunoregulation, Incheon, Republic of Korea
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30
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Rasheed M, Shahzad S, Zaeem A, Afzal I, Gul A, Khalid S. Updated strategies for the management, pathogenesis and molecular genetics of different forms of ichthyosis syndromes with prominent hair abnormalities. Arch Dermatol Res 2017; 309:773-785. [PMID: 28913623 DOI: 10.1007/s00403-017-1780-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/19/2017] [Revised: 08/12/2017] [Accepted: 09/08/2017] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
Abstract
Syndromic ichthyosis is rare inherited disorders of cornification with varied disease complications. This disorder appears in seventeen subtypes associated with severe systematic manifestations along with medical, cosmetic and social problems. Syndromic ichthyosis with prominent hair abnormalities covers five major subtypes: Netherton syndrome, trichothiodystrophy, ichthyosis hypotrichosis syndrome, ichthyosis hypotrichosis sclerosing cholangitis and ichthyosis follicularis atrichia photophobia syndrome. These syndromes mostly prevail in high consanguinity states, with distinctive clinical features. The known pathogenic molecules involved in ichthyosis syndromes with prominent hair abnormalities include SPINK5, ERCC2, ERCC3, GTF2H5, MPLKIP, ST14, CLDN1 and MBTPS2. Despite underlying genetic origin, most of the health professionals solely rely on phenotypic expression of these disorders that leads to improper management of patients, hence making these patients living an orphanage life. After dermal features, association of other systems such as nervous system, skeletal system, hair abnormalities or liver problems may sometimes give clues for diagnosis but still leaving place for molecular screening for efficient diagnosis. In this paper, we have presented a review of ichthyosis syndrome with prominent hair abnormalities, with special emphasis on their updated genetic consequences and disease management. Additionally, we aim to update health professionals about the practice of molecular screening in ichthyosis syndromes for appropriate diagnosis and treatment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Madiha Rasheed
- Department of Bioinformatics and Biotechnology, Maryum Block, International Islamic University Islamabad, H-10, Islamabad, 44000, Pakistan
| | - Shaheen Shahzad
- Department of Bioinformatics and Biotechnology, Maryum Block, International Islamic University Islamabad, H-10, Islamabad, 44000, Pakistan.
| | - Afifa Zaeem
- Department of Bioinformatics and Biotechnology, Maryum Block, International Islamic University Islamabad, H-10, Islamabad, 44000, Pakistan
| | - Imran Afzal
- Department of Biology, Lahore Garrison University, Lahore, Pakistan
| | - Asma Gul
- Department of Bioinformatics and Biotechnology, Maryum Block, International Islamic University Islamabad, H-10, Islamabad, 44000, Pakistan
| | - Sumbal Khalid
- Department of Bioinformatics and Biotechnology, Maryum Block, International Islamic University Islamabad, H-10, Islamabad, 44000, Pakistan
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31
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Murray AS, Varela FA, List K. Type II transmembrane serine proteases as potential targets for cancer therapy. Biol Chem 2017; 397:815-26. [PMID: 27078673 DOI: 10.1515/hsz-2016-0131] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/02/2016] [Accepted: 04/11/2016] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
Carcinogenesis is accompanied by increased protein and activity levels of extracellular cell-surface proteases that are capable of modifying the tumor microenvironment by directly cleaving the extracellular matrix, as well as activating growth factors and proinflammatory mediators involved in proliferation and invasion of cancer cells, and recruitment of inflammatory cells. These complex processes ultimately potentiate neoplastic progression leading to local tumor cell invasion, entry into the vasculature, and metastasis to distal sites. Several members of the type II transmembrane serine protease (TTSP) family have been shown to play critical roles in cancer progression. In this review the knowledge collected over the past two decades about the molecular mechanisms underlying the pro-cancerous properties of selected TTSPs will be summarized. Furthermore, we will discuss how these insights may facilitate the translation into clinical settings in the future by specifically targeting TTSPs as part of novel cancer treatment regimens.
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Friis S, Tadeo D, Le-Gall SM, Jürgensen HJ, Sales KU, Camerer E, Bugge TH. Matriptase zymogen supports epithelial development, homeostasis and regeneration. BMC Biol 2017; 15:46. [PMID: 28571576 PMCID: PMC5452369 DOI: 10.1186/s12915-017-0384-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/01/2017] [Accepted: 05/05/2017] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Matriptase is a membrane serine protease essential for epithelial development, homeostasis, and regeneration, as well as a central orchestrator of pathogenic pericellular signaling in the context of inflammatory and proliferative diseases. Matriptase is an unusual protease in that its zymogen displays measurable enzymatic activity. Results Here, we used gain and loss of function genetics to investigate the possible biological functions of zymogen matriptase. Unexpectedly, transgenic mice mis-expressing a zymogen-locked version of matriptase in the epidermis displayed pathologies previously reported for transgenic mice mis-expressing wildtype epidermal matriptase. Equally surprising, mice engineered to express only zymogen-locked endogenous matriptase, unlike matriptase null mice, were viable, developed epithelial barrier function, and regenerated the injured epithelium. Compatible with these observations, wildtype and zymogen-locked matriptase were equipotent activators of PAR-2 inflammatory signaling. Conclusion The study demonstrates that the matriptase zymogen is biologically active and is capable of executing developmental and homeostatic functions of the protease. Electronic supplementary material The online version of this article (doi:10.1186/s12915-017-0384-4) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stine Friis
- Proteases and Tissue Remodeling Section, Oral and Pharyngeal Cancer Branch, National Institute of Dental and Craniofacial Research, National Institutes of Health, 30 Convent Drive, Room 320, Bethesda, MD, 20892, USA.,Section for Molecular Disease Biology, Department of Veterinary Disease Biology, Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Daniel Tadeo
- Proteases and Tissue Remodeling Section, Oral and Pharyngeal Cancer Branch, National Institute of Dental and Craniofacial Research, National Institutes of Health, 30 Convent Drive, Room 320, Bethesda, MD, 20892, USA.,Georgetown University School of Medicine, Washington, DC, 20057, USA
| | - Sylvain M Le-Gall
- INSERM U970, Paris Cardiovascular Research Centre, Paris, France.,Université Sorbonne Paris Cité, Paris, France
| | - Henrik Jessen Jürgensen
- Proteases and Tissue Remodeling Section, Oral and Pharyngeal Cancer Branch, National Institute of Dental and Craniofacial Research, National Institutes of Health, 30 Convent Drive, Room 320, Bethesda, MD, 20892, USA
| | - Katiuchia Uzzun Sales
- Proteases and Tissue Remodeling Section, Oral and Pharyngeal Cancer Branch, National Institute of Dental and Craniofacial Research, National Institutes of Health, 30 Convent Drive, Room 320, Bethesda, MD, 20892, USA.,Department of Cell and Molecular Biology, Ribierão Preto School of Medicine, University of Sao Paulo, Sao Paulo, Brazil
| | - Eric Camerer
- INSERM U970, Paris Cardiovascular Research Centre, Paris, France.,Université Sorbonne Paris Cité, Paris, France
| | - Thomas H Bugge
- Proteases and Tissue Remodeling Section, Oral and Pharyngeal Cancer Branch, National Institute of Dental and Craniofacial Research, National Institutes of Health, 30 Convent Drive, Room 320, Bethesda, MD, 20892, USA.
