Regulation of protrusion, adhesion dynamics, and polarity by myosins IIA and IIB in migrating cells

Focal adhesions are controlled by microtubules through local contractility regulation

Microtubules regulate cell polarity and migration via local activation of focal adhesion turnover, but the mechanism of this process is insufficiently understood. Molecular complexes containing KANK family proteins connect microtubules with talin, the major component of focal adhesions. Here, local optogenetic activation of KANK1-mediated microtubule/talin linkage promoted microtubule targeting to an individual focal adhesion and subsequent withdrawal, resulting in focal adhesion centripetal sliding and rapid disassembly. This sliding is preceded by a local increase of traction force due to accumulation of myosin-II and actin in the proximity of the focal adhesion. Knockdown of the Rho activator GEF-H1 prevented development of traction force and abolished sliding and disassembly of focal adhesions upon KANK1 activation. Other players participating in microtubule-driven, KANK-dependent focal adhesion disassembly include kinases ROCK, PAK, and FAK, as well as microtubules/focal adhesion-associated proteins kinesin-1, APC, and αTAT. Based on these data, we develop a mathematical model for a microtubule-driven focal adhesion disruption involving local GEF-H1/RhoA/ROCK-dependent activation of contractility, which is consistent with experimental data.

Alcohol-induced Golgiphagy is triggered by the downregulation of Golgi GTPase RAB3D

The development of alcohol-associated liver disease (ALD) is associated with disorganized Golgi apparatus and accelerated phagophore formation. While Golgi membranes may contribute to phagophores, association between Golgi alterations and macroautophagy/autophagy remains unclear. GOLGA4/p230 (golgin A4), a dimeric Golgi matrix protein, participates in phagophore formation, but the underlying mechanism is elusive. Our prior research identified ethanol (EtOH)-induced Golgi scattering, disrupting intra-Golgi trafficking and depleting RAB3D GTPase from the trans-Golgi. Employing various techniques, we analyzed diverse cellular and animal models representing chronic and chronic/binge alcohol consumption. In trans-Golgi of non-treated hepatocytes, we found a triple complex formed between RAB3D, GOLGA4, and MYH10/NMIIB (myosin, heavy polypeptide 10, non-muscle). However, EtOH-induced RAB3D downregulation led to MYH10 segregation from the Golgi, accompanied by Golgi fragmentation and tethering of the MYH10 isoform, MYH9/NMIIA, to dispersed Golgi membranes. EtOH-activated autophagic flux is evident through increased WIPI2 recruitment to the Golgi, phagophore formation, enhanced LC3B lipidation, and reduced SQSTM1/p62. Although GOLGA4 dimerization and intra-Golgi localization are unaffected, loss of RAB3D leads to an extension of the cytoplasmic N terminal domain of GOLGA4, forming GOLGA4-positive phagophores. Autophagy inhibition by hydroxychloroquine (HCQ) prevents alcohol-mediated Golgi disorganization, restores distribution of ASGR (asialoglycoprotein receptor), and mitigates COL (collagen) deposition and steatosis. In contrast to short-term exposure to HCQ, extended co-treatment with both EtOH and HCQ results in the depletion of LC3B protein via proteasomal degradation. Thus, (a) RAB3D deficiency and GOLGA4 conformational changes are pivotal in MYH9-driven, EtOH-mediated Golgiphagy, and (b) HCQ treatment holds promise as a therapeutic approach for alcohol-induced liver injury.Abbreviation: ACTB: actin, beta; ALD: alcohol-associated liver disease; ASGR: asialoglycoprotein receptor; AV: autophagic vacuoles; EM: electron microscopy; ER: endoplasmic reticulum; EtOH: ethanol; HCQ: hydroxychloroquine; IP: immunoprecipitation; KD: knockdown; KO: knockout; MYH10/NMIIB: myosin, heavy polypeptide 10, non-muscle; MYH9/NMIIA: myosin, heavy polypeptide 9, non-muscle; PLA: proximity ligation assay; ORO: Oil Red O staining; PM: plasma membrane; TGN: trans-Golgi network; SIM: structured illumination super-resolution microscopy.

Engines of change: Nonmuscle myosin II in mechanobiology

The emergence of mechanobiology has unveiled complex mechanisms by which cells adjust intracellular force production to their needs. Most communicable intracellular forces are generated by myosin II, an actin-associated molecular motor that transforms adenosine triphosphate (ATP) hydrolysis into contraction in nonmuscle and muscle cells. Myosin II-dependent force generation is tightly regulated, and deregulation is associated with specific pathologies. Here, we focus on the role of myosin II (nonmuscle myosin II, NMII) in force generation and mechanobiology. We outline the regulation and molecular mechanism of force generation by NMII, focusing on the actual outcome of contraction, that is, force application to trigger mechanosensitive events or the building of dissipative structures. We describe how myosin II-generated forces drive two major types of events: modification of the cellular morphology and/or triggering of genetic programs, which enhance the ability of cells to adapt to, or modify, their microenvironment. Finally, we address whether targeting myosin II to impair or potentiate its activity at the motor level is a viable therapeutic strategy, as illustrated by recent examples aimed at modulating cardiac myosin II function in heart disease.

Cooperative polarization of MCAM/CD146 and ERM family proteins in melanoma

The WRAMP structure is a protein network associated with tail-end actomyosin contractility, membrane retraction, and directional persistence during cell migration. A marker of WRAMP structures is melanoma cell adhesion molecule (MCAM) which dynamically polarizes to the cell rear. However, factors that mediate MCAM polarization are still unknown. In this study, BioID using MCAM as bait identifies the ERM family proteins, moesin, ezrin, and radixin, as WRAMP structure components. We also present a novel image analysis pipeline, Protein Polarity by Percentile ("3P"), which classifies protein polarization using machine learning and facilitates quantitative analysis. Using 3P, we find that depletion of moesin, and to a lesser extent ezrin, decreases the proportion of cells with polarized MCAM. Furthermore, although copolarized MCAM and ERM proteins show high spatial overlap, 3P identifies subpopulations with ERM proteins closer to the cell periphery. Live-cell imaging confirms that MCAM and ERM protein polarization is tightly coordinated, but ERM proteins enrich at the cell edge first. Finally, deletion of a juxtamembrane segment in MCAM previously shown to promote ERM protein interactions impedes MCAM polarization. Our findings highlight the requirement for ERM proteins in recruitment of MCAM to WRAMP structures and an advanced computational tool to characterize protein polarization.

Helical vasculogenesis driven by cell chirality

The cellular helical structure is well known for its crucial role in development and disease. Nevertheless, the underlying mechanism governing this phenomenon remains largely unexplored, particularly in recapitulating it in well-controlled engineering systems. Leveraging advanced microfluidics, we present compelling evidence of the spontaneous emergence of helical endothelial tubes exhibiting robust right-handedness governed by inherent cell chirality. To strengthen our findings, we identify a consistent bias toward the same chirality in mouse vascular tissues. Manipulating endothelial cell chirality using small-molecule drugs produces a dose-dependent reversal of the handedness in engineered vessels, accompanied by non-monotonic changes in vascular permeability. Moreover, our three-dimensional cell vertex model provides biomechanical insights into the chiral morphogenesis process, highlighting the role of cellular torque and tissue fluidity in its regulation. Our study unravels an intriguing mechanism underlying vascular chiral morphogenesis, shedding light on the broader implications and distinctive perspectives of tubulogenesis within biological systems.

