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Eibel H, Winkler T, Ceredig R. Editorial: Making Science Fun - A Tribute to Our Colleague and Friend, Prof. Antonius G. Rolink (1953-2017). Front Immunol 2019; 9:2915. [PMID: 30619279 PMCID: PMC6306044 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2018.02915] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/02/2018] [Accepted: 11/28/2018] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Hermann Eibel
- Center for Chronic Immunodeficiency, University Medical Center Freiburg, Freiburg, Germany
| | - Thomas Winkler
- Nikolaus-Fiebiger-Zentrum für Molekulare Medizin, Universität Erlangen-Nürnberg, Erlangen, Germany
| | - Rhodri Ceredig
- Discipline of Physiology, College of Medicine and Nursing Health Science, National University of Ireland, Galway, Ireland
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Abstract
Early in embryonic development of mice, from day 12.5 after conception, myeloid-lymphoid bipotent progenitors, expressing receptors both for IL7 and CSF-1, migrate from embryonic blood into developing fetal liver. These progenitors also express multiple chemokine receptors, i.e., CCR7, CXCR3, CXCR4, and CXCR5, all on one cell. Their migration through LYVE-1+ vascular endothelium is guided by CCR7, recognizing the chemokine CCL19, and by CXCR3, recognizing CXCL10/11, chemokines which are both produced by the endothelium. Once inside fetal liver, the progenitors are attracted by the chemokine CXCL12 to ALCAM+ liver mesenchyme, which produces not only this chemokine, but also the myeloid differentiation-inducing cytokine CSF-1 and the lymphoid differentiation-inducing cytokine IL7. In this mesenchymal environment B-lymphocyte lineage progenitors are then induced by IL7 to enter differentiation and Ig gene rearrangements. Within 3-4 days surface IgM+ immature B-cells develop, which are destined to enter the B1-cell compartments in the peripheral lymphoid organs.
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Affiliation(s)
- K Kajikhina
- Research Group on "Lymphocyte Development," Max Planck Institute for Infection Biology, Berlin, Germany
| | - M Tsuneto
- Research Group on "Lymphocyte Development," Max Planck Institute for Infection Biology, Berlin, Germany; Reproductive Centre, Mio Fertility Clinic, Yonago, Japan
| | - F Melchers
- Research Group on "Lymphocyte Development," Max Planck Institute for Infection Biology, Berlin, Germany.
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Antenatal endogenous and exogenous glucocorticoids and their impact on immune ontogeny and long-term immunity. Semin Immunopathol 2016; 38:739-763. [DOI: 10.1007/s00281-016-0575-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/23/2016] [Accepted: 05/30/2016] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
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Chemokine polyreactivity of IL7Rα+CSF-1R+ lympho-myeloid progenitors in the developing fetal liver. Sci Rep 2015; 5:12817. [PMID: 26235516 PMCID: PMC4522655 DOI: 10.1038/srep12817] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/23/2015] [Accepted: 07/10/2015] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
In murine ontogeny, fetal liver is the major hemato- and B-lymphopoietic site until birth. Hematopoiesis develops in largely non-hematopoietic niches, which provide contacts, chemokines and cytokines that induce migration, residence, proliferation and differentiation of progenitors. Within early multipotent progenitors an IL7Rα+CSF-1R+ subset expressed a mixture of lymphoid- and myeloid-specific genes and differentiated to lymphoid and myeloid lineages in vitro. By contrast, IL7Rα+ cells were lymphoid-committed, and CSF-1R+ cells were erythro-myeloid-restricted. To respond to a multitude of chemokines single biphenotypic cells expressed CXCR4 and as many as five other chemokine receptors. The monopotent IL7Rα+ and CSF-1R+progenitors all expressed CXCR4, and mutually exclusive, more restricted sets of the analysed five chemokine receptors. This study proposes that chemokine polyreactive, cytokine-bipotent and monopotent progenitors transmigrate through LYVE-1high endothelium, attracted by selected chemokines, and reach the IL7- and CSF-1-producing ALCAMhigh mesenchymal niche, attracted by other sets of chemokines, to differentiate to B-lymphoid respectively myeloid cells.
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Tsuneto M, Tokoyoda K, Kajikhina E, Hauser AE, Hara T, Tani-Ichi S, Ikuta K, Melchers F. B-cell progenitors and precursors change their microenvironment in fetal liver during early development. Stem Cells 2015; 31:2800-12. [PMID: 23666739 DOI: 10.1002/stem.1421] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/21/2012] [Accepted: 04/15/2013] [Indexed: 01/16/2023]
Abstract
The microenvironments, in which B lymphocytes develop in fetal liver, are largely still unknown. Among the nonhematopoietic cells, we have identified and FACS-separated two subpopulations, CD45(-) TER119(-) VCAM-1(+) cells that are either CD105(high) LYVE-1(high) or CD105(low) ALCAM(high) . Immunohistochemical analyses find three of four c-Kit(+) IL-7Rα(+) B220(low) CD19(-) SLC(-) B progenitors in contact with vascular endothelial-type LYVE-1(high) cells on embryonic day 13.5. One day later c-Kit(+) IL-7Rα(+) cells develop to CD19(- and +) , SLC-expressing, DHJH-rearranged pre/pro and pro/preB-I cells. Less than 10% are still in contact with LYVE-1(high) cells, but half of them are now in contact with mesenchymally derived ALCAM(high) liver cells. All of these ALCAM(high) cells, but not the LYVE-1(high) cells produce IL-7 and CXCL12, while both produce CXCL10. Progenitors and pro/preB-I cells are chemoattracted in vitro toward CXCL10 and 12, suggesting that lymphoid progenitors with Ig gene loci in germline configuration enter the developing fetal liver at E13.5 from vascular endothelium, attracted by CXCL10, and then migrate within a day to an ALCAM(high) liver cell microenvironment, differentiating to DHJH-rearranging, surrogate light chain-expressing pre/proB and pro/preB-I cells, attracted by CXCL10 and 12. Between E15.5 and E16.5 preB-I cells expand 10-fold in continued contact with ALCAM(high) cells and begin VH- to DHJH-rearrangements in further differentiated c-Kit(-) IL-7Rα(-) preBII cells. STEM Cells 2013;31:2800-2812.
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Affiliation(s)
- Motokazu Tsuneto
- Lymphocyte Development Group, Max Planck Institute for Infection Biology, Berlin, Germany
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Tsuneto M, Kajikhina E, Seiler K, Reimer A, Tornack J, Bouquet C, Simmons S, Knoll M, Wolf I, Tokoyoda K, Hauser A, Hara T, Tani-ichi S, Ikuta K, Grün JR, Grützkau A, Engels N, Wienands J, Yanagisawa Y, Ohnishi K, Melchers F. Reprint of: Environments of B cell development. Immunol Lett 2014; 160:109-12. [PMID: 24852107 DOI: 10.1016/j.imlet.2014.05.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
B lymphocyte development in the mouse begins with the generation of long-term reconstituting, pluripotent hematopoietic stem cells, over multipotent myeloid/lymphoid progenitors and common lymphoid progenitors to B-lineage committed pro/pre B and pre B cells, which first express pre B cell receptors and then immunoglobulins, B cell receptors, to generate the repertoires of peripheral B cells. This development is influenced and guided by cells of non-hematopoietic and hematopoietic origins. We review here some of the recent developments, and our contributions in this fascinating field of developmental immunology.