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Nonboe AW, Krigslund O, Soendergaard C, Skovbjerg S, Friis S, Andersen MN, Ellis V, Kawaguchi M, Kataoka H, Bugge TH, Vogel LK. HAI-2 stabilizes, inhibits and regulates SEA-cleavage-dependent secretory transport of matriptase. Traffic 2017; 18:378-391. [PMID: 28371047 DOI: 10.1111/tra.12482] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/05/2016] [Revised: 03/24/2017] [Accepted: 03/24/2017] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
It has recently been shown that hepatocyte growth factor activator inhibitor-2 (HAI-2) is able to suppress carcinogenesis induced by overexpression of matriptase, as well as cause regression of individual established tumors in a mouse model system. However, the role of HAI-2 is poorly understood. In this study, we describe 3 mutations in the binding loop of the HAI-2 Kunitz domain 1 (K42N, C47F and R48L) that cause a delay in the SEA domain cleavage of matriptase, leading to accumulation of non-SEA domain cleaved matriptase in the endoplasmic reticulum (ER). We suggest that, like other known SEA domains, the matriptase SEA domain auto-cleaves and reflects that correct oligomerization, maturation, and/or folding has been obtained. Our results suggest that the HAI-2 Kunitz domain 1 mutants influence the flux of matriptase to the plasma membrane by affecting the oligomerization, maturation and/or folding of matriptase, and as a result the SEA domain cleavage of matriptase. Two of the HAI-2 Kunitz domain 1 mutants investigated (C47F, R48L and C47F/R48L) also displayed a reduced ability to proteolytically silence matriptase. Hence, HAI-2 separately stabilizes matriptase, regulates the secretory transport, possibly via maturation/oligomerization and inhibits the proteolytic activity of matriptase in the ER, and possible throughout the secretory pathway.
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Affiliation(s)
- Annika W Nonboe
- Department of Cellular and Molecular Medicine, Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen North, Denmark
| | - Oliver Krigslund
- Department of Cellular and Molecular Medicine, Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen North, Denmark
| | - Christoffer Soendergaard
- Department of Cellular and Molecular Medicine, Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen North, Denmark.,Department of Gastroenterology, Medical Section, Herlev Hospital, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Signe Skovbjerg
- Department of Cellular and Molecular Medicine, Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen North, Denmark
| | - Stine Friis
- Department of Cellular and Molecular Medicine, Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen North, Denmark.,Department of Molecular Disease Biology, Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen East, Denmark
| | - Martin N Andersen
- Department of Biology, Faculty of Science, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Vincent Ellis
- School of Biological Sciences, University of East Anglia, Norwich, UK
| | - Makiko Kawaguchi
- Section of Oncopathology and Regenerative Biology, Department of Pathology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Miyazaki, Miyazaki, Japan
| | - Hiroaki Kataoka
- Section of Oncopathology and Regenerative Biology, Department of Pathology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Miyazaki, Miyazaki, Japan
| | - Thomas H Bugge
- Proteases and Tissue Remodeling Section, National Institute of Dental and Craniofacial Research, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland
| | - Lotte K Vogel
- Department of Cellular and Molecular Medicine, Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen North, Denmark
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Fanton N, Santoro D, Cornegliani L, Marsella R. Increased filaggrin-metabolizing enzyme activity in atopic skin: a pilot study using a canine model of atopic dermatitis. Vet Dermatol 2017; 28:479-e111. [DOI: 10.1111/vde.12443] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 01/22/2017] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Natalia Fanton
- Clinica Veterinaria San Siro; via Lampugnano 99 Milano 20151 Italy
| | - Domenico Santoro
- Department of Small Animal Clinical Sciences; College of Veterinary Medicine; University of Florida; 2015 SW 16 Ave. Gainesville FL 32610 USA
| | | | - Rosanna Marsella
- Department of Small Animal Clinical Sciences; College of Veterinary Medicine; University of Florida; 2015 SW 16 Ave. Gainesville FL 32610 USA
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A Nonsense Variant in the ST14 Gene in Akhal-Teke Horses with Naked Foal Syndrome. G3-GENES GENOMES GENETICS 2017; 7:1315-1321. [PMID: 28235824 PMCID: PMC5386879 DOI: 10.1534/g3.117.039511] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/15/2023]
Abstract
Naked foal syndrome (NFS) is a genodermatosis in the Akhal-Teke horse breed. We provide the first scientific description of this phenotype. Affected horses have almost no hair and show a mild ichthyosis. So far, all known NFS affected horses died between a few weeks and 3 yr of age. It is not clear whether a specific pathology caused the premature deaths. NFS is inherited as a monogenic autosomal recessive trait. We mapped the disease causing genetic variant to two segments on chromosomes 7 and 27 in the equine genome. Whole genome sequencing of two affected horses, two obligate carriers, and 75 control horses from other breeds revealed a single nonsynonymous genetic variant on the chromosome 7 segment that was perfectly associated with NFS. The affected horses were homozygous for ST14:c.388G>T, a nonsense variant that truncates >80% of the open reading frame of the ST14 gene (p.Glu130*). The variant leads to partial nonsense-mediated decay of the mutant transcript. Genetic variants in the ST14 gene are responsible for autosomal recessive congenital ichthyosis 11 in humans. Thus, the identified equine ST14:c.388G>T variant is an excellent candidate causative variant for NFS, and the affected horses represent a large animal model for a known human genodermatosis. Our findings will enable genetic testing to avoid the nonintentional breeding of NFS-affected foals.