Expression of nonmuscle myosin IIC is regulated by non-canonical binding activity of miRNAs

The expression of mechanoresponsive nonmuscle myosin II (NMII)C is found to be inducible during tumor progression, but its mechanism is yet to be explored. Here, we report a group of microRNAs (mmu-miR-200a-5p, mmu-miR-532-3p, mmu-miR-680, and mmu-miR-1901) can significantly repress the expression of nonmuscle myosin IIC (NMIIC). Interestingly, these microRNAs have both canonical and non-canonical binding sites at 3/UTR and coding sequence (CDS) of NMIIC's heavy chain (HC) mRNA. Each of the miRNA downregulates NMHC-IIC to a different degree as assessed by dual-luciferase and immunoblot analyses. When we abolish the complementary base pairing at canonical binding site, mmu-miR-532-3p can still bind at non-canonical binding site and form Argonaute2 (AGO2)-miRNA complex to downregulate the expression of NMIIC. Modulating the expression of NMIIC by miR-532-3p in mouse mammary tumor cells, 4T1, increases its tumorigenic potential both in vitro and in vivo. Together, these studies provide the functional role of miRNA's non-canonical binding mediated NMIIC regulation in tumor cells.

Thy-1 (CD90)-regulated cell adhesion and migration of mesenchymal cells: insights into adhesomes, mechanical forces, and signaling pathways

Cell adhesion and migration depend on the assembly and disassembly of adhesive structures known as focal adhesions. Cells adhere to the extracellular matrix (ECM) and form these structures via receptors, such as integrins and syndecans, which initiate signal transduction pathways that bridge the ECM to the cytoskeleton, thus governing adhesion and migration processes. Integrins bind to the ECM and soluble or cell surface ligands to form integrin adhesion complexes (IAC), whose composition depends on the cellular context and cell type. Proteomic analyses of these IACs led to the curation of the term adhesome, which is a complex molecular network containing hundreds of proteins involved in signaling, adhesion, and cell movement. One of the hallmarks of these IACs is to sense mechanical cues that arise due to ECM rigidity, as well as the tension exerted by cell-cell interactions, and transduce this force by modifying the actin cytoskeleton to regulate cell migration. Among the integrin/syndecan cell surface ligands, we have described Thy-1 (CD90), a GPI-anchored protein that possesses binding domains for each of these receptors and, upon engaging them, stimulates cell adhesion and migration. In this review, we examine what is currently known about adhesomes, revise how mechanical forces have changed our view on the regulation of cell migration, and, in this context, discuss how we have contributed to the understanding of signaling mechanisms that control cell adhesion and migration.

MYH10 activation rescues contractile defects in arrhythmogenic cardiomyopathy (ACM)

The most prevalent genetic form of inherited arrhythmogenic cardiomyopathy (ACM) is caused by mutations in desmosomal plakophilin-2 (PKP2). By studying pathogenic deletion mutations in the desmosomal protein PKP2, here we identify a general mechanism by which PKP2 delocalization restricts actomyosin network organization and cardiac sarcomeric contraction in this untreatable disease. Computational modeling of PKP2 variants reveals that the carboxy-terminal (CT) domain is required for N-terminal domain stabilization, which determines PKP2 cortical localization and function. In mutant PKP2 cells the expression of the interacting protein MYH10 rescues actomyosin disorganization. Conversely, dominant-negative MYH10 mutant expression mimics the pathogenic CT-deletion PKP2 mutant causing actin network abnormalities and right ventricle systolic dysfunction. A chemical activator of non-muscle myosins, 4-hydroxyacetophenone (4-HAP), also restores normal contractility. Our findings demonstrate that activation of MYH10 corrects the deleterious effect of PKP2 mutant over systolic cardiac contraction, with potential implications for ACM therapy.

Force-dependent focal adhesion assembly and disassembly: A computational study

Cells interact with the extracellular matrix (ECM) via cell-ECM adhesions. These physical interactions are transduced into biochemical signals inside the cell which influence cell behaviour. Although cell-ECM interactions have been studied extensively, it is not completely understood how immature (nascent) adhesions develop into mature (focal) adhesions and how mechanical forces influence this process. Given the small size, dynamic nature and short lifetimes of nascent adhesions, studying them using conventional microscopic and experimental techniques is challenging. Computational modelling provides a valuable resource for simulating and exploring various "what if?" scenarios in silico and identifying key molecular components and mechanisms for further investigation. Here, we present a simplified mechano-chemical model based on ordinary differential equations with three major proteins involved in adhesions: integrins, talin and vinculin. Additionally, we incorporate a hypothetical signal molecule that influences adhesion (dis)assembly rates. We find that assembly and disassembly rates need to vary dynamically to limit maturation of nascent adhesions. The model predicts biphasic variation of actin retrograde velocity and maturation fraction with substrate stiffness, with maturation fractions between 18-35%, optimal stiffness of ∼1 pN/nm, and a mechanosensitive range of 1-100 pN/nm, all corresponding to key experimental findings. Sensitivity analyses show robustness of outcomes to small changes in parameter values, allowing model tuning to reflect specific cell types and signaling cascades. The model proposes that signal-dependent disassembly rate variations play an underappreciated role in maturation fraction regulation, which should be investigated further. We also provide predictions on the changes in traction force generation under increased/decreased vinculin concentrations, complementing previous vinculin overexpression/knockout experiments in different cell types. In summary, this work proposes a model framework to robustly simulate the mechanochemical processes underlying adhesion maturation and maintenance, thereby enhancing our fundamental knowledge of cell-ECM interactions.

Cyclic stretching combined with cell-cell adhesion is sufficient for inducing cell intercalation

Although the important role of cell intercalation within a collective has long been recognized particularly for morphogenesis, the underlying mechanism remains poorly understood. Here we investigate the possibility that cellular responses to cyclic stretching play a major role in this process. By applying synchronized imaging and cyclic stretching to epithelial cells cultured on micropatterned polyacrylamide (PAA) substrates, we discovered that uniaxial cyclic stretching induces cell intercalation along with cell shape change and cell-cell interfacial remodeling. The process involved intermediate steps as previously reported for cell intercalation during embryonic morphogenesis, including the appearance of cell vertices, anisotropic vertex resolution, and directional expansion of cell-cell interface. Using mathematical modeling, we further found that cell shape change in conjunction with dynamic cell-cell adhesions was sufficient to account for the observations. Further investigation with small-molecule inhibitors indicated that disruption of myosin II activities suppressed cyclic stretching-induced intercalation while inhibiting the appearance of oriented vertices. Inhibition of Wnt signaling did not suppress stretch-induced cell shape change but disrupted cell intercalation and vertex resolution. Our results suggest that cyclic stretching, by inducing cell shape change and reorientation in the presence of dynamic cell-cell adhesions, can induce at least some aspects of cell intercalation and that this process is dependent in distinct ways on myosin II activities and Wnt signaling.