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Affiliation(s)
- Motokazu Tsuneto
- Max Planck Institute for Infection Biology, Lymphocyte Development Group, Berlin, Germany
| | - Ekaterina Kajikhina
- Max Planck Institute for Infection Biology, Lymphocyte Development Group, Berlin, Germany
| | - Katharina Seiler
- Max Planck Institute for Infection Biology, Lymphocyte Development Group, Berlin, Germany
| | - Andreas Reimer
- Max Planck Institute for Infection Biology, Lymphocyte Development Group, Berlin, Germany
| | - Julia Tornack
- Max Planck Institute for Infection Biology, Lymphocyte Development Group, Berlin, Germany
| | - Corinne Bouquet
- Max Planck Institute for Infection Biology, Lymphocyte Development Group, Berlin, Germany
| | - Szandor Simmons
- Max Planck Institute for Infection Biology, Lymphocyte Development Group, Berlin, Germany
| | - Marko Knoll
- Max Planck Institute for Infection Biology, Lymphocyte Development Group, Berlin, Germany
| | - Ingrid Wolf
- Max Planck Institute for Infection Biology, Lymphocyte Development Group, Berlin, Germany
| | - Koji Tokoyoda
- German Rheumatism Research Center (DRFZ), A Leibniz Institute, Berlin, Germany
| | - Anja Hauser
- German Rheumatism Research Center (DRFZ), A Leibniz Institute, Berlin, Germany
| | - Takahiro Hara
- Laboratory of Biological Protection, Department of Biological Responses, Institute for Virus Research, Kyoto University, Kyoto, Japan
| | - Shizue Tani-ichi
- Laboratory of Biological Protection, Department of Biological Responses, Institute for Virus Research, Kyoto University, Kyoto, Japan
| | - Koichi Ikuta
- Laboratory of Biological Protection, Department of Biological Responses, Institute for Virus Research, Kyoto University, Kyoto, Japan
| | - Joachim R Grün
- German Rheumatism Research Center (DRFZ), A Leibniz Institute, Berlin, Germany
| | - Andreas Grützkau
- German Rheumatism Research Center (DRFZ), A Leibniz Institute, Berlin, Germany
| | - Niklas Engels
- Cellular and Molecular Immunology, University of Göttingen, Germany
| | - Jürgen Wienands
- Cellular and Molecular Immunology, University of Göttingen, Germany
| | - Yuki Yanagisawa
- Department of Immunology, National Institutes of Infectious Diseases, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Kazuo Ohnishi
- Department of Immunology, National Institutes of Infectious Diseases, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Fritz Melchers
- Max Planck Institute for Infection Biology, Lymphocyte Development Group, Berlin, Germany.
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Abstract
B lymphocyte development in the mouse begins with the generation of long-term reconstituting, pluripotent hematopoietic stem cells, over multipotent myeloid/lymphoid progenitors and common lymphoid progenitors to B-lineage committed pro/pre B and pre B cells, which first express pre B cell receptors and then immunoglobulins, B cell receptors, to generate the repertoires of peripheral B cells. This development is influenced and guided by cells of non-hematopoietic and hematopoietic origins. We review here some of the recent developments, and our contributions in this fascinating field of developmental immunology.
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Hlobeňová T, Sefc L, Chang KT, Savvulidi F, Michalová J, Nečas E. B-lymphopoiesis gains sensitivity to subsequent inhibition by estrogens during final phase of fetal development. DEVELOPMENTAL AND COMPARATIVE IMMUNOLOGY 2012; 36:385-389. [PMID: 21854803 DOI: 10.1016/j.dci.2011.07.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/30/2011] [Revised: 07/28/2011] [Accepted: 07/28/2011] [Indexed: 05/31/2023]
Abstract
Adult B-lymphopoiesis is suppressed by the inhibitory effects of elevated estrogens during pregnancy. At the same time, hematopoietic cells in the fetal liver are resistant to this suppression by estrogens and ensure active production of B-cells. We investigated whether this unresponsiveness to estrogens of fetal cells also applies to cells obtained from a newborn liver and projects into the adult hematopoiesis when fetal liver cells are transplanted to adult mice. Mixtures of fetal liver (E14.5), neonatal liver (P0.5) and adult bone marrow (BM) cells were co-transplanted into adult primary and secondary recipients treated with high doses of estrogen in the Ly5.1/Ly5.2 congenic mouse model. Total chimerism as a proportion of all nucleated blood cells, chimerism as a proportion of B220+ B-cells, and of other blood cell lineages as well, were determined by flow cytometry. B-lymphopoiesis derived from fetal liver (E14.5) stem cells remained resistant to estrogen after transplantation into both primary and secondary adult recipients, for up to 280 days. In contrast, B-lymphopoiesis derived from neonatal liver (P0.5) stem cells was resistant to estrogen only for approximately 50 days after the primary transplantation to the adult BM microenvironment. These results provide further evidence for a critical developmental period of B-lymphopoiesis during its fetal liver stage. In the mouse, critical developmental events that allow for the subsequent expressed sensitivity of B-lymphopoiesis for suppression by estrogens after sexual maturation appear to occur during the period of late-stage fetal liver hematopoiesis before its migration to the bone marrow.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tereza Hlobeňová
- Institute of Pathophysiology and Center of Experimental Hematology, Charles University in Prague, First Faculty of Medicine, Praha, Czech Republic.
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Long-term “in vitro” proliferating mouse hematopoietic progenitor cell lines. Immunol Lett 2010; 130:32-5. [DOI: 10.1016/j.imlet.2010.02.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/15/2009] [Revised: 11/21/2009] [Accepted: 11/30/2009] [Indexed: 01/07/2023]
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A role for DNA polymerase mu in the emerging DJH rearrangements of the postgastrulation mouse embryo. Mol Cell Biol 2008; 29:1266-75. [PMID: 19103746 DOI: 10.1128/mcb.01518-08] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/30/2022] Open
Abstract
The molecular complexes involved in the nonhomologous end-joining process that resolves recombination-activating gene (RAG)-induced double-strand breaks and results in V(D)J gene rearrangements vary during mammalian ontogeny. In the mouse, the first immunoglobulin gene rearrangements emerge during midgestation periods, but their repertoires have not been analyzed in detail. We decided to study the postgastrulation DJ(H) joints and compare them with those present in later life. The embryo DJ(H) joints differed from those observed in perinatal life by the presence of short stretches of nontemplated (N) nucleotides. Whereas most adult N nucleotides are introduced by terminal deoxynucleotidyl transferase (TdT), the embryo N nucleotides were due to the activity of the homologous DNA polymerase mu (Polmu), which was widely expressed in the early ontogeny, as shown by analysis of Polmu(-/-) embryos. Based on its DNA-dependent polymerization ability, which TdT lacks, Polmu also filled in small sequence gaps at the coding ends and contributed to the ligation of highly processed ends, frequently found in the embryo, by pairing to internal microhomology sites. These findings show that Polmu participates in the repair of early-embryo, RAG-induced double-strand breaks and subsequently may contribute to preserve the genomic stability and cellular homeostasis of lymphohematopoietic precursors during development.