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Cau L, Pendaries V, Lhuillier E, Thompson PR, Serre G, Takahara H, Méchin MC, Simon M. Lowering relative humidity level increases epidermal protein deimination and drives human filaggrin breakdown. J Dermatol Sci 2017; 86:106-113. [PMID: 28242341 DOI: 10.1016/j.jdermsci.2017.02.280] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/18/2016] [Revised: 01/25/2017] [Accepted: 02/15/2017] [Indexed: 01/11/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Deimination (also known as citrullination), the conversion of arginine in a protein to citrulline, is catalyzed by a family of enzymes called peptidylarginine deiminases (PADs). Three PADs are expressed in the epidermis, one of their targets being filaggrin. Filaggrin plays a central role in atopic dermatitis and is a key protein for the epidermal barrier. It aggregates keratins and is cross-linked to cornified envelopes. Following its deimination, it is totally degraded to release free amino acids, contributing to the natural moisturizing factor (NMF). The mechanisms controlling this multistep catabolism in human are unknown. OBJECTIVE To test whether external humidity plays a role, and investigate the molecular mechanisms involved. METHODS Specimens of reconstructed human epidermis (RHEs) produced in humid or dry conditions (>95% or 30-50% relative humidity) were compared. RESULTS RHEs produced in the dry condition presented structural changes, including a thicker stratum corneum and a larger amount of keratohyalin granules. The transepidermal water loss and the stratum corneum pH were decreased whereas the quantity of NMF was greater. This highly suggested that filaggrin proteolysis was up-regulated. The expression/activity of the proteases involved in filaggrin breakdown did not increase while PAD1 expression and the deimination rate of proteins, including filaggrin, were drastically enhanced. Partial inhibition of PADs with Cl-amidine reversed the effect of dryness on filaggrin breakdown. CONCLUSION These results demonstrate the importance of external humidity in the control of human filaggrin metabolism, and suggest that deimination plays a major role in this regulation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Laura Cau
- UDEAR, Institut National de la Santé Et de la Recherche Médicale, Université de Toulouse Midi-Pyrénées, Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique, Toulouse, France
| | - Valérie Pendaries
- UDEAR, Institut National de la Santé Et de la Recherche Médicale, Université de Toulouse Midi-Pyrénées, Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique, Toulouse, France
| | - Emeline Lhuillier
- UDEAR, Institut National de la Santé Et de la Recherche Médicale, Université de Toulouse Midi-Pyrénées, Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique, Toulouse, France; Plateau de Génomique GeT-Purpan, Genotoul, Toulouse, France
| | - Paul R Thompson
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Pharmacology, University of Massachusetts Medical School, Worcester, MA, USA
| | - Guy Serre
- UDEAR, Institut National de la Santé Et de la Recherche Médicale, Université de Toulouse Midi-Pyrénées, Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique, Toulouse, France
| | - Hidenari Takahara
- Department of Applied Biological Resource Sciences, School of Agriculture, University of Ibaraki, Ibaraki, Japan
| | - Marie-Claire Méchin
- UDEAR, Institut National de la Santé Et de la Recherche Médicale, Université de Toulouse Midi-Pyrénées, Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique, Toulouse, France
| | - Michel Simon
- UDEAR, Institut National de la Santé Et de la Recherche Médicale, Université de Toulouse Midi-Pyrénées, Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique, Toulouse, France.
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Di ZH, Ma L, Qi RQ, Sun XD, Huo W, Zhang L, Lyu YN, Hong YX, Chen HD, Gao XH. T Helper 1 and T Helper 2 Cytokines Differentially Modulate Expression of Filaggrin and its Processing Proteases in Human Keratinocytes. Chin Med J (Engl) 2017; 129:295-303. [PMID: 26831231 PMCID: PMC4799573 DOI: 10.4103/0366-6999.174489] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/04/2022] Open
Abstract
Background: Atopic dermatitis (AD) is characterized by defective skin barrier and imbalance in T helper 1/T helper 2 (Th1/Th2) cytokine expression. Filaggrin (FLG) is the key protein to maintaining skin barrier function. Recent studies indicated that Th1/Th2 cytokines influence FLG expression in keratinocytes. However, the role of Th1/Th2 cytokines on FLG processing is not substantially documented. Our aim was to investigate the impact of Th1/Th2 cytokines on FLG processing. Methods: HaCaT cells and normal human keratinocytes were cultured in low and high calcium media and stimulated by either interleukin (IL)-4, 13 or interferon-γ (IFN-γ). FLG, its major processing proteases and key protease inhibitor lymphoepithelial Kazal-type-related inhibitor (LEKTI) were measured by both real-time quantitative polymerase chain reaction and Western blotting. Their expression was also evaluated in acute and chronic AD lesions by immunohistochemistry. Results: IL-4/13 significantly reduced, while IFN-γ significantly up-regulated FLG expression. IL-4/13 significantly increased, whereas IFN-γ significantly decreased the expression of kallikreins 5 and 7, matriptase and channel-activating serine protease 1. On the contrary, IL-4/13 significantly decreased, while IFN-γ increased the expression of LEKTI and caspase-14. Similar trends were observed in AD lesions. Conclusions: Our results suggested that Th1/Th2 cytokines differentially regulated the expression of major FLG processing enzymes. The imbalance between Th1 and Th2 polarized immune response seems to extend to FLG homeostasis, through the network of FLG processing enzymes.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | - Xing-Hua Gao
- Department of Dermatology, The First Hospital of China Medical University, Shenyang, Liaoning 110001, China