Src-Dependent NM2A Tyrosine Phosphorylation Regulates Actomyosin Remodeling

Non-muscle myosin 2A (NM2A) is a key cytoskeletal enzyme that, along with actin, assembles into actomyosin filaments inside cells. NM2A is fundamental for cell adhesion and motility, playing important functions in different stages of development and during the progression of viral and bacterial infections. Phosphorylation events regulate the activity and the cellular localization of NM2A. We previously identified the tyrosine phosphorylation of residue 158 (pTyr¹⁵⁸) in the motor domain of the NM2A heavy chain. This phosphorylation can be promoted by Listeria monocytogenes infection of epithelial cells and is dependent on Src kinase; however, its molecular role is unknown. Here, we show that the status of pTyr¹⁵⁸ defines cytoskeletal organization, affects the assembly/disassembly of focal adhesions, and interferes with cell migration. Cells overexpressing a non-phosphorylatable NM2A variant or expressing reduced levels of Src kinase display increased stress fibers and larger focal adhesions, suggesting an altered contraction status consistent with the increased NM2A activity that we also observed. We propose NM2A pTyr¹⁵⁸ as a novel layer of regulation of actomyosin cytoskeleton organization.

Computational model of integrin adhesion elongation under an actin fiber

Cells create physical connections with the extracellular environment through adhesions. Nascent adhesions form at the leading edge of migrating cells and either undergo cycles of disassembly and reassembly, or elongate and stabilize at the end of actin fibers. How adhesions assemble has been addressed in several studies, but the exact role of actin fibers in the elongation and stabilization of nascent adhesions remains largely elusive. To address this question, here we extended our computational model of adhesion assembly by incorporating an actin fiber that locally promotes integrin activation. The model revealed that an actin fiber promotes adhesion stabilization and elongation. Actomyosin contractility from the fiber also promotes adhesion stabilization and elongation, by strengthening integrin-ligand interactions, but only up to a force threshold. Above this force threshold, most integrin-ligand bonds fail, and the adhesion disassembles. In the absence of contraction, actin fibers still support adhesions stabilization. Collectively, our results provide a picture in which myosin activity is dispensable for adhesion stabilization and elongation under an actin fiber, offering a framework for interpreting several previous experimental observations.

What are the key mechanical mechanisms governing integrin-mediated cell migration in three-dimensional fiber networks?

Cell migration plays a vital role in numerous processes such as development, wound healing, or cancer. It is well known that numerous complex mechanisms are involved in cell migration. However, so far it remains poorly understood what are the key mechanisms required to produce the main characteristics of this behavior. The reason is a methodological one. In experimental studies, specific factors and mechanisms can be promoted or inhibited. However, while doing so, there can always be others in the background which play key roles but which have simply remained unattended so far. This makes it very difficult to validate any hypothesis about a minimal set of factors and mechanisms required to produce cell migration. To overcome this natural limitation of experimental studies, we developed a computational model where cells and extracellular matrix fibers are represented by discrete mechanical objects on the micrometer scale. In this model, we had exact control of the mechanisms by which cells and matrix fibers interacted with each other. This enabled us to identify the key mechanisms required to produce physiologically realistic cell migration (including advanced phenomena such as durotaxis and a biphasic relation between migration efficiency and matrix stiffness). We found that two main mechanisms are required to this end: a catch-slip bond of individual integrins and cytoskeletal actin-myosin contraction. Notably, more advanced phenomena such as cell polarization or details of mechanosensing were not necessary to qualitatively reproduce the main characteristics of cell migration observed in experiments.

EVL and MIM/MTSS1 regulate actin cytoskeletal remodeling to promote dendritic filopodia in neurons

Dendritic spines are the postsynaptic compartment of a neuronal synapse and are critical for synaptic connectivity and plasticity. A developmental precursor to dendritic spines, dendritic filopodia (DF), facilitate synapse formation by sampling the environment for suitable axon partners during neurodevelopment and learning. Despite the significance of the actin cytoskeleton in driving these dynamic protrusions, the actin elongation factors involved are not well characterized. We identified the Ena/VASP protein EVL as uniquely required for the morphogenesis and dynamics of DF. Using a combination of genetic and optogenetic manipulations, we demonstrated that EVL promotes protrusive motility through membrane-direct actin polymerization at DF tips. EVL forms a complex at nascent protrusions and DF tips with MIM/MTSS1, an I-BAR protein important for the initiation of DF. We proposed a model in which EVL cooperates with MIM to coalesce and elongate branched actin filaments, establishing the dynamic lamellipodia-like architecture of DF.

MYL5 as a Novel Prognostic Marker is Associated with Immune Infiltrating in Breast Cancer: A Preliminary Study

Background

Myosin light chain plays a vital regulatory function in a large-scale cellular physiological procedure, however, the role of myosin light chain 5 (MYL5) in breast cancer has not been reported. In this study, we aimed to elucidate the effects of MYL5 on clinical prognosis and immune cell infiltration, and further explore the potential mechanism in breast cancer patients.

Methods

In this study, we first explored the expression pattern and prognostic value of MYL5 in breast cancer across multiple databases, including Oncomine, TCGA, GTEx, GEPIA2, PrognoScan, and Kaplan-Meier Plotter. The correlations of MYL5 expression with immune cell infiltration and associational gene markers in breast cancer were analyzed by using the TIMER, TIMER2.0, and TISIDB databases. The enrichment and prognosis analysis of MYL5-related genes were implemented by using LinkOmics datasets.

Results

We found that there was a low expression of MYL5 in breast cancer than in corresponding normal tissue by analyzing the data from Oncomine and TCGA datasets. Furthermore, research showed the prognosis of the MYL5 high-expression group was better than the low-expression group in breast cancer patients. Furthermore, MYL5 expression is markedly related to the tumor-infiltrating immune cells (TIICs), including cancer-associated fibroblast, B cell, CD8⁺ T cell, CD4⁺ T cell, macrophage, neutrophil, and dendritic cell, and related to immune molecules as well as the associated gene markers of TIICs.

Conclusion

MYL5 can serve as a prognostic signature in breast cancer and is associated with immune infiltration. This study first offers a relatively comprehensive understanding of the oncogenic roles of MYL5 for breast cancer.

Non-muscle myosins control the integrity of cortical radial glial endfeet

Radial glial cells, the stem cells of the cerebral cortex, extend a long basal fiber that ends in basal endfeet. A new study in PLOS Biology found that non-muscle myosins control basal endfoot integrity to regulate interneuron organization.