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Melchers F. Starting at the end. Eur J Immunol 2007; 37 Suppl 1:S125-33. [PMID: 17972356 DOI: 10.1002/eji.200737773] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022]
Abstract
From the time when I entered immunology - in January 1965 at the Salk Institute for Biological Studies in La Jolla, California in the laboratories of Edwin (Ed) Lennox and Melvin (Mel) Cohn - my love has always been B lymphocytes and antibodies. I began my studies at the end of the developmental pathway of these B cells, with plasma cells. After more than 40 years in immunology, I have moved "backwards" over mature B cells, immature B cells, precursor B cells and lymphocyte progenitors to pluripotent hematopoietic stem cells. Initially it was an intellectual exercise to trace the unknown progenitor of known B-lineage cells; now it has become an experimental approach - to de- and re-differentiate B-lineage cells to earlier differentiation stages and to other lineages of hematopoietic cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fritz Melchers
- Max Planck Institute for Infection Biology, Berlin, Germany.
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Reliene R, Goad MEP, Schiestl RH. Developmental cell death in the liver and newborn lethality of Ku86 deficient mice suppressed by antioxidant N-acetyl-cysteine. DNA Repair (Amst) 2006; 5:1392-7. [PMID: 16916625 DOI: 10.1016/j.dnarep.2006.06.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/26/2006] [Accepted: 06/20/2006] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
Abstract
Repair of DNA double-strand breaks (DSBs) is essential for genome integrity and cell survival. Ku86 is involved in the repair of DNA DSBs by non-homologous end joining (NHEJ). Mice deficient in Ku86 show growth retardation, dwarfism, premature aging, and immunodeficiency. In this study, we observed severely compromised survival of Ku86(-/-) mice, such that most Ku86(-/-) mice died within the first postnatal weeks and only 1.5% of the expected 25% from heterozygous crosses survived for 1 month. Since post-mortem analysis was not possible due to parental cannibalism, histopathological examination was performed on Ku86(-/-) fetuses to assess possible causes of newborn death. Eighty percent and 75% of Ku86(-/-) fetuses exhibited apoptosis and necrosis in the liver, while only 20% and 10% of Ku86(+/+) littermates had apoptosis and necrosis, respectively. In addition, the severity of liver damage was significantly higher in Ku86(-/-) fetuses. Developmental liver damage may have led to postnatal lethality because the fetal liver with pre-existing injury may not be able to undergo transformation from a lymphohematopoietic to an indispensable metabolic organ. Free radicals can cause chromosomal breaks and lead to cell death. We postulated that endogenous oxidative stress might be involved in the resulting liver damage and animal lethality in Ku86(-/-) mice deficient in DNA DSB repair. This hypothesis was tested by treating Ku86(-/-) mice with the well known free radical scavenger, thiol antioxidant N-acetyl-cysteine (NAC), during embryonic development. We found that a significantly higher percentage, 7.7% of NAC treated Ku86(-/-) offspring versus 1.5% untreated Ku86(-/-) mice were alive at 1 month of age. In addition, the incidence of liver necrosis decreased by 21% and the severity of necrosis significantly reduced. Thus, Ku86 deficiency results in severe developmental liver damage and newborn lethality associated with oxidative stress.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ramune Reliene
- Department of Pathology, Geffen School of Medicine, UCLA, 650 Charles E. Young Drive South, Los Angeles, CA 90024, United States
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Yokota T, Huang J, Tavian M, Nagai Y, Hirose J, Zúñiga-Pflücker JC, Péault B, Kincade PW. Tracing the first waves of lymphopoiesis in mice. Development 2006; 133:2041-51. [PMID: 16611687 DOI: 10.1242/dev.02349] [Citation(s) in RCA: 74] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/16/2023]
Abstract
RAG1/GFP knock-in mice were used to precisely chart the emergence and expansion of cells that give rise to the immune system. Lymphopoietic cells detectable in stromal co-cultures arose as early as E8.5, i.e. prior to establishment of the circulation within the paraaortic splanchnopleura (P-Sp). These cells were Tie2+ RAG1- CD34Lo/-Kit+ CD41-. While yolk sac (YS) also contained lymphopoietic cells after E9.5, CD41+ YS cells from ⩽25-somite embryos produced myelo-erythroid cells but no lymphocytes. Notch receptor signaling directed P-Sp cells to T lymphocytes but did not confer lymphopoietic potential on YS cells. Thus, definitive hematopoiesis arises in at least two independent sites that differ in lymphopoietic potential. Expression of RAG1, the earliest known lymphoid event, first occurred around E10.5 within the embryos. RAG1/GFP+ cells appeared in the liver at E11.0 and progenitors with B and/or T lineage potential were enumerated at subsequent developmental stages.