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Naeem AS, Tommasi C, Cole C, Brown SJ, Zhu Y, Way B, Willis Owen SAG, Moffatt M, Cookson WO, Harper JI, Di WL, Brown SJ, Reinheckel T, O'Shaughnessy RFL. A mechanistic target of rapamycin complex 1/2 (mTORC1)/V-Akt murine thymoma viral oncogene homolog 1 (AKT1)/cathepsin H axis controls filaggrin expression and processing in skin, a novel mechanism for skin barrier disruption in patients with atopic dermatitis. J Allergy Clin Immunol 2016; 139:1228-1241. [PMID: 27913303 PMCID: PMC5380661 DOI: 10.1016/j.jaci.2016.09.052] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/26/2016] [Revised: 09/05/2016] [Accepted: 09/23/2016] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Filaggrin, which is encoded by the filaggrin gene (FLG), is an important component of the skin's barrier to the external environment, and genetic defects in FLG strongly associate with atopic dermatitis (AD). However, not all patients with AD have FLG mutations. OBJECTIVE We hypothesized that these patients might possess other defects in filaggrin expression and processing contributing to barrier disruption and AD, and therefore we present novel therapeutic targets for this disease. RESULTS We describe the relationship between the mechanistic target of rapamycin complex 1/2 protein subunit regulatory associated protein of the MTOR complex 1 (RAPTOR), the serine/threonine kinase V-Akt murine thymoma viral oncogene homolog 1 (AKT1), and the protease cathepsin H (CTSH), for which we establish a role in filaggrin expression and processing. Increased RAPTOR levels correlated with decreased filaggrin expression in patients with AD. In keratinocyte cell cultures RAPTOR upregulation or AKT1 short hairpin RNA knockdown reduced expression of the protease CTSH. Skin of CTSH-deficient mice and CTSH short hairpin RNA knockdown keratinocytes showed reduced filaggrin processing, and the mouse had both impaired skin barrier function and a mild proinflammatory phenotype. CONCLUSION Our findings highlight a novel and potentially treatable signaling axis controlling filaggrin expression and processing that is defective in patients with AD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aishath S Naeem
- Immunobiology and Dermatology, UCL Institute of Child Health, London, United Kingdom; Livingstone Skin Research Centre, UCL Institute of Child Health, London, United Kingdom
| | - Cristina Tommasi
- Immunobiology and Dermatology, UCL Institute of Child Health, London, United Kingdom; Livingstone Skin Research Centre, UCL Institute of Child Health, London, United Kingdom
| | - Christian Cole
- Computational Biology, School of Life Sciences, University of Dundee, Dundee, United Kingdom
| | - Stuart J Brown
- Immunobiology and Dermatology, UCL Institute of Child Health, London, United Kingdom; Livingstone Skin Research Centre, UCL Institute of Child Health, London, United Kingdom
| | - Yanan Zhu
- Immunobiology and Dermatology, UCL Institute of Child Health, London, United Kingdom; Livingstone Skin Research Centre, UCL Institute of Child Health, London, United Kingdom
| | - Benjamin Way
- Immunobiology and Dermatology, UCL Institute of Child Health, London, United Kingdom; Livingstone Skin Research Centre, UCL Institute of Child Health, London, United Kingdom
| | | | - Miriam Moffatt
- National Heart and Lung Institute, Imperial College, London, United Kingdom
| | - William O Cookson
- National Heart and Lung Institute, Imperial College, London, United Kingdom
| | - John I Harper
- Immunobiology and Dermatology, UCL Institute of Child Health, London, United Kingdom; Livingstone Skin Research Centre, UCL Institute of Child Health, London, United Kingdom
| | - Wei-Li Di
- Immunobiology and Dermatology, UCL Institute of Child Health, London, United Kingdom; Livingstone Skin Research Centre, UCL Institute of Child Health, London, United Kingdom
| | - Sara J Brown
- Centre for Dermatology and Genetic Medicine, Medical Research Institute, University of Dundee, Dundee, United Kingdom
| | - Thomas Reinheckel
- Institute of Molecular Medicine and Cell Research, BIOSS Centre of Biological Signalling Studies, Albert-Ludwigs-University, Freiburg, Germany
| | - Ryan F L O'Shaughnessy
- Immunobiology and Dermatology, UCL Institute of Child Health, London, United Kingdom; Livingstone Skin Research Centre, UCL Institute of Child Health, London, United Kingdom.
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Mildner M, Bauer R, Mlitz V, Ballaun C, Tschachler E. Matriptase-1 expression is lost in psoriatic skin lesions and is downregulated by TNFα in vitro. J Dtsch Dermatol Ges 2016; 13:1165-74. [PMID: 26513078 DOI: 10.1111/ddg.12812] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/15/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVES Matriptase-1 participates in terminal keratinocyte (KC) differentiation. Knockdown of matriptase-1 in skin equivalent cultures leads to impaired KC differentiation and retention of nuclei in the stratum corneum. Here, we investigated the expression and regulation of matriptase-1 in psoriatic skin and in KC in vitro. PATIENTS AND METHODS Matriptase-1 expression in healthy and psoriatic skin and its regulation in skin equivalents were analyzed by Western blotting, immunofluorescence staining, qRT-PCR, and activity assays. Involvement of the nuclear factor kappa B (NFκB) signaling pathway was investigated by adenoviral overexpression of a dominant-negative form of IKK2. RESULTS Matriptase-1 expression was detected in the stratum granulosum of healthy human skin and in skin equivalent cultures. Its expression and activity was strongly reduced in lesional skin of patients with psoriasis. Addition of TNFα to skin equivalent cultures resulted in complete loss of matriptase-1 expression accompanied by disturbed KC differentiation. Mechanistically, we were able to show that TNFα-induced downregulation of matriptase-1 was inhibited by blocking the IKK2/NFκB signaling pathway. CONCLUSIONS Given that matriptase-1 participates in terminal KC differentiation, its absence in psoriatic skin lesions indicates that this contributes to the barrier disturbances in this disease. Our data suggests that blocking the IKK2/NFκB-pathway represents a potential target for the treatment of psoriasis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michael Mildner
- Department of Dermatology, Medical University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria
| | - Reinhard Bauer
- Department of Dermatology, Medical University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria
| | - Veronika Mlitz
- Department of Dermatology, Medical University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria
| | - Claudia Ballaun
- Department of Dermatology, Medical University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria
| | - Erwin Tschachler
- Department of Dermatology, Medical University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria
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Szabo R, Lantsman T, Peters DE, Bugge TH. Delineation of proteolytic and non-proteolytic functions of the membrane-anchored serine protease prostasin. Development 2016; 143:2818-28. [PMID: 27385010 DOI: 10.1242/dev.137968] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/21/2016] [Accepted: 06/14/2016] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