Non-muscle myosins control radial glial basal endfeet to mediate interneuron organization

Radial glial cells (RGCs) are essential for the generation and organization of neurons in the cerebral cortex. RGCs have an elongated bipolar morphology with basal and apical endfeet that reside in distinct niches. Yet, how this subcellular compartmentalization of RGCs controls cortical development is largely unknown. Here, we employ in vivo proximity labeling, in the mouse, using unfused BirA to generate the first subcellular proteome of RGCs and uncover new principles governing local control of cortical development. We discover a cohort of proteins that are significantly enriched in RGC basal endfeet, with MYH9 and MYH10 among the most abundant. Myh9 and Myh10 transcripts also localize to endfeet with distinct temporal dynamics. Although they each encode isoforms of non-muscle myosin II heavy chain, Myh9 and Myh10 have drastically different requirements for RGC integrity. Myh9 loss from RGCs decreases branching complexity and causes endfoot protrusion through the basement membrane. In contrast, Myh10 controls endfoot adhesion, as mutants have unattached apical and basal endfeet. Finally, we show that Myh9- and Myh10-mediated regulation of RGC complexity and endfoot position non-cell autonomously controls interneuron number and organization in the marginal zone. Our study demonstrates the utility of in vivo proximity labeling for dissecting local control of complex systems and reveals new mechanisms for dictating RGC integrity and cortical architecture.

Non-muscle myosin II and the plasticity of 3D cell migration

Confined cells migrating through 3D environments are also constrained by the laws of physics, meaning for every action there must be an equal and opposite reaction for cells to achieve motion. Fascinatingly, there are several distinct molecular mechanisms that cells can use to move, and this is reflected in the diverse ways non-muscle myosin II (NMII) can generate the mechanical forces necessary to sustain 3D cell migration. This review summarizes the unique modes of 3D migration, as well as how NMII activity is regulated and localized within each of these different modes. In addition, we highlight tropomyosins and septins as two protein families that likely have more secrets to reveal about how NMII activity is governed during 3D cell migration. Together, this information suggests that investigating the mechanisms controlling NMII activity will be helpful in understanding how a single cell transitions between distinct modes of 3D migration in response to the physical environment.

Myosins and membrane trafficking in intestinal brush border assembly

Myosins are a class of motors that participate in a wide variety of cellular functions including organelle transport, cell adhesion, endocytosis and exocytosis, movement of RNA, and cell motility. Among the emerging roles for myosins is regulation of the assembly, morphology, and function of actin protrusions such as microvilli. The intestine harbors an elaborate apical membrane composed of highly organized microvilli. Microvilli assembly and function are intricately tied to several myosins including Myosin 1a, non-muscle Myosin 2c, Myosin 5b, Myosin 6, and Myosin 7b. Here, we review the research progress made in our understanding of myosin mediated apical assembly.

Sex-Based Differences in Human Neutrophil Chemorepulsion

A considerable amount is known about how eukaryotic cells move toward an attractant, and the mechanisms are conserved from Dictyostelium discoideum to human neutrophils. Relatively little is known about chemorepulsion, where cells move away from a repellent signal. We previously identified pathways mediating chemorepulsion in Dictyostelium, and here we show that these pathways, including Ras, Rac, protein kinase C, PTEN, and ERK1 and 2, are required for human neutrophil chemorepulsion, and, as with Dictyostelium chemorepulsion, PI3K and phospholipase C are not necessary, suggesting that eukaryotic chemorepulsion mechanisms are conserved. Surprisingly, there were differences between male and female neutrophils. Inhibition of Rho-associated kinases or Cdc42 caused male neutrophils to be more repelled by a chemorepellent and female neutrophils to be attracted to the chemorepellent. In the presence of a chemorepellent, compared with male neutrophils, female neutrophils showed a reduced percentage of repelled neutrophils, greater persistence of movement, more adhesion, less accumulation of PI(3,4,5)P₃, and less polymerization of actin. Five proteins associated with chemorepulsion pathways are differentially abundant, with three of the five showing sex dimorphism in protein localization in unstimulated male and female neutrophils. Together, this indicates a fundamental difference in a motility mechanism in the innate immune system in men and women.

Myosin II proteins are required for organization of calcium-induced actin networks upstream of mitochondrial division

The formin INF2 polymerizes a calcium-activated cytoplasmic network of actin filaments, which we refer to as calcium-induced actin polymerization (CIA). CIA plays important roles in multiple cellular processes, including mitochondrial dynamics and vesicle transport. Here, we show that nonmuscle myosin II (NMII) is activated within 60 s of calcium stimulation and rapidly recruited to the CIA network. Knockout of any individual NMII in U2OS cells affects the organization of the CIA network, as well as three downstream effects: endoplasmic-reticulum-to-mitochondrial calcium transfer, mitochondrial Drp1 recruitment, and mitochondrial division. Interestingly, while NMIIC is the least abundant NMII in U2OS cells (>200-fold less than NMIIA and >10-fold less than NMIIB), its knockout is equally deleterious to CIA. On the basis of these results, we propose that myosin II filaments containing all three NMII heavy chains exert organizational and contractile roles in the CIA network. In addition, NMIIA knockout causes a significant decrease in myosin regulatory light chain levels, which might have additional effects.

Modeling cell protrusion predicts how myosin II and actin turnover affect adhesion-based signaling

Orchestration of cell migration is essential for development, tissue regeneration, and the immune response. This dynamic process integrates adhesion, signaling, and cytoskeletal subprocesses across spatial and temporal scales. In mesenchymal cells, adhesion complexes bound to extracellular matrix mediate both biochemical signal transduction and physical interaction with the F-actin cytoskeleton. Here, we present a mathematical model that offers insight into both aspects, considering spatiotemporal dynamics of nascent adhesions, active signaling molecules, mechanical clutching, actin treadmilling, and nonmuscle myosin II contractility. At the core of the model is a positive feedback loop, whereby adhesion-based signaling promotes generation of barbed ends at, and protrusion of, the cell's leading edge, which in turn promotes formation and stabilization of nascent adhesions. The model predicts a switch-like transition and optimality of membrane protrusion, determined by the balance of actin polymerization and retrograde flow, with respect to extracellular matrix density. The model, together with new experimental measurements, explains how protrusion can be modulated by mechanical effects (nonmuscle myosin II contractility and adhesive bond stiffness) and F-actin turnover.

Extracellular fluid viscosity enhances cell migration and cancer dissemination

Cells respond to physical stimuli, such as stiffness¹, fluid shear stress² and hydraulic pressure^3,4. Extracellular fluid viscosity is a key physical cue that varies under physiological and pathological conditions, such as cancer⁵. However, its influence on cancer biology and the mechanism by which cells sense and respond to changes in viscosity are unknown. Here we demonstrate that elevated viscosity counterintuitively increases the motility of various cell types on two-dimensional surfaces and in confinement, and increases cell dissemination from three-dimensional tumour spheroids. Increased mechanical loading imposed by elevated viscosity induces an actin-related protein 2/3 (ARP2/3)-complex-dependent dense actin network, which enhances Na⁺/H⁺ exchanger 1 (NHE1) polarization through its actin-binding partner ezrin. NHE1 promotes cell swelling and increased membrane tension, which, in turn, activates transient receptor potential cation vanilloid 4 (TRPV4) and mediates calcium influx, leading to increased RHOA-dependent cell contractility. The coordinated action of actin remodelling/dynamics, NHE1-mediated swelling and RHOA-based contractility facilitates enhanced motility at elevated viscosities. Breast cancer cells pre-exposed to elevated viscosity acquire TRPV4-dependent mechanical memory through transcriptional control of the Hippo pathway, leading to increased migration in zebrafish, extravasation in chick embryos and lung colonization in mice. Cumulatively, extracellular viscosity is a physical cue that regulates both short- and long-term cellular processes with pathophysiological relevance to cancer biology.