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Affiliation(s)
- Takafumi Yokota
- Immunobiology and Cancer Program, Oklahoma Medical Research Foundation, 825 NE 13th Street, Oklahoma City, OK 73104, USA
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Kawano Y, Yoshikawa S, Minegishi Y, Karasuyama H. Selection of stereotyped VH81X-{micro}H chains via pre-B cell receptor early in ontogeny and their conservation in adults by marginal zone B cells. Int Immunol 2005; 17:857-67. [PMID: 15908445 DOI: 10.1093/intimm/dxh265] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
The pre-B cell receptor (preBCR) plays critical roles in early B cell differentiation. It has been shown that not all muH chains are capable of pairing with surrogate light (SL) chains to form preBCR. Here, we established a novel system to differentially identify two types of early pre-B cell populations in bone marrow and fetal liver of mice, one producing SL-pairing muH chains and the other producing SL-non-pairing muH chains. The former population accounted for 80% of all the early pre-B cells in adult bone marrow, while it accounted for only 20% of those in fetal liver. Comparison of the two types of pre-B cell populations in fetal liver revealed the structural difference between SL-pairing and -non-pairing muH chains encoded by the V(H)81X segment that was most frequently utilized in fetal liver pre-B cells but rarely expressed by B cells generated in adults. PreBCR played an important role in the positive selection of V(H)81X-muH chains carrying the characteristic sequences of the complementarity-determining region 3 with little or no nibbling or N nucleotide addition, leading to their predominance in neonatal splenic B cells. These fetal-type V(H)81X-muH chains were also detected in adult spleen, but almost exclusively in marginal zone (MZ) B cells in contrast to the adult-type V(H)81X-muH chains. This strongly suggests that neonatally generated and selected B cells expressing the stereotyped V(H)81X-muH chains are maintained in the adult MZ and could function as innate-like lymphocytes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yohei Kawano
- Department of Immune Regulation, Tokyo Medical and Dental University Graduate School, 1-5-45 Yushima, Bunkyo-ku, Tokyo 113-8519, Japan
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Abstract
The foundations of experimental hematology were laid by histologists, and while their contributions were enormous, they were limited in their interpretation of very dynamic processes by the static nature of the methodology. The middle of the twentieth century saw the introduction of techniques for hematopoietic cell marking and development of in vitro and in vivo assays for primitive hematopoietic cells, allowing dynamic studies of hematopoiesis. Paralleling this was an understanding of cellular immunology with the discovery of the role of the thymus and the identification of T and B lymphocyte lineages. In the 1960s a series of ontogenetic studies in birds and subsequently in mice revealed that hematopoietic and lymphoid development involved migration streams of primitive cells that colonized developing primary lymphoid organs as well as spleen, marrow, and liver. The yolk sac was proposed as the ultimate origin of these lympho-hematopoietic precursors. Subsequent studies identified a region associated with the dorsal aorta as the primary site of "definitive" stem cells. These opposing views are currently achieving a compromise that recognizes that both sites contribute stem cells involved in seeding the developing tissues. The clear distinction between the local origin of the inducing microenvironment provided by the endoderm or by stroma derived from mesenchymal stem cells of mesodermal origin, and the immigrant origin of the hematopoietic stem cells and progenitors, raises intriguing questions in the current climate of stem cell plasticity, cell fusion, and discovery of stem cells in adult marrow with the capacity to generate hematopoiesis as well as other mesodermal, ectodermal, and endodermal lineages.
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Affiliation(s)
- Malcolm A S Moore
- Cell Biology Program, Memorial Sloan-Kettering Cancer Center, New York, NY 10021, USA.
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Akamatsu Y, Monroe R, Dudley DD, Elkin SK, Gartner F, Talukder SR, Takahama Y, Alt FW, Bassing CH, Oettinger MA. Deletion of the RAG2 C terminus leads to impaired lymphoid development in mice. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2003; 100:1209-14. [PMID: 12531919 PMCID: PMC298752 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.0237043100] [Citation(s) in RCA: 76] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 11/19/2002] [Indexed: 01/22/2023] Open
Abstract
The recombination-activating gene (RAG)1 and RAG2 proteins comprise the lymphocyte-specific components of the V(D)J recombinase and are required for the assembly of antigen-receptor variable-region genes. A mutant truncated RAG2 protein ("core" RAG2) lacking the C-terminal 144 amino acids, together with core RAG1, is able to mediate the basic biochemical steps required for V(D)J recombination in vitro and in transfected cell lines. Here we examine the effect of replacing the endogenous RAG2 locus in mice with core RAG2. These mice generate substantial numbers of B and T cells, demonstrating that the core RAG2 protein retains significant in vivo function. However, core RAG2 mice display a reduction in the total number of B and T cells, reflecting impaired lymphocyte development at the progenitor stage associated with reduced chromosomal V(D)J recombination. We discuss potential roles of the RAG2 C terminus in mediating rearrangement of endogenous antigen-receptor loci.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yoshiko Akamatsu
- Department of Molecular Biology, Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston, MA 02114, USA
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17
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Abstract
Multipotent hematopoietic stem cells (HSC) differentiate into mature cells in the fetal liver (FL) during embryonic development, and in the bone marrow (BM) in adult animals. Multilineage differentiation is accomplished by the stepwise commitment of stem cells that sequentially loose differentiation potential. The characterization of the intermediate lymphoid precursors isolated from both hematopoietic sites suggests that, in FL, their potential of differentiation as well as their growth factor requirements are apparently less strict than in the BM. This could be the result of different commitment strategies at those sites: stochastic in the FL and instructive in the BM.
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Affiliation(s)
- Iyadh Douagi
- Unité du Développement des Lymphocytes, URA CNRS 1961, Institut Pasteur, 25-28 Rue du Docteur Roux, 75724 Paris, Cedex 15, France
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18
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de Andrés B, Gonzalo P, Minguet S, Martínez-Marin JA, Soro PG, Marcos MAR, Gaspar ML. The first 3 days of B-cell development in the mouse embryo. Blood 2002; 100:4074-81. [PMID: 12393735 DOI: 10.1182/blood-2002-03-0809] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
B-lineage-committed cells are believed to arise in the liver of mouse embryos at 14 days after coitus (dpc). However, pre-B-specific gene transcripts and DJH gene rearrangements have been detected in earlier, midgestation embryos. We describe here a population of c-kit(+)AA4.1(+)CD19(+)Pax5(+) cells present in the aorta-gonad-mesonephros (AGM) area and in the livers of 11-dpc mouse embryos. In contrast to multipotent c-kit(+)AA4.1(+)CD19(-) hematopoietic stem cells (HSCs), these c-kit(+)AA4.1(+)CD19(+) progenitors differentiated only to B-lineage cells in vitro. We propose that mouse embryonic B lymphopoiesis starts earlier than previously thought, at 10 to 11 dpc, both in liver and extra-liver hematopoietic sites. The B-cell differentiation program is not delayed with respect to the emerging lymphohematopoiesis events in the midgestation mouse embryo (8-9 dpc).
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Affiliation(s)
- Belen de Andrés
- Centro Nacional de Microbiologia, Instituto de Salud Carlos III (ISCIII), Majadahonda, Spain
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Jerebtsova M, Batshaw ML, Ye X. Humoral immune response to recombinant adenovirus and adeno-associated virus after in utero administration of viral vectors in mice. Pediatr Res 2002; 52:95-104. [PMID: 12084854 DOI: 10.1203/00006450-200207000-00018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/19/2023]
Abstract
Adenovirus and adeno-associated virus vector-mediated gene delivery is limited by the induction of a humoral immune response that prevents readministration. To determine whether viral delivery in the "preimmune" fetus would produce dose- or time-dependent tolerance, we evaluated the humoral immune response after sequential pre- and postnatal virus administration. We evaluated six injection route and viral dose combinations of adenovirus (intra-amniotic, intrahepatic, and intramuscular injection at 4 x 10(8) and 2 x 10(9) particles/fetus) at d 15 postconception (p.c.); three route and dose combinations at d 13 p.c. (intramuscular injection at 1 x 10(8), 3 x 10(8), and 5 x 10(8) particles/fetus); and one route and dose combination of adeno-associated virus (intramuscular at 2.5 x 10(10) genome copies/fetus) at d 15 p.c. In utero injection of either viral vector at any route and dose combination resulted in the production of low titers of neutralizing antivirus and antitransgene (beta-galactosidase) antibodies. This primary immune response only partially blocked transgene expression after the readministration of viral vectors postnatally. However, delivery of the virus postnatally triggered an immune response that completely blocked transgene expression after a third viral injection. Together, these results suggest that, for B6/129 F1 mice, in utero injection of recombinant adenovirus or adeno-associated virus between d 13 and 15 p.c. does not induce tolerance to the viral vector or transgene product.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marina Jerebtsova
- Centers for Genetic Medicine Research, Children's Research Institute, Children's National Medical Center, Washington, D.C. 20010, USA.