The membrane-anchored serine proteases prostasin (PRSS8) and matriptase (ST14) initiate a cell surface proteolytic pathway essential for epithelial function. Mice expressing only catalytically inactive prostasin are viable, unlike prostasin null mice, indicating that at least some prostasin functions are non-proteolytic. Here we used knock-in mice expressing catalytically inactive prostasin (Prss8(Ki/Ki)) to show that the physiological and pathological functions of prostasin vary in their dependence on its catalytic activity. Whereas prostasin null mice exhibited partial embryonic and complete perinatal lethality, Prss8(Ki/Ki) mice displayed normal prenatal and postnatal survival. Unexpectedly, catalytically inactive prostasin caused embryonic lethality in mice lacking its cognate inhibitors HAI-1 (SPINT1) or HAI-2 (SPINT2). Proteolytically inactive prostasin, unlike the wild-type protease, was unable to activate matriptase during placentation. Surprisingly, all essential functions of prostasin in embryonic and postnatal development were compensated for by loss of HAI-1, indicating that prostasin is only required for mouse development and overall viability in the presence of this inhibitor. This study expands our knowledge of non-proteolytic functions of membrane-anchored serine proteases and provides unexpected new data on the mechanistic interactions between matriptase and prostasin in the context of epithelial development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Roman Szabo
- Proteases and Tissue Remodeling Section, National Institute of Dental and Craniofacial Research, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD 20892, USA
| | - Taliya Lantsman
- Proteases and Tissue Remodeling Section, National Institute of Dental and Craniofacial Research, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD 20892, USA
| | - Diane E Peters
- Proteases and Tissue Remodeling Section, National Institute of Dental and Craniofacial Research, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD 20892, USA Program of Pharmacology and Experimental Therapeutics, Tufts University School of Medicine, Boston, MA 02110, USA
| | - Thomas H Bugge
- Proteases and Tissue Remodeling Section, National Institute of Dental and Craniofacial Research, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD 20892, USA
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41
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Chen CY, Chen CJ, Lai CH, Wu BY, Lee SP, Johnson MD, Lin CY, Wang JK. Increased matriptase zymogen activation by UV irradiation protects keratinocyte from cell death. J Dermatol Sci 2016; 83:34-44. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jdermsci.2016.03.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/22/2015] [Revised: 02/03/2016] [Accepted: 03/07/2016] [Indexed: 01/20/2023]
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42
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Xu W, Hong SJ, Zhong A, Xie P, Jia S, Xie Z, Zeitchek M, Niknam-Bienia S, Zhao J, Porterfield DM, Surmeier DJ, Leung KP, Galiano RD, Mustoe TA. Sodium channel Nax is a regulator in epithelial sodium homeostasis. Sci Transl Med 2016; 7:312ra177. [PMID: 26537257 DOI: 10.1126/scitranslmed.aad0286] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
The mechanisms by which the epidermis responds to disturbances in barrier function and restores homeostasis are unknown. With a perturbation of the epidermal barrier, water is lost, resulting in an increase in extracellular sodium concentration. We demonstrate that the sodium channel Nax functions as a sodium sensor. With increased extracellular sodium, Nax up-regulates prostasin, which results in activation of the sodium channel ENaC, resulting in increased sodium flux and increased downstream mRNA synthesis of inflammatory mediators. Nax is present in multiple epithelial tissues, and up-regulation of its downstream genes is found in hypertrophic scars. In animal models, blocking Nax expression results in improvement in scarring and atopic dermatitis-like symptoms, both of which are pathological conditions characterized by perturbations in barrier function. These findings support an important role for Nax in maintaining epithelial homeostasis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wei Xu
- Laboratory for Wound Repair and Regenerative Surgery, Department of Surgery, Northwestern University Feinberg School of Medicine, Chicago, IL 60611, USA
| | - Seok Jong Hong
- Laboratory for Wound Repair and Regenerative Surgery, Department of Surgery, Northwestern University Feinberg School of Medicine, Chicago, IL 60611, USA
| | - Aimei Zhong
- Laboratory for Wound Repair and Regenerative Surgery, Department of Surgery, Northwestern University Feinberg School of Medicine, Chicago, IL 60611, USA. Department of Plastic Surgery, Union Hospital, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, Hubei 430022, China
| | - Ping Xie
- Laboratory for Wound Repair and Regenerative Surgery, Department of Surgery, Northwestern University Feinberg School of Medicine, Chicago, IL 60611, USA
| | - Shengxian Jia
- Laboratory for Wound Repair and Regenerative Surgery, Department of Surgery, Northwestern University Feinberg School of Medicine, Chicago, IL 60611, USA
| | - Zhong Xie
- Department of Physiology, Northwestern University Feinberg School of Medicine, Chicago, IL 60611, USA
| | - Michael Zeitchek
- Department of Agricultural and Biological Engineering, Weldon School of Biomedical Engineering, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN 47907, USA
| | - Solmaz Niknam-Bienia
- Laboratory for Wound Repair and Regenerative Surgery, Department of Surgery, Northwestern University Feinberg School of Medicine, Chicago, IL 60611, USA
| | - Jingling Zhao
- Laboratory for Wound Repair and Regenerative Surgery, Department of Surgery, Northwestern University Feinberg School of Medicine, Chicago, IL 60611, USA. Department of Burns, First Affiliated Hospital of Sun Yat-Sen University, Guangzhou 510080, China
| | - D Marshall Porterfield
- Department of Agricultural and Biological Engineering, Weldon School of Biomedical Engineering, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN 47907, USA
| | - D James Surmeier
- Department of Physiology, Northwestern University Feinberg School of Medicine, Chicago, IL 60611, USA
| | - Kai P Leung
- Microbiology Branch, U.S. Army Dental and Trauma Research Detachment, Institute of Surgical Research, JB Fort Sam Houston, San Antonio, TX 78234, USA
| | - Robert D Galiano
- Laboratory for Wound Repair and Regenerative Surgery, Department of Surgery, Northwestern University Feinberg School of Medicine, Chicago, IL 60611, USA
| | - Thomas A Mustoe
- Laboratory for Wound Repair and Regenerative Surgery, Department of Surgery, Northwestern University Feinberg School of Medicine, Chicago, IL 60611, USA.