Down-regulation of MYH10 driven by chromosome 17p13.1 deletion promotes hepatocellular carcinoma metastasis through activation of the EGFR pathway

Somatic copy number alterations (CNAs) are a genomic hallmark of cancers. Among them, the chromosome 17p13.1 deletions are recurrent in hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC). Here, utilizing an integrative omics analysis, we screened out a novel tumour suppressor gene within 17p13.1, myosin heavy chain 10 (MYH10). We observed frequent deletions (~38%) and significant down‐regulation of MYH10 in primary HCC tissues. Deletion or decreased expression of MYH10 was a potential indicator of poor outcomes in HCC patients. Knockdown of MYH10 significantly promotes HCC cell migration and invasion in vitro, and overexpression of MYH10 exhibits opposite effects. Further, inhibition of MYH10 markedly potentiates HCC metastasis in vivo. We preliminarily elucidated the mechanism by which loss of MYH10 promotes HCC metastasis by facilitating EGFR pathway activation. In conclusion, our study suggests that MYH10, a candidate target gene for 17p13 deletion, acts as a tumour suppressor and may serve as a potential prognostic indicator for HCC patients.

α-actinin-4 drives invasiveness by regulating myosin IIB expression and myosin IIA localization

The mechanisms by which the mechanoresponsive actin crosslinking protein α-actinin-4 (ACTN4) regulates cell motility and invasiveness remains incompletely understood. Here we show that in addition to regulating protrusion dynamics and focal adhesion formation, ACTN4 transcriptionally regulates expression of non-muscle myosin IIB (NMM IIB), which is essential for mediating nuclear translocation during 3D invasion. We further show that an indirect association between ACTN4 and NMM IIA mediated by a functional F-actin cytoskeleton is essential for retention of NMM IIA at the cell periphery and modulation of focal adhesion dynamics. A protrusion-dependent model of confined migration recapitulating experimental observations predicts a dependence of protrusion forces on the degree of confinement and on the ratio of nucleus to matrix stiffness. Together, our results suggest that ACTN4 is a master regulator of cancer invasion that regulates invasiveness by controlling NMM IIB expression and NMM IIA localization.

Distinct roles of nonmuscle myosin II isoforms for establishing tension and elasticity during cell morphodynamics

Nonmuscle myosin II (NM II) is an integral part of essential cellular processes, including adhesion and migration. Mammalian cells express up to three isoforms termed NM IIA, B, and C. We used U2OS cells to create CRISPR/Cas9-based knockouts of all three isoforms and analyzed the phenotypes on homogenously coated surfaces, in collagen gels, and on micropatterned substrates. In contrast to homogenously coated surfaces, a structured environment supports a cellular phenotype with invaginated actin arcs even in the absence of NM IIA-induced contractility. A quantitative shape analysis of cells on micropatterns combined with a scale-bridging mathematical model reveals that NM IIA is essential to build up cellular tension during initial stages of force generation, while NM IIB is necessary to elastically stabilize NM IIA-generated tension. A dynamic cell stretch/release experiment in a three-dimensional scaffold confirms these conclusions and in addition reveals a novel role for NM IIC, namely the ability to establish tensional homeostasis.

Mycobacterium bovis Bacillus Calmette-Guérin-Infected Dendritic Cells Induce TNF-α-Dependent Cell Cluster Formation That Promotes Bacterial Dissemination through an In Vitro Model of the Blood-Brain Barrier

CNS tuberculosis (CNSTB) is the most severe manifestation of extrapulmonary tuberculosis infection, but the mechanism of how mycobacteria cross the blood-brain barrier (BBB) is not well understood. In this study, we report a novel murine in vitro BBB model combining primary brain endothelial cells, Mycobacterium bovis bacillus Calmette-Guérin-infected dendritic cells (DCs), PBMCs, and bacterial Ag-specific CD4⁺ T cells. We show that mycobacterial infection limits DC mobility and also induces cellular cluster formation that has a similar composition to pulmonary mycobacterial granulomas. Within the clusters, infection from DCs disseminates to the recruited monocytes, promoting bacterial expansion. Mycobacterium-induced in vitro granulomas have been described previously, but this report shows that they can form on brain endothelial cell monolayers. Cellular cluster formation leads to cluster-associated damage of the endothelial cell monolayer defined by mitochondrial stress, disorganization of the tight junction proteins ZO-1 and claudin-5, upregulation of the adhesion molecules VCAM-1 and ICAM-1, and increased transmigration of bacteria-infected cells across the BBB. TNF-α inhibition reduces cluster formation on brain endothelial cells and mitigates cluster-associated damage. These data describe a model of bacterial dissemination across the BBB shedding light on a mechanism that might contribute to CNS tuberculosis infection and facilitate treatments.

Nonmuscle Myosin II Regulation Directs Its Multiple Roles in Cell Migration and Division

Nonmuscle myosin II (NMII) is a multimeric protein complex that generates most mechanical force in eukaryotic cells. NMII function is controlled at three main levels. The first level includes events that trigger conformational changes that extend the complex to enable its assembly into filaments. The second level controls the ATPase activity of the complex and its binding to microfilaments in extended NMII filaments. The third level includes events that modulate the stability and contractility of the filaments. They all work in concert to finely control force generation inside cells. NMII is a common endpoint of mechanochemical signaling pathways that control cellular responses to physical and chemical extracellular cues. Specific phosphorylations modulate NMII activation in a context-dependent manner. A few kinases control these phosphorylations in a spatially, temporally, and lineage-restricted fashion, enabling functional adaptability to the cellular microenvironment. Here, we review mechanisms that control NMII activity in the context of cell migration and division. Expected final online publication date for the Annual Review of Cell and Developmental Biology, Volume 37 is October 2021. Please see http://www.annualreviews.org/page/journal/pubdates for revised estimates.

Two Motors and One Spring: Hypothetic Roles of Non-Muscle Myosin II and Submembrane Actin-Based Cytoskeleton in Cell Volume Sensing

Changes in plasma membrane curvature and intracellular ionic strength are two key features of cell volume perturbations. In this hypothesis we present a model of the responsible molecular apparatus which is assembled of two molecular motors [non-muscle myosin II (NMMII) and protrusive actin polymerization], a spring [a complex between the plasma membrane (PM) and the submembrane actin-based cytoskeleton (smACSK) which behaves like a viscoelastic solid] and the associated signaling proteins. We hypothesize that this apparatus senses changes in both the plasma membrane curvature and the ionic strength and in turn activates signaling pathways responsible for regulatory volume increase (RVI) and regulatory volume decrease (RVD). During cell volume changes hydrostatic pressure (HP) changes drive alterations in the cell membrane curvature. HP difference has opposite directions in swelling versus shrinkage, thus allowing distinction between them. By analogy with actomyosin contractility that appears to sense stiffness of the extracellular matrix we propose that NMMII and actin polymerization can actively probe the transmembrane gradient in HP. Furthermore, NMMII and protein-protein interactions in the actin cortex are sensitive to ionic strength. Emerging data on direct binding to and regulating activities of transmembrane mechanosensors by NMMII and actin cortex provide routes for signal transduction from transmembrane mechanosensors to cell volume regulatory mechanisms.