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20
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Douagi I, Colucci F, Di Santo JP, Cumano A. Identification of the earliest prethymic bipotent T/NK progenitor in murine fetal liver. Blood 2002; 99:463-71. [PMID: 11781226 DOI: 10.1182/blood.v99.2.463] [Citation(s) in RCA: 72] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
This article describes the isolation of a novel cell population (B220(lo)c-kit(+)CD19(-)) in the fetal liver that represents 70% of T-cell precursors in this organ. Interestingly, these precursors showed a bipotent T-cell and natural killer cell (NK)- restricted reconstitution potential but completely lacked B and erythromyeloid differentiation capacity both in vivo and in vitro. Moreover, not only mature T-cell receptor (TCR)alphabeta(+) peripheral T cells but also TCRgammadelta(+) and TCRalphabeta(+)CD8alphaalpha(+) intestinal epithelial cells of extrathymic origin were generated in reconstituted mice. The presence of this population in the fetal liver of athymic embryos indicates its prethymic origin. The comparison of the phenotype and differentiation potential of B220(lo)c-kit(+)CD19(-) fetal liver cells with those of thymic T/NK progenitors indicates that this is the most immature common T/NK cell progenitor so far identified. These fetal liver progenitors may represent the immediate developmental step before thymic immigration.
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MESH Headings
- Animals
- Antigens, Differentiation/analysis
- Cell Differentiation
- Cell Lineage
- Cell Movement
- Cell Separation
- DNA-Binding Proteins
- Flow Cytometry
- Gene Rearrangement, T-Lymphocyte
- Hematopoiesis
- Hematopoietic Stem Cells/chemistry
- Hematopoietic Stem Cells/cytology
- Hematopoietic System/embryology
- Immunophenotyping
- Interleukin Receptor Common gamma Subunit
- Killer Cells, Natural/cytology
- Leukocyte Common Antigens/analysis
- Liver/cytology
- Liver/embryology
- Mice
- Mice, Inbred C57BL
- Mice, Knockout
- Mice, Nude
- Receptors, Antigen, T-Cell, alpha-beta
- Receptors, Antigen, T-Cell, gamma-delta
- Receptors, Interleukin-7/deficiency
- Receptors, Interleukin-7/genetics
- Reverse Transcriptase Polymerase Chain Reaction
- T-Lymphocyte Subsets/cytology
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Affiliation(s)
- Iyadh Douagi
- Unité du Développement des Lymphocytes, Département d'Immunologie, Institut Pasteur, Paris, France.
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21
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Igarashi H, Kouro T, Yokota T, Comp PC, Kincade PW. Age and stage dependency of estrogen receptor expression by lymphocyte precursors. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2001; 98:15131-6. [PMID: 11752459 PMCID: PMC64995 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.011513098] [Citation(s) in RCA: 125] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Sex steroids negatively regulate B lymphopoiesis in adult mice. Paradoxically, lymphocytes arise during fetal life, when estrogen levels are high and maternal lymphopoiesis is suppressed. Here we demonstrate that embryonic B lymphopoiesis was unaffected by estrogen, but sensitive to glucocorticoids. Both fetal and adult precursors contained glucocorticoid receptor transcripts, but only adult precursors expressed estrogen receptor alpha and beta together with the androgen receptor. Fetal hematopoietic cells did not efficiently acquire functional estrogen receptors after transplantation to irradiated adult mice. Sex steroid receptors were also expressed in a stage- and developmental age-dependent fashion in human precursors. A developmental switch in responsiveness of hematopoietic cells to sex steroids may be essential for formation of the immune system.
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Affiliation(s)
- H Igarashi
- Immunobiology and Cancer Program, Oklahoma Medical Research Foundation, 825 Northeast 13th Street, Oklahoma City, OK 73104, USA
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22
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Martínez-M JA, Minguet S, Gonzalo P, Soro PG, de Andrés B, Izcue A, Marcos MA, Gaspar ML. Long-lived polyclonal B-cell lines derived from midgestation mouse embryo lymphohematopoietic progenitors reconstitute adult immunodeficient mice. Blood 2001; 98:1862-71. [PMID: 11535523 DOI: 10.1182/blood.v98.6.1862] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Lymphohematopoietic progenitors derived from midgestation mouse embryos were established in long-term cultures with stromal cell monolayers and interleukin 7 (IL-7), giving rise to B-lineage cell lines. The initial emergence and in vitro establishment of these early embryo cell lines were highly sensitive to IL-7-mediated signals, in comparison to cell lines similarly obtained using precursors from late fetal liver (> 13 days postcoitum) and adult bone marrow. The early embryo-derived progenitors spontaneously differentiated in vitro to CD19(+)IgM(+) immature B cells in the presence of optimal concentrations of IL-7, in contrast to those progenitors obtained from late gestation and adult mice, whose differentiation only occurred in the absence of IL-7. The newly in vitro-generated B cells of the early embryo cell lines repopulated adult immunodeficient severe combined immunodeficient mice on their adoptive transfer in vivo and generated specific humoral immune responses after immunization.
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Affiliation(s)
- J A Martínez-M
- Centro Nacional de Biología Fundamental, Instituto de Salud Carlos III (ISCIII), Majadahonda 28220, Spain
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23
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Abstract
Abstract
Gap junctions are intercellular channels, formed by individual structural units known as connexins (Cx), that allow the intercellular exchange of various messenger molecules. The finding that numbers of Cx43-type gap junctions in bone marrow are elevated during establishment and regeneration of the hematopoietic system has led to the hypothesis that expression of Cx43 is critical during the initiation of blood cell formation. To test this hypothesis, lymphoid and myeloid development were examined in mice with a targeted disruption of the gene encoding Cx43. Because Cx43−/− mice die perinatally, initial analyses were performed on Cx43−/−, Cx43+/−, and Cx43+/+ embryos and newborns. The data indicate that lack of Cx43 expression during embryogenesis compromises the terminal stages of primary T and B lymphopoiesis. Cx43−/− embryos and neonates had a reduced frequency of CD4+ and T-cell receptor-expressing thymocytes and surface IgM+cells compared to their Cx43+/+ littermates. Surprisingly, Cx43+/− embryos/neonates also showed defects in B- and T-cell development similar to those observed in Cx43−/− littermates, but their hematopoietic system was normal at 4 weeks of age. However, the regeneration of lymphoid and myeloid cells was severely impaired in the Cx43+/− mice after cytoablative treatment. Taken together, these data indicate that loss of a single Cx43 allele can affect blood cell formation. Finally, the results of reciprocal bone marrow transplants between Cx43+/+ and Cx43+/− mice and examination of hematopoietic progenitors and stromal cells in vitro indicates that the primary effects of Cx43 are mediated through its expression in the hematopoietic microenvironment.