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El-Hattab AW, Shaheen R, Hertecant J, Galadari HI, Albaqawi BS, Nabil A, Alkuraya FS. On the phenotypic spectrum of serine biosynthesis defects. J Inherit Metab Dis 2016; 39:373-381. [PMID: 26960553 DOI: 10.1007/s10545-016-9921-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/28/2015] [Revised: 02/03/2016] [Accepted: 02/05/2016] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
L-serine is a non-essential amino acid that is de novo synthesized via the enzymes phosphoglycerate dehydrogenase (PGDH), phosphoserine aminotransferase (PSAT), and phosphoserine phosphatase (PSP). Besides its role in protein synthesis, L-serine is a precursor of a number of important compounds. Serine biosynthesis defects result from deficiencies in PGDH, PSAT, or PSP and have a broad phenotypic spectrum ranging from Neu-Laxova syndrome, a lethal multiple congenital anomaly disease at the severe end to a childhood disease with intellectual disability at the mild end, with infantile growth deficiency, and severe neurological manifestations as an intermediate phenotype. In this report, we present three subjects with serine biosynthesis effects. The first was a stillbirth with Neu-Laxova syndrome and a homozygous mutation in PHGDH. The second was a neonate with growth deficiency, microcephaly, ichthyotic skin lesions, seizures, contractures, hypertonia, distinctive facial features, and a homozygous mutation in PSAT1. The third subject was an infant with growth deficiency, microcephaly, ichthyotic skin lesions, anemia, hypertonia, distinctive facial features, low serine and glycine in plasma and CSF, and a novel homozygous mutation in PHGDH gene. Herein, we also review previous reports of serine biosynthesis defects and mutations in the PHGDH, PSAT1, and PSPH genes, discuss the variability in the phenotypes associated with serine biosynthesis defects, and elaborate on the vital roles of serine and the potential consequences of its deficiency.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ayman W El-Hattab
- Division of Clinical Genetics and Metabolic Disorders, Pediatrics Department, Tawam Hospital, Al-Ain, United Arab Emirates
| | - Ranad Shaheen
- Department of Genetics, King Faisal Specialist Hospital and Research Center, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia
| | - Jozef Hertecant
- Division of Clinical Genetics and Metabolic Disorders, Pediatrics Department, Tawam Hospital, Al-Ain, United Arab Emirates
| | - Hassan I Galadari
- Department of Internal Medicine, College of Medicine and Health Sciences, UAE University, Al-Ain, United Arab Emirates
| | - Badi S Albaqawi
- Women Specialized Hospital, King Fahad Medical City, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia
| | - Amira Nabil
- Medical Research Institute, Alexandria University, Alexandria, Egypt
| | - Fowzan S Alkuraya
- Department of Genetics, King Faisal Specialist Hospital and Research Center, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia.
- Department of Anatomy and Cell Biology, College of Medicine, Alfaisal University, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia.
- College of Medicine, King Saud University, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia.
- Developmental Genetics Unit, Department of Genetics, King Faisal Specialist Hospital and Research Center, MBC-03, P.O. Box 3354, Riyadh, 11211, Saudi Arabia.
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44
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Matriptase activation connects tissue factor-dependent coagulation initiation to epithelial proteolysis and signaling. Blood 2016; 127:3260-9. [PMID: 27114461 DOI: 10.1182/blood-2015-11-683110] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/19/2015] [Accepted: 04/11/2016] [Indexed: 12/23/2022] Open
Abstract
The coagulation cascade is designed to sense tissue injury by physical separation of the membrane-anchored cofactor tissue factor (TF) from inactive precursors of coagulation proteases circulating in plasma. Once TF on epithelial and other extravascular cells is exposed to plasma, sequential activation of coagulation proteases coordinates hemostasis and contributes to host defense and tissue repair. Membrane-anchored serine proteases (MASPs) play critical roles in the development and homeostasis of epithelial barrier tissues; how MASPs are activated in mature epithelia is unknown. We here report that proteases of the extrinsic pathway of blood coagulation transactivate the MASP matriptase, thus connecting coagulation initiation to epithelial proteolysis and signaling. Exposure of TF-expressing cells to factors (F) VIIa and Xa triggered the conversion of latent pro-matriptase to an active protease, which in turn cleaved the pericellular substrates protease-activated receptor-2 (PAR2) and pro-urokinase. An activation pathway-selective PAR2 mutant resistant to direct cleavage by TF:FVIIa and FXa was activated by these proteases when cells co-expressed pro-matriptase, and matriptase transactivation was necessary for efficient cleavage and activation of wild-type PAR2 by physiological concentrations of TF:FVIIa and FXa. The coagulation initiation complex induced rapid and prolonged enhancement of the barrier function of epithelial monolayers that was dependent on matriptase transactivation and PAR2 signaling. These observations suggest that the coagulation cascade engages matriptase to help coordinate epithelial defense and repair programs after injury or infection, and that matriptase may contribute to TF-driven pathogenesis in cancer and inflammation.