Tumor-Associated Protrusion Fluctuations as a Signature of Cancer Invasiveness

The generation of invasive fluctuating protrusions is a distinctive feature of tumor dissemination. During the invasion, individual cancer cells modulate the morphodynamics of protrusions to optimize their migration efficiency. However, it remains unclear how protrusion fluctuations govern the invasion of more complex multi-cellular structures, such as tumors, and their correlation with the tumor metastatic potential. Herein, a reductionist approach based on 3D tumor cell micro-spheroids with different invasion capabilities is used as a model to decipher the role of tumor-associated fluctuating protrusions in cancer progression. To quantify fluctuations, a set of key biophysical parameters that precisely correlate with the invasive potential of tumors is defined. It is shown that different pharmacological drugs and cytokines are capable of modulating protrusion activity, significantly altering protrusion fluctuations, and tumor invasiveness. This correlation is used to define a novel quantitative invasion index encoding the key biophysical parameters of fluctuations and the relative levels of cell-cell/matrix interactions, which is capable of assessing the tumor's metastatic capability solely based on its magnitude. Overall, this study provides new insights into how protrusion fluctuations regulate tumor cell invasion, suggesting that they may be employed as a novel early indicator, or biophysical signature, of the metastatic potential of tumors.

Targeting cytoskeletal phosphorylation in cancer

Phosphorylation of cytoskeletal proteins regulates the dynamics of polymerization, stability, and disassembly of the different types of cytoskeletal polymers. These control the ability of cells to migrate and divide. Mutations and alterations of the expression levels of multiple protein kinases are hallmarks of most forms of cancer. Thus, altered phosphorylation of cytoskeletal proteins is observed in most cancer cells. These alterations potentially control the ability of cancer cells to divide, invade and form distal metastasis. This review highlights the emergent role of phosphorylation in the control of the function of the different cytoskeletal polymers in cancer cells. It also addresses the potential effect of targeted inhibitors in the normalization of cytoskeletal function.

Functional Role of Non-Muscle Myosin II in Microglia: An Updated Review

Myosins are a remarkable superfamily of actin-based motor proteins that use the energy derived from ATP hydrolysis to translocate actin filaments and to produce force. Myosins are abundant in different types of tissues and involved in a large variety of cellular functions. Several classes of the myosin superfamily are expressed in the nervous system; among them, non-muscle myosin II (NM II) is expressed in both neurons and non-neuronal brain cells, such as astrocytes, oligodendrocytes, endothelial cells, and microglia. In the nervous system, NM II modulates a variety of functions, such as vesicle transport, phagocytosis, cell migration, cell adhesion and morphology, secretion, transcription, and cytokinesis, as well as playing key roles during brain development, inflammation, repair, and myelination functions. In this review, we will provide a brief overview of recent emerging roles of NM II in resting and activated microglia cells, the principal regulators of immune processes in the central nervous system (CNS) in both physiological and pathological conditions. When stimulated, microglial cells react and produce a number of mediators, such as pro-inflammatory cytokines, free radicals, and nitric oxide, that enhance inflammation and contribute to neurodegenerative diseases. Inhibition of NM II could be a new therapeutic target to treat or to prevent CNS diseases.

Focal adhesion dynamics in cellular function and disease

Acting as a bridge between the cytoskeleton of the cell and the extra cellular matrix (ECM), the cell-ECM adhesions with integrins at their core, play a major role in cell signalling to direct mechanotransduction, cell migration, cell cycle progression, proliferation, differentiation, growth and repair. Biochemically, these adhesions are composed of diverse, yet an organised group of structural proteins, receptors, adaptors, various enzymes including protein kinases, phosphatases, GTPases, proteases, etc. as well as scaffolding molecules. The major integrin adhesion complexes (IACs) characterised are focal adhesions (FAs), invadosomes (podosomes and invadopodia), hemidesmosomes (HDs) and reticular adhesions (RAs). The varied composition and regulation of the IACs and their signalling, apart from being an integral part of normal cell survival, has been shown to be of paramount importance in various developmental and pathological processes. This review per-illustrates the recent advancements in the research of IACs, their crucial roles in normal as well as diseased states. We have also touched on few of the various methods that have been developed over the years to visualise IACs, measure the forces they exert and study their signalling and molecular composition. Having such pertinent roles in the context of various pathologies, these IACs need to be understood and studied to develop therapeutical targets. We have given an update to the studies done in recent years and described various techniques which have been applied to study these structures, thereby, providing context in furthering research with respect to IAC targeted therapeutics.

Non-muscle myosin II regulates aortic stiffness through effects on specific focal adhesion proteins and the non-muscle cortical cytoskeleton

Non‐muscle myosin II (NMII) plays a role in many fundamental cellular processes including cell adhesion, migration, and cytokinesis. However, its role in mammalian vascular function is not well understood. Here, we investigated the function of NMII in the biomechanical and signalling properties of mouse aorta. We found that blebbistatin, an inhibitor of NMII, decreases agonist‐induced aortic stress and stiffness in a dose‐dependent manner. We also specifically demonstrate that in freshly isolated, contractile, aortic smooth muscle cells, the non‐muscle myosin IIA (NMIIA) isoform is associated with contractile filaments in the core of the cell as well as those in the non‐muscle cell cortex. However, the non‐muscle myosin IIB (NMIIB) isoform is excluded from the cell cortex and colocalizes only with contractile filaments. Furthermore, both siRNA knockdown of NMIIA and NMIIB isoforms in the differentiated A7r5 smooth muscle cell line and blebbistatin‐mediated inhibition of NM myosin II suppress agonist‐activated increases in phosphorylation of the focal adhesion proteins FAK Y925 and paxillin Y118. Thus, we show in the present study, for the first time that NMII regulates aortic stiffness and stress and that this regulation is mediated through the tension‐dependent phosphorylation of the focal adhesion proteins FAK and paxillin.

Myosin-driven actin-microtubule networks exhibit self-organized contractile dynamics

The cytoskeleton is a dynamic network of proteins, including actin, microtubules, and their associated motor proteins, that enables essential cellular processes such as motility, division, and growth. While actomyosin networks are extensively studied, how interactions between actin and microtubules, ubiquitous in the cytoskeleton, influence actomyosin activity remains an open question. Here, we create a network of co-entangled actin and microtubules driven by myosin II. We combine dynamic differential microscopy, particle image velocimetry, and particle tracking to show that both actin and microtubules undergo ballistic contraction with unexpectedly indistinguishable characteristics. This contractility is distinct from faster disordered motion and rupturing that active actin networks exhibit. Our results suggest that microtubules enable self-organized myosin-driven contraction by providing flexural rigidity and enhanced connectivity to actin networks. Beyond the immediate relevance to cytoskeletal dynamics, our results shed light on the design of active materials that can be precisely tuned by the network composition.