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24
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Expression of connexin 43 (Cx43) is critical for normal hematopoiesis. Blood 2000. [DOI: 10.1182/blood.v96.3.917.015k45_917_924] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Gap junctions are intercellular channels, formed by individual structural units known as connexins (Cx), that allow the intercellular exchange of various messenger molecules. The finding that numbers of Cx43-type gap junctions in bone marrow are elevated during establishment and regeneration of the hematopoietic system has led to the hypothesis that expression of Cx43 is critical during the initiation of blood cell formation. To test this hypothesis, lymphoid and myeloid development were examined in mice with a targeted disruption of the gene encoding Cx43. Because Cx43−/− mice die perinatally, initial analyses were performed on Cx43−/−, Cx43+/−, and Cx43+/+ embryos and newborns. The data indicate that lack of Cx43 expression during embryogenesis compromises the terminal stages of primary T and B lymphopoiesis. Cx43−/− embryos and neonates had a reduced frequency of CD4+ and T-cell receptor-expressing thymocytes and surface IgM+cells compared to their Cx43+/+ littermates. Surprisingly, Cx43+/− embryos/neonates also showed defects in B- and T-cell development similar to those observed in Cx43−/− littermates, but their hematopoietic system was normal at 4 weeks of age. However, the regeneration of lymphoid and myeloid cells was severely impaired in the Cx43+/− mice after cytoablative treatment. Taken together, these data indicate that loss of a single Cx43 allele can affect blood cell formation. Finally, the results of reciprocal bone marrow transplants between Cx43+/+ and Cx43+/− mice and examination of hematopoietic progenitors and stromal cells in vitro indicates that the primary effects of Cx43 are mediated through its expression in the hematopoietic microenvironment.
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25
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Nourrit F, Doyen N, Kourilsky P, Rougeon F, Cumano A. Extensive Junctional Diversity of Ig Heavy Chain Rearrangements Generated in the Progeny of Single Fetal Multipotent Hematopoietic Cells in the Absence of Selection. THE JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY 1998. [DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.160.9.4254] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/02/2023]
Abstract
Abstract
We analyzed the progeny of individual multipotent hemopoietic cells, derived from the para-aortic splanchopleura, the earliest identified source of lymphocyte precursors in pre-liver mouse embryos. Single precursors were expanded in an in vitro culture system that permits both commitment and differentiation of B cell precursors. We show that from one single multipotent progenitor we could obtain large numbers of B cell precursors that rearrange the Ig heavy chain genes and generate a repertoire as diverse as that observed in adult populations. N region additions are present at V(D)J junctions, showing that terminal deoxynucleotidyl transferase expression has been switched on and is not, consequently, an intrinsic property of adult stem cells. Throughout the culture period, cells show a majority of DJ vs V(D)J rearrangements and a ratio of 2:1 of nonproductive to productive V(D)J rearrangements, which is close to the expected frequency in the absence of selection. In addition, counterselection for D-J rearrangements in reading frame 2 is observed in V(D)J joints, and allelic exclusion was consistently observed. We conclude that of the three events associated with heavy chain rearrangement, two of them, namely allelic exclusion and counterselection of cells in which the D segment is in reading frame 2, are intrinsic to the cell, while selection of productive heavy chain rearrangements is induced in the bone marrow environment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Françoise Nourrit
- †Unité de Génétique et Biochimie du Développement, Département d’Immunologie, Institut Pasteur, Paris, France
| | - Noëlle Doyen
- †Unité de Génétique et Biochimie du Développement, Département d’Immunologie, Institut Pasteur, Paris, France
| | | | - François Rougeon
- †Unité de Génétique et Biochimie du Développement, Département d’Immunologie, Institut Pasteur, Paris, France
| | - Ana Cumano
- *Unité de Biologie Moléculaire du Gène and
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26
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Delassus S, Darche S, Kourilsky P, Cumano A. Ontogeny of the Heavy Chain Immunoglobulin Repertoire in Fetal Liver and Bone Marrow. THE JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY 1998. [DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.160.7.3274] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
Abstract
Abstract
We studied the kinetics of maturation of B cell progenitors in the mouse embryo, from day 15 of development to birth, both in liver and bone marrow. The analysis of Ig heavy chain rearrangements at different time points of late fetal development shows that oligoclonal patterns of VH-D-JH rearrangements are detected by day 15 in fetal liver. The pattern is polyclonal and diverse by day 17; however, 80% of the rearrangements are nonproductive. In bone marrow, the pattern of rearrangements is less diverse at birth, although the percentage of nonproductive rearrangements approaches adult bone marrow levels (35–40%). After day 17 in fetal liver, there is a sudden reversal in the percentage of nonproductive rearrangements that reaches 33% at day 19 (birth). Maturation of B cells, as measured by the fraction of surface Ig+ in total B220+ cells and the presence of N sequence additions in VH-D-JH joints, occurs in the marrow before fetal liver. These results demonstrate that the lymphopoietic environment in fetal liver and bone marrow of animals at the same stage of development is functionally distinct.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sylvie Delassus
- Unité de Biologie Moléculaire du Gène, Institut Pasteur, Paris, France
| | - Sylvie Darche
- Unité de Biologie Moléculaire du Gène, Institut Pasteur, Paris, France
| | - Philippe Kourilsky
- Unité de Biologie Moléculaire du Gène, Institut Pasteur, Paris, France
| | - Ana Cumano
- Unité de Biologie Moléculaire du Gène, Institut Pasteur, Paris, France
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27
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Arroyo AG, Yang JT, Rayburn H, Hynes RO. Differential requirements for alpha4 integrins during fetal and adult hematopoiesis. Cell 1996; 85:997-1008. [PMID: 8674127 DOI: 10.1016/s0092-8674(00)81301-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 287] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/01/2023]
Abstract
Mice chimeric for the expression of alpha4 integrins were used to dissect the roles of these receptors in development and traffic of lymphoid and myeloid cells. During fetal life, T cell development is alpha4 independent, but after birth further production of T cells becomes alpha4 dependent. Precursors for both T and B cells require alpha4 integrins for normal development within the bone marrow. In contrast, monocytes and natural killer cells can develop normally without alpha4 integrins. Thus, there are lymphocyte-specific, developmentally regulated requirements for alpha4 integrins in hematopoiesis in the bone marrow. We also show that alpha4 integrins are essential for T cell homing to Peyer's patches, but not to other secondary lymphoid organs, including spleen, lymph nodes, and intestinal epithelium.