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45
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Duhaime MJ, Page KO, Varela FA, Murray AS, Silverman ME, Zoratti GL, List K. Cell Surface Human Airway Trypsin-Like Protease Is Lost During Squamous Cell Carcinogenesis. J Cell Physiol 2016; 231:1476-83. [PMID: 26297835 PMCID: PMC4933652 DOI: 10.1002/jcp.25173] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/11/2015] [Accepted: 08/21/2015] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
Cancer progression is accompanied by increased levels of extracellular proteases that are capable of remodeling the extracellular matrix, as well as cleaving and activating growth factors and receptors that are involved in pro‐cancerous signaling pathways. Several members of the type II transmembrane serine protease (TTSP) family have been shown to play critical roles in cancer progression, however, the expression or function of the TTSP Human Airway Trypsin‐like protease (HAT) in carcinogenesis has not been examined. In the present study we aimed to determine the expression of HAT during squamous cell carcinogenesis. HAT transcript is present in several tissues containing stratified squamous epithelium and decreased expression is observed in carcinomas. We determined that HAT protein is consistently expressed on the cell surface in suprabasal/apical layers of squamous cells in healthy cervical and esophageal epithelia. To assess whether HAT protein is differentially expressed in normal tissue versus tissue in different stages of carcinogenesis, we performed a comprehensive immunohistochemical analysis of HAT protein expression levels and localization in arrays of paraffin embedded human cervical and esophageal carcinomas compared to the corresponding normal tissue. We found that HAT protein is expressed in the non‐proliferating, differentiated cellular strata and is lost during the dedifferentiation of epithelial cells, a hallmark of squamous cell carcinogenesis. Thus, HAT expression may potentially be useful as a marker for clinical grading and assessment of patient prognosis in squamous cell carcinomas. J. Cell. Physiol. 231: 1476–1483, 2016. © 2015 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michael J Duhaime
- Department of Pharmacology, Wayne State University School of Medicine and Barbara Ann Karmanos Cancer Institute, Detroit, Michigan
| | - Khaliph O Page
- Department of Pharmacology, Wayne State University School of Medicine and Barbara Ann Karmanos Cancer Institute, Detroit, Michigan
| | - Fausto A Varela
- Department of Pharmacology, Wayne State University School of Medicine and Barbara Ann Karmanos Cancer Institute, Detroit, Michigan
| | - Andrew S Murray
- Department of Pharmacology, Wayne State University School of Medicine and Barbara Ann Karmanos Cancer Institute, Detroit, Michigan.,Department of Oncology, Wayne State University School of Medicine and Barbara Ann Karmanos Cancer Institute, Detroit, Michigan.,Department of Cancer Biology Graduate Program, Wayne State University School of Medicine and Barbara Ann Karmanos Cancer Institute, Detroit, Michigan
| | - Michael E Silverman
- Department of Pharmacology, Wayne State University School of Medicine and Barbara Ann Karmanos Cancer Institute, Detroit, Michigan
| | - Gina L Zoratti
- Department of Oncology, Wayne State University School of Medicine and Barbara Ann Karmanos Cancer Institute, Detroit, Michigan
| | - Karin List
- Department of Pharmacology, Wayne State University School of Medicine and Barbara Ann Karmanos Cancer Institute, Detroit, Michigan.,Department of Oncology, Wayne State University School of Medicine and Barbara Ann Karmanos Cancer Institute, Detroit, Michigan
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46
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Friis S, Madsen DH, Bugge TH. Distinct Developmental Functions of Prostasin (CAP1/PRSS8) Zymogen and Activated Prostasin. J Biol Chem 2015; 291:2577-82. [PMID: 26719335 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.c115.706721] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/25/2015] [Indexed: 01/15/2023] Open
Abstract
The membrane-anchored serine prostasin (CAP1/PRSS8) is essential for barrier acquisition of the interfollicular epidermis and for normal hair follicle development. Consequently, prostasin null mice die shortly after birth. Prostasin is found in two forms in the epidermis: a one-chain zymogen and a two-chain proteolytically active form, generated by matriptase-dependent activation site cleavage. Here we used gene editing to generate mice expressing only activation site cleavage-resistant (zymogen-locked) endogenous prostasin. Interestingly, these mutant mice displayed normal interfollicular epidermal development and postnatal survival, but had defects in whisker and pelage hair formation. These findings identify two distinct in vivo functions of epidermal prostasin: a function in the interfollicular epidermis, not requiring activation site cleavage, that can be mediated by the zymogen-locked version of prostasin and a proteolysis-dependent function of activated prostasin in hair follicles, dependent on zymogen conversion by matriptase.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stine Friis
- From the Proteases and Tissue Remodeling Section, Oral and Pharyngeal Cancer Branch, NIDCR, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland 20892, the Section for Molecular Disease Biology, Department of Veterinary Disease Biology, Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences, University of Copenhagen, DK-2100 Copenhagen, Denmark, and
| | - Daniel H Madsen
- From the Proteases and Tissue Remodeling Section, Oral and Pharyngeal Cancer Branch, NIDCR, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland 20892, the Center for Cancer Immune Therapy, Copenhagen University Hospital Herlev, DK-2730 Herlev, Denmark
| | - Thomas H Bugge
- From the Proteases and Tissue Remodeling Section, Oral and Pharyngeal Cancer Branch, NIDCR, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland 20892,
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47
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Mildner M, Bauer R, Mlitz V, Ballaun C, Tschachler E. Matriptase-1-Expression ist in psoriatischen Hautläsionen reduziert und wird in vitro durch TNFα herabreguliert. J Dtsch Dermatol Ges 2015. [DOI: 10.1111/ddg.80_12812] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Michael Mildner
- Universitätsklinik für Dermatologie; Medizinische Universität Wien; Wien Österreich
| | - Reinhard Bauer
- Universitätsklinik für Dermatologie; Medizinische Universität Wien; Wien Österreich
| | - Veronika Mlitz
- Universitätsklinik für Dermatologie; Medizinische Universität Wien; Wien Österreich
| | - Claudia Ballaun
- Universitätsklinik für Dermatologie; Medizinische Universität Wien; Wien Österreich
| | - Erwin Tschachler
- Universitätsklinik für Dermatologie; Medizinische Universität Wien; Wien Österreich
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Abstract
Atopic dermatitis is a very prevalent disease that affects children as well as adults. The disease has a severe impact on quality of life for the patients and their families. The skin in atopic dermatitis patients is a site of both a severe inflammatory reaction dominated by lymphocytes and decreased skin barrier function. The treatment of the disease is mainly aimed at reducing the inflammation in the skin and/or restoring the skin barrier function. However, most of the treatments used today singularly aim at reducing the inflammation in the skin. Depending on the severity of the disease, the anti-inflammatory treatment may be topical or systemic, but basic treatment, no matter the severity, should always be emollients. In addition, new studies have shown good effects of psychosocial interventions, such as eczema schools, for patients and their families. This review covers the latest trends in the treatment of atopic dermatitis.