On the adhesion-velocity relation and length adaptation of motile cells on stepped fibronectin lanes

The biphasic adhesion-velocity relation is a universal observation in mesenchymal cell motility. It has been explained by adhesion-promoted forces pushing the front and resisting motion at the rear. Yet, there is little quantitative understanding of how these forces control cell velocity. We study motion of MDA-MB-231 cells on microlanes with fields of alternating Fibronectin densities to address this topic and derive a mathematical model from the leading-edge force balance and the force-dependent polymerization rate. It reproduces quantitatively our measured adhesion-velocity relation and results with keratocytes, PtK1 cells, and CHO cells. Our results confirm that the force pushing the leading-edge membrane drives lamellipodial retrograde flow. Forces resisting motion originate along the whole cell length. All motion-related forces are controlled by adhesion and velocity, which allows motion, even with higher Fibronectin density at the rear than at the front. We find the pathway from Fibronectin density to adhesion structures to involve strong positive feedbacks. Suppressing myosin activity reduces the positive feedback. At transitions between different Fibronectin densities, steady motion is perturbed and leads to changes of cell length and front and rear velocity. Cells exhibit an intrinsic length set by adhesion strength, which, together with the length dynamics, suggests a spring-like front-rear interaction force. We provide a quantitative mechanistic picture of the adhesion-velocity relation and cell response to adhesion changes integrating force-dependent polymerization, retrograde flow, positive feedback from integrin to adhesion structures, and spring-like front-rear interaction.

Targeting the cytoskeleton against metastatic dissemination

Cancer is a pathology characterized by a loss or a perturbation of a number of typical features of normal cell behaviour. Indeed, the acquisition of an inappropriate migratory and invasive phenotype has been reported to be one of the hallmarks of cancer. The cytoskeleton is a complex dynamic network of highly ordered interlinking filaments playing a key role in the control of fundamental cellular processes, like cell shape maintenance, motility, division and intracellular transport. Moreover, deregulation of this complex machinery contributes to cancer progression and malignancy, enabling cells to acquire an invasive and metastatic phenotype. Metastasis accounts for 90% of death from patients affected by solid tumours, while an efficient prevention and suppression of metastatic disease still remains elusive. This results in the lack of effective therapeutic options currently available for patients with advanced disease. In this context, the cytoskeleton with its regulatory and structural proteins emerges as a novel and highly effective target to be exploited for a substantial therapeutic effort toward the development of specific anti-metastatic drugs. Here we provide an overview of the role of cytoskeleton components and interacting proteins in cancer metastasis with a special focus on small molecule compounds interfering with the actin cytoskeleton organization and function. The emerging involvement of microtubules and intermediate filaments in cancer metastasis is also reviewed.

Kindlin-2 promotes rear focal adhesion disassembly and directional persistence during cell migration

Cell migration involves front-to-rear asymmetric focal adhesion (FA) dynamics, which facilitates trailing edge detachment and directional persistence. Here, we show that kindlin-2 is crucial for FA sliding and disassembly in migrating cells. Loss of kindlin-2 markedly reduced FA number and selectively impaired rear FA sliding and disassembly, resulting in defective rear retraction and reduced directional persistence during cell migration. Kindlin-2-deficient cells failed to develop serum-induced actomyosin-dependent tension at FAs. At the molecular level, kindlin-2 directly interacted with myosin light chain kinase (MYLK, hereafter referred to as MLCK), which was enhanced in response to serum stimulation. Serum deprivation inhibited rear FA disassembly, which was released in response to serum stimulation. Overexpression of the MLCK-binding kindlin-2 F0F1 fragment (amino acid residues 1-167), which inhibits the interaction of endogenous kindlin-2 with MLCK, phenocopied kindlin-2 deficiency-induced migration defects. Inhibition of MLCK, like loss of kindlin-2, also impaired trailing-edge detachment, rear FA disassembly and directional persistence. These results suggest a role of kindlin-2 in promoting actomyosin contractility at FAs, leading to increased rear FA sliding and disassembly, and directional persistence during cell migration.

Myosins, an Underestimated Player in the Infectious Cycle of Pathogenic Bacteria

Myosins play a key role in many cellular processes such as cell migration, adhesion, intracellular trafficking and internalization processes, making them ideal targets for bacteria. Through selected examples, such as enteropathogenic E. coli (EPEC), Neisseria, Salmonella, Shigella, Listeria or Chlamydia, this review aims to illustrate how bacteria target and hijack host cell myosins in order to adhere to the cell, to enter the cell by triggering their internalization, to evade from the cytosolic autonomous cell defense, to promote the biogenesis of intracellular replicative niche, to disseminate in tissues by cell-to-cell spreading, to exit out the host cell, and also to evade from macrophage phagocytosis. It highlights the diversity and sophistication of the strategy evolved by bacteria to manipulate one of their privileged targets, the actin cytoskeleton.

Recent Advances and Prospects in the Research of Nascent Adhesions

Nascent adhesions are submicron transient structures promoting the early adhesion of cells to the extracellular matrix. Nascent adhesions typically consist of several tens of integrins, and serve as platforms for the recruitment and activation of proteins to build mature focal adhesions. They are also associated with early stage signaling and the mechanoresponse. Despite their crucial role in sampling the local extracellular matrix, very little is known about the mechanism of their formation. Consequently, there is a strong scientific activity focused on elucidating the physical and biochemical foundation of their development and function. Precisely the results of this effort will be summarized in this article.

1'H-Indole-3'-Carbonyl-Thiazole-4-Carboxylic Acid Methyl Ester Blocked Human Glioma Cell Invasion via Aryl Hydrocarbon Receptor's Regulation of Cytoskeletal Contraction

Blocking glioma cell invasion has been challenging due to cancer cells that can swiftly switch their migration mode, and agents that can block more than one migration mode are sought after. We found that small molecule 2-(1H-indole-3-carbonyl)-thiazole-4-carboxylic acid methyl ester (ITE), an endogenous aryl hydrocarbon receptor (AHR) agonist, can block more than one mode of glioma cell migration, based on cultured cell behavior captured by videos. Data from wound-healing assays and mouse xenograft glioma models corroborated ITE's migration-inhibiting effects while knocking down AHR by siRNA abolished these effects. To identify genes that mediated ITE-AHR's effect, we first collected gene expression changes upon ITE treatment by RNA-seq, then compared them against literature reported migration-related genes in glioma and that were potentially regulated by AHR. MYH9, a component of nonmuscle myosin IIA (NMIIA), was confirmed to be reduced by ITE treatment. When MYH9 was overexpressed in the glioma cells, a good correlation was observed between the expression level and the cell migration ability, determined by wound-healing assay. Correspondingly, overexpression of MYH9 abrogated ITE's migration-inhibiting effects, indicating that ITE-AHR inhibited cell migration via inhibiting MYH9 expression. MYH9 is essential for cell migration in 3D confined space and not a discovered target of AHR; the fact that ITE affects MYH9 via AHR opens a new research and development avenue.