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Affiliation(s)
- A G Arroyo
- Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02139, USA
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28
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König H, Pfisterer P, Corcoran LM, Wirth T. Identification of CD36 as the first gene dependent on the B-cell differentiation factor Oct-2. Genes Dev 1995; 9:1598-607. [PMID: 7543064 DOI: 10.1101/gad.9.13.1598] [Citation(s) in RCA: 65] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/25/2023]
Abstract
The Oct-2 transcription factor is expressed predominantly in B lymphocytes and has been shown previously to be important for the terminal phase of B-cell differentiation in mice. A number of genes specifically expressed in B cells contain Oct-2-binding sites in their regulatory regions. However, the analysis of expression levels of these genes in Oct-2-deficient B cells revealed that they were unaffected. Hence, there were no genes known that critically depend on Oct-2 for their expression. To understand the molecular basis for the Oct-2 effect on B-cell development, we searched for Oct-2 target genes by subtractive cDNA cloning. We show here that expression of the murine CD36 gene in B cells and macrophages requires a functional Oct-2 protein. Nuclear run-on experiments demonstrate that this gene is regulated transcriptionally by Oct-2. Moreover, CD36 levels correlated with the levels of Oct-2 expression in several mouse B-cell and macrophage cell lines. Finally, compared to wild-type and heterozygous mice, CD36 mRNA levels were markedly reduced in spleens and B-cell-enriched splenocyte fractions from oct-2-/- mice. The data identify CD36 as the first target gene critically dependent on Oct-2 for its expression. Because CD36 expression is also dependent on Oct-2 in vivo, it is a candidate gene through which Oct-2 could affect B-cell differentiation.
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Affiliation(s)
- H König
- Zentrum für Molekulare Biologie Heidelberg, Germany
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29
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Kalled SL, Siva N, Stein H, Reinherz EL. The distribution of CD10 (NEP 24.11, CALLA) in humans and mice is similar in non-lymphoid organs but differs within the hematopoietic system: absence on murine T and B lymphoid progenitors. Eur J Immunol 1995; 25:677-87. [PMID: 7705396 DOI: 10.1002/eji.1830250308] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/26/2023]
Abstract
Prior studies in the human have implied an important function for CD10 (CALLA, neutral endopeptidase 24.11) in early lymphoid development. To examine the role of this ectoenzyme in an experimental system, a rat mAb specific for mouse CD10, termed R103, was generated. Immunohistological and flow cytometric analyses indicate that the distribution of CD10 in non-lymphoid anatomical compartments is virtually identical in human and mouse. However, CD10 expression within the hematopoietic system is strikingly different. In contrast to human spleen, lymph node and thymus, the corresponding mouse organs contain no detectable CD10+ cells. Mouse granulocytes, unlike human granulocytes, also lack CD10 expression. Five-color flow cytometric studies of adult bone marrow (BM) from C57BL/6 and BALB/c mice with mAb specific for CD43, B220, HSA, BP-1 and immunoglobulin M fail to detect any significant number of CD10+ cells at pro-B, pre-B or B cell stages. In addition, lymphoid cells in both (rIL-7) independent and rIL-7-dependent in vitro pro-B cell cultures lack CD10 expression. Consistent with this result, CD10 mRNA is not detected. Unlike the AA4.1+ population from day 13 and 14 fetal liver, the CD10+ subset is unable to reconstitute T and B lymphoid compartments in RAG-2-/- mice. Nevertheless, mouse CD10 is readily found on BM stromal elements known to support early B lineage lymphoid development. Given the common expression of CD10 on human and mouse BM stromal elements, this enzyme may have an important function in the stromal cell-dependent phase of hematopoiesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- S L Kalled
- Laboratory of Immunobiology, Dana-Farber Cancer Institute, Boston, MA 02115, USA
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30
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Affiliation(s)
- P Sideras
- Department of Cell and Molecular Biology, Umeå University, Sweden
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31
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Lam KP, Stall AM. Major histocompatibility complex class II expression distinguishes two distinct B cell developmental pathways during ontogeny. J Exp Med 1994; 180:507-16. [PMID: 7913950 PMCID: PMC2191599 DOI: 10.1084/jem.180.2.507] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/27/2023] Open
Abstract
All mature B cells coexpress major histocompatibility complex (MHC) class II molecules, I-A and I-E, which are restriction elements required for antigen presentation to CD4+ T cells. However, the expression of class II during the early stages of B cell development has been unclear. We demonstrate here that there is a difference in the expression of class II during murine B cell development in the fetal liver and adult bone marrow (BM). These differences define two distinct B cell developmental pathways. The Fetal-type (FT) pathway is characterized by pre-B and immature IgM+ B cells generated in the fetal liver which initially lack all class II expression. In contrast, the Adult-type (AT) pathway is typified by B cells developing in the adult BM which express class II molecules from the pre-B cell stage. In vitro stromal cell cultures of sorted fetal liver and adult BM pro-B cells indicated that the difference in I-A expression during B cell development is intrinsic to the progenitors. In addition, we show that FT B cell development is not restricted to the fetal liver but occurs in the peritoneal cavities, spleens, liver, and BM of young mice up to at least 1 mo of age. The AT B cell development begins to emerge after birth but is, however, restricted to the BM environment. These findings indicate that there are two distinct B cell developmental pathways during ontogeny, each of which could contribute differentially to the immune repertoire and thus the functions of B cell subsets and lineages.
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Affiliation(s)
- K P Lam
- Department of Microbiology, College of Physicians & Surgeons, Columbia University, New York 10032
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32
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Roth PE, Doglio L, Manz JT, Kim JY, Lo D, Storb U. Immunoglobulin gamma 2b transgenes inhibit heavy chain gene rearrangement, but cannot promote B cell development. J Exp Med 1993; 178:2007-21. [PMID: 8245779 PMCID: PMC2191288 DOI: 10.1084/jem.178.6.2007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/29/2023] Open
Abstract
Transgenic mice with a gamma 2b transgene were produced to investigate whether gamma 2b can replace mu in the development of B lymphocytes. Transgenic gamma 2b is present on the surface of B cells. Young transgenic mice have a dramatic decrease in B cell numbers, however, older mice have almost normal B cell numbers. Strikingly, all gamma 2b-expressing B cells in the spleen also express mu. The same is true for mice with a hybrid transgene in which the mu transmembrane and intracytoplasmic sequences replace those of gamma 2b (gamma 2b-mumem). The B cell defect is not due to toxicity of gamma 2b since crosses between gamma 2b transgenic and mu transgenic mice have normal numbers of B cells. Presence of the gamma 2b transgene strongly enhances the feedback inhibition of endogenous heavy chain gene rearrangement. Light chain genes are expressed normally, and the early expression of transgenic light chains does not improve B cell maturation. When the endogenous mu locus is inactivated, B cells do not develop at all in gamma 2b transgenic mice. The data suggest that gamma 2b cannot replace mu in promoting the developmental maturation of B cells, but that it can cause feedback inhibition of heavy chain gene rearrangement. Thus, the signals for heavy chain feedback and B cell maturation appear to be different.