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49
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Zoratti GL, Tanabe LM, Varela FA, Murray AS, Bergum C, Colombo É, Lang JE, Molinolo AA, Leduc R, Marsault E, Boerner J, List K. Targeting matriptase in breast cancer abrogates tumour progression via impairment of stromal-epithelial growth factor signalling. Nat Commun 2015; 6:6776. [PMID: 25873032 PMCID: PMC4749267 DOI: 10.1038/ncomms7776] [Citation(s) in RCA: 47] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/11/2014] [Accepted: 02/24/2015] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Matriptase is an epithelia-specific membrane-anchored serine protease that has received considerable attention in recent years due to its consistent dysregulation in human epithelial tumors, including breast cancer. Mice with reduced levels of matriptase display a significant delay in oncogene-induced mammary tumor formation and blunted tumor growth. The abated tumor growth is associated with a decrease in cancer cell proliferation. Here we demonstrate by genetic deletion and silencing that the proliferation impairment in matriptase deficient breast cancer cells is caused by their inability to initiate activation of the c-Met signaling pathway in response to fibroblast-secreted pro-HGF. Similarly, inhibition of matriptase catalytic activity using a selective small-molecule inhibitor abrogates the activation of c-Met, Gab1 and AKT, in response to pro-HGF, which functionally leads to attenuated proliferation in breast carcinoma cells. We conclude that matriptase is critically involved in breast cancer progression and represents a potential therapeutic target in breast cancer.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gina L Zoratti
- 1] Department of Pharmacology, Wayne State University School of Medicine and Barbara Ann Karmanos Cancer Institute, 540 E Canfield, Scott Hall Room 6332, Detroit, Michigan 48201, USA [2] Department of Oncology, Wayne State University School of Medicine and Barbara Ann Karmanos Cancer Institute, 540 E Canfield, Scott Hall Room 6332, Detroit, Michigan 48201, USA [3] Cancer Biology Graduate Program, Wayne State University School of Medicine and Barbara Ann Karmanos Cancer Institute, 110 E. Warren Avenue, Suite 2215, Detroit, Michigan 48201, USA
| | - Lauren M Tanabe
- Department of Pharmacology, Wayne State University School of Medicine and Barbara Ann Karmanos Cancer Institute, 540 E Canfield, Scott Hall Room 6332, Detroit, Michigan 48201, USA
| | - Fausto A Varela
- Department of Pharmacology, Wayne State University School of Medicine and Barbara Ann Karmanos Cancer Institute, 540 E Canfield, Scott Hall Room 6332, Detroit, Michigan 48201, USA
| | - Andrew S Murray
- 1] Department of Pharmacology, Wayne State University School of Medicine and Barbara Ann Karmanos Cancer Institute, 540 E Canfield, Scott Hall Room 6332, Detroit, Michigan 48201, USA [2] Department of Oncology, Wayne State University School of Medicine and Barbara Ann Karmanos Cancer Institute, 540 E Canfield, Scott Hall Room 6332, Detroit, Michigan 48201, USA [3] Cancer Biology Graduate Program, Wayne State University School of Medicine and Barbara Ann Karmanos Cancer Institute, 110 E. Warren Avenue, Suite 2215, Detroit, Michigan 48201, USA
| | - Christopher Bergum
- Department of Pharmacology, Wayne State University School of Medicine and Barbara Ann Karmanos Cancer Institute, 540 E Canfield, Scott Hall Room 6332, Detroit, Michigan 48201, USA
| | - Éloïc Colombo
- Department of Pharmacology, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, Université de Sherbrooke, 3001 12e Av Nord, Sherbrooke, Quebec J1H 5N4, Canada
| | - Julie E Lang
- Department of Surgery, Norris Comprehensive Cancer Center, University of Southern California, 1510 San Pablo Street, Suite 412, Los Angeles, California 90033, USA
| | - Alfredo A Molinolo
- Oral and Pharyngeal Cancer Branch, National Institute of Dental and Craniofacial Research, National Institutes of Health, 30 Convent Drive, Room 211, Bethesda, Maryland 20892, USA
| | - Richard Leduc
- Department of Pharmacology, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, Université de Sherbrooke, 3001 12e Av Nord, Sherbrooke, Quebec J1H 5N4, Canada
| | - Eric Marsault
- Department of Pharmacology, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, Université de Sherbrooke, 3001 12e Av Nord, Sherbrooke, Quebec J1H 5N4, Canada
| | - Julie Boerner
- Department of Oncology, Wayne State University School of Medicine and Barbara Ann Karmanos Cancer Institute, 540 E Canfield, Scott Hall Room 6332, Detroit, Michigan 48201, USA
| | - Karin List
- 1] Department of Pharmacology, Wayne State University School of Medicine and Barbara Ann Karmanos Cancer Institute, 540 E Canfield, Scott Hall Room 6332, Detroit, Michigan 48201, USA [2] Department of Oncology, Wayne State University School of Medicine and Barbara Ann Karmanos Cancer Institute, 540 E Canfield, Scott Hall Room 6332, Detroit, Michigan 48201, USA [3] Cancer Biology Graduate Program, Wayne State University School of Medicine and Barbara Ann Karmanos Cancer Institute, 110 E. Warren Avenue, Suite 2215, Detroit, Michigan 48201, USA
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50
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Matsui T, Amagai M. Dissecting the formation, structure and barrier function of the stratum corneum. Int Immunol 2015; 27:269-80. [PMID: 25813515 DOI: 10.1093/intimm/dxv013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 211] [Impact Index Per Article: 23.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/05/2015] [Accepted: 03/19/2015] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
The skin is the largest organ of the mammalian body. The outermost layer of mammalian skin, the stratum corneum (SC) of the epidermis, consists of piles of dead corneocytes that are the end-products of terminal differentiation of epidermal keratinocytes. The SC performs a crucial barrier function of epidermis. Langerhans cells, when activated, extend their dendrites through tight junctions just beneath the SC to capture external antigens. Recently, knowledge of the biology of corneocytes ('corneobiology') has progressed rapidly and many key factors that modulate its barrier function have been identified and characterized. In this review article on the SC, we summarize its evolution, formation, structure and function. Cornification is an important step of SC formation at the conversion of living epithelial cells to dead corneocytes, and consists of three major steps: formation of the intracellular keratin network, cornified envelopes and intercellular lipids. After cornification, the SC undergoes chemical reactions to form the mature SC with different functional layers. Finally, the SC is shed off at the surface ('desquamation'), mediated by a cascade of several proteases. This review will be helpful to understand our expanding knowledge of the biology of the SC, where immunity meets external antigens.
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Affiliation(s)
- Takeshi Matsui
- Laboratory for Skin Homeostasis, RIKEN Center for Integrative Medical Sciences (IMS), 1-7-22, Suehiro-cho, Tsurumi-ku, Yokohama, Kanagawa 230-0045, Japan
| | - Masayuki Amagai
- Laboratory for Skin Homeostasis, RIKEN Center for Integrative Medical Sciences (IMS), 1-7-22, Suehiro-cho, Tsurumi-ku, Yokohama, Kanagawa 230-0045, Japan Department of Dermatology, Keio University School of Medicine, 35 Shinanomachi, Shinjuku-ku, Tokyo 160-8582, Japan
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