Cell Mechanics at the Rear Act to Steer the Direction of Cell Migration

Motile cells navigate complex environments by changing their direction of travel, generating left-right asymmetries in their mechanical subsystems to physically turn. Currently, little is known about how external directional cues are propagated along the length scale of the whole cell and integrated with its force-generating apparatus to steer migration mechanically. We examine the mechanics of spontaneous cell turning in fish epidermal keratocytes and find that the mechanical asymmetries responsible for turning behavior predominate at the rear of the cell, where there is asymmetric centripetal actin flow. Using experimental perturbations, we identify two linked feedback loops connecting myosin II contractility, adhesion strength and actin network flow in turning cells that are sufficient to explain the observed cell shapes and trajectories. Notably, asymmetries in actin polymerization at the cell leading edge play only a minor role in the mechanics of cell turning-that is, cells steer from the rear.

4-Hydroxyacetophenone modulates the actomyosin cytoskeleton to reduce metastasis

Metastases are the cause of the vast majority of cancer deaths. In the metastatic process, cells migrate to the vasculature, intravasate, extravasate, and establish metastatic colonies. This pattern of spread requires the cancer cells to change shape and to navigate tissue barriers. Approaches that block this mechanical program represent new therapeutic avenues. We show that 4-hydroxyacetophenone (4-HAP) inhibits colon cancer cell adhesion, invasion, and migration in vitro and reduces the metastatic burden in an in vivo model of colon cancer metastasis to the liver. Treatment with 4-HAP activates nonmuscle myosin-2C (NM2C) (MYH14) to alter actin organization, inhibiting the mechanical program of metastasis. We identify NM2C as a specific therapeutic target. Pharmacological control of myosin isoforms is a promising approach to address metastatic disease, one that may be readily combined with other therapeutic strategies.

Non-Muscle Myosin II in Axonal Cell Biology: From the Growth Cone to the Axon Initial Segment

By binding to actin filaments, non-muscle myosin II (NMII) generates actomyosin networks that hold unique contractile properties. Their dynamic nature is essential for neuronal biology including the establishment of polarity, growth cone formation and motility, axon growth during development (and axon regeneration in the adult), radial and longitudinal axonal tension, and synapse formation and function. In this review, we discuss the current knowledge on the spatial distribution and function of the actomyosin cytoskeleton in different axonal compartments. We highlight some of the apparent contradictions and open questions in the field, including the role of NMII in the regulation of axon growth and regeneration, the possibility that NMII structural arrangement along the axon shaft may control both radial and longitudinal contractility, and the mechanism and functional purpose underlying NMII enrichment in the axon initial segment. With the advances in live cell imaging and super resolution microscopy, it is expected that in the near future the spatial distribution of NMII in the axon, and the mechanisms by which it participates in axonal biology will be further untangled.

A Stochastic Modelling Framework for Single Cell Migration: Coupling Contractility and Focal Adhesions

The interaction of the actin cytoskeleton with cell–substrate adhesions is necessary for cell migration. While the trajectories of motile cells have a stochastic character, investigations of cell motility mechanisms rarely elaborate on the origins of the observed randomness. Here, guided by a few fundamental attributes of cell motility, I construct a minimal stochastic cell migration model from ground-up. The resulting model couples a deterministic actomyosin contractility mechanism with stochastic cell–substrate adhesion kinetics, and yields a well-defined piecewise deterministic process. Numerical simulations reproduce several experimentally observed results, including anomalous diffusion, tactic migration and contact guidance. This work provides a basis for the development of cell–cell collision and population migration models.

Collagen, stiffness, and adhesion: the evolutionary basis of vertebrate mechanobiology

The emergence of collagen I in vertebrates resulted in a dramatic increase in the stiffness of the extracellular environment, supporting long-range force propagation and the development of low-compliant tissues necessary for the development of vertebrate traits including pressurized circulation and renal filtration. Vertebrates have also evolved integrins that can bind to collagens, resulting in the generation of higher tension and more efficient force transmission in the extracellular matrix. The stiffer environment provides an opportunity for the vertebrates to create new structures such as the stress fibers, new cell types such as endothelial cells, new developmental processes such as neural crest delamination, and new tissue organizations such as the blood-brain barrier. Molecular players found only in vertebrates allow the modification of conserved mechanisms as well as the design of novel strategies that can better serve the physiological needs of the vertebrates. These innovations collectively contribute to novel morphogenetic behaviors and unprecedented increases in the complexities of tissue mechanics and functions.

Scribble, Lgl1, and myosin II form a complex in vivo to promote directed cell migration

Scribble (Scrib) and Lethal giant larvae 1 (Lgl1) are conserved polarity proteins that play important roles in different forms of cell polarity. The roles of Scrib and Lgl1 in apical-basal cell polarity have been studied extensively, but little is known about their roles in the cell polarity of migrating cells. Furthermore, the effect of Scrib and Lgl1 interaction on cell polarity is largely unknown. In this study, we show that Scrib, through its leucine-rich repeat domain, forms a complex in vivo with Lgl1. Scrib also forms a complex with myosin II, and Scrib, Lgl1, and myosin II colocalize at the leading edge of migrating cells. The cellular localization and the cytoskeletal association of Scrib and Lgl1 are interdependent, as depletion of either protein affects its counterpart. In addition, depletion of either Scrib or Lgl1 disrupts the cellular localization of myosin II. We show that depletion of either Scrib or Lgl1 affects cell adhesion through the inhibition of focal adhesion disassembly. Finally, we show that Scrib and Lgl1 are required for proper cell polarity of migrating cells. These results provide new insights into the mechanism regulating the cell polarity of migrating cells by Scrib, Lgl1, and myosin II.

Non-Muscle Myosin 2A (NM2A): Structure, Regulation and Function

Non-muscle myosin 2A (NM2A) is a motor cytoskeletal enzyme with crucial importance from the early stages of development until adulthood. Due to its capacity to convert chemical energy into force, NM2A powers the contraction of the actomyosin cytoskeleton, required for proper cell division, adhesion and migration, among other cellular functions. Although NM2A has been extensively studied, new findings revealed that a lot remains to be discovered concerning its spatiotemporal regulation in the intracellular environment. In recent years, new functions were attributed to NM2A and its activity was associated to a plethora of illnesses, including neurological disorders and infectious diseases. Here, we provide a concise overview on the current knowledge regarding the structure, the function and the regulation of NM2A. In addition, we recapitulate NM2A-associated diseases and discuss its potential as a therapeutic target.

Rac1 Promotes Cell Motility by Controlling Cell Mechanics in Human Glioblastoma

The failure of existing therapies in treating human glioblastoma (GBM) mostly is due to the ability of GBM to infiltrate into healthy regions of the brain; however, the relationship between cell motility and cell mechanics is not well understood. Here, we used atomic force microscopy (AFM), live-cell imaging, and biochemical tools to study the connection between motility and mechanics in human GBM cells. It was found thatRac1 inactivation by genomic silencing and inhibition with EHT 1864 reduced cell motility, inhibited cell ruffles, and disrupted the dynamics of cytoskeleton organization and cell adhesion. These changes were correlated with abnormal localization of myosin IIa and a rapid suppression of the phosphorylation of Erk1/2. At the same time, AFM measurements of the GBM cells revealed a significant increase in cell elasticity and viscosity following Rac1 inhibition. These results indicate that mechanical properties profoundly affect cell motility and may play an important role in the infiltration of GBM. It is conceivable that the mechanical characters might be used as markers for further surgical and therapeutical interventions.