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Affiliation(s)
- P E Roth
- Department of Molecular Genetics and Cell Biology, University of Chicago, Illinois 60637
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33
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Abstract
We describe a dramatic reduction in numbers and activity of committed B lymphocyte precursors in the bone marrow of normal pregnant mice. Changes in cells responsive to IL-7 were evident as early as 6.5 d of pregnancy and values were < 10% of normal at parturition. B lineage precursors, identified by display of CD45R and absence of surface IgM, were also substantially depressed, and subpopulations representing different stages in the B lineage were assessed by three-color flow cytometry. Early pro-B cells are medium to large in size and have been previously characterized by low expression of the heat-stable antigen (HSA). This category of cells was not reduced, and in fact may have been slightly elevated, during pregnancy. In contrast, all subsequent populations of B lineage precursors, defined by patterns of expression of heat-stable and CD43 antigens, were substantially depressed. The immediate precursors of B cells (small pre-B cells) were identified by small size, expression of CD45R, absence of CD43, and lack of surface IgM. These were the most reduced of any phenotypically defined population in bone marrow. Numbers of newly formed B cells, characterized by the presence of sIgM, but not sIgD, were also diminished. However, B cells with a mature phenotype (sIgM+, sIgD+) were present in normal to somewhat elevated numbers. Mitogen-responsive B cells clonable in a semisolid agar assay were not significantly affected. A bromodeoxyuridine (BrdU) labeling technique was used to evaluate mitotic activity, which revealed an increased proportion of long-lived lymphocytes in the bone marrow of pregnant mice. These observations indicate that B lymphopoiesis is markedly downregulated during pregnancy and that all precursor populations beyond the early pro-B cell stage are affected. The pregnancy-related changes in bone marrow were selective for B lineage precursors, as cells expressing myeloid and erythroid markers were not reduced. In spleen, evidence was obtained for partial depletion of one subset of B cells. These cells, which have been reported to be recent immigrants from marrow, are characterized as having high levels of sIgM and HSA. Changes in other major B lymphocyte subsets in the spleen were less remarkable. When considered with results from the BrdU labeling procedure, the findings indicate that both production and export of lymphocytes from marrow may be substantially decreased. Numbers of B cell precursors were higher in postpartum animals whose litters were removed at birth, suggesting that lactation may prolong regeneration of lymphocyte production.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 400 WORDS)
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Affiliation(s)
- K L Medina
- Oklahoma Medical Research Foundation, Oklahoma City 73104
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34
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Li YS, Hayakawa K, Hardy RR. The regulated expression of B lineage associated genes during B cell differentiation in bone marrow and fetal liver. J Exp Med 1993; 178:951-60. [PMID: 8350062 PMCID: PMC2191150 DOI: 10.1084/jem.178.3.951] [Citation(s) in RCA: 458] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/30/2023] Open
Abstract
The expression of B lineage associated genes during early B cell differentiation stages is not firmly established. Using cell surface markers and multiparameter flow cytometry, bone marrow (BM) cells can be resolved into six fractions, representing sequential stages of development; i.e., pre-Pro-B, early Pro-B, late Pro-B/large Pre-B, small Pre-B, immature B, and mature B cells. Here we quantitate the levels of several B lineage associated genes in each of these fractions by RT-PCR, demonstrating different patterns of expression. We find that expression of terminal deoxynucleotidyl transferase (TdT), lambda 5, and VpreB is predominantly restricted to the Pro-B stages. Rag-1 and Rag-2 expression is also tightly regulated, and is found largely in the Pro-B through small Pre-B stages. Mb-1 is present from Pro-B throughout the pathway at high levels. Finally, Bcl-2 is expressed at high levels only at the pre-Pro-B and mature B stages, whereas it is low during all the intermediate stages. We also correlate this expression data with an analysis of the onset of Ig gene rearrangement as assessed by amplifying D-JH, VH-DJH, and VK-JK. Finally, we report differences in gene expression during B lymphopoiesis at two distinct ontogenic timings, in fetal liver and adult BM: both TdT and the precursor lymphocyte regulated myosin-like light chain are expressed at high levels in the Pro-B cell stage in bone marrow, but are absent from the corresponding fraction in fetal liver. In contrast, lambda 5, VpreB, Rag-1, and Rag-2 are expressed at comparable levels.
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Affiliation(s)
- Y S Li
- Institute for Cancer Research, Fox Chase Cancer Center, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania 19111
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35
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Abstract
It is suggested that most childhood acute lymphoblastic leukaemias and some other paediatric cancers are chemo-curable because they arise in stem cell populations that are functionally transient, chemosensitive and programmed for apoptosis. Most adult acute leukaemias are chemo-incurable at least in part because they originate in relatively drug resistant stem cells with extensive self-renewal capacity. The latter property in turn increases the probability of clones evolving with multi-drug resistance. Particular mutations may superimpose additional adverse features on leukaemic cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- M F Greaves
- Leukaemia Research Fund Centre, Institute of Cancer Research, Chester Beatty Laboratories, London, UK
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36
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Affiliation(s)
- A Rolink
- Basel Institute for Immunology, Switzerland
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37
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Hardy R, Hayakawa K. Generation of Ly-1 B cells from developmentally distinct precursors. Enrichment by stromal-cell culture or cell sorting. Ann N Y Acad Sci 1992; 651:99-111. [PMID: 1376094 DOI: 10.1111/j.1749-6632.1992.tb24600.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/26/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- R Hardy
- Institute for Cancer Research, Fox Chase Cancer Center, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania 19111
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38
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Carlsson L, Overmo C, Holmberg D. Developmentally controlled selection of antibody genes: characterization of individual VH7183 genes and evidence for stage-specific somatic diversification. Eur J Immunol 1992; 22:71-8. [PMID: 1730262 DOI: 10.1002/eji.1830220112] [Citation(s) in RCA: 49] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/28/2022]
Abstract
Nucleotide sequence analysis of a large number of rearranged immunoglobulin heavy chain V region genes allowed the identification of six new members of the VH7183 gene family. These six new genes plus the eight previously defined genes agrees with the previously estimated complexity of this gene family. Twelve of these genes were represented among the isolated clones. A comparison of the clones, derived from 1-day- and 14-week-old BALB/c mice, suggested a biased and developmentally controlled VH7183 gene utilization. Furthermore, a developmentally controlled, non-random distribution of the functional vs. non-functional VHDJH rearrangements was observed among clones utilizing genes of this family, suggesting unsuspected regulatory aspects of Ig rearrangements in the process of B cell differentiation. Finally, a limited junctional diversity was revealed among the neonatal clones as the result of a low frequency of N-sequence addition. A similar discrepancy was also observed between neonatal and adult VHJ558 clones. In conclusion, these data suggest a programmed generation of B cell diversity similar to what has been observed for the establishment of gamma/delta T cell repertoires.
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Affiliation(s)
- L Carlsson
- Unit for Applied Cell and Molecular Biology, University of Umeå, Sweden
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39
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Tsutsumi A, Terajima J, Jung W, Ransom J. Surface mu heavy chain expressed on pre-B lymphomas transduces Ca2+ signals but fails to cause growth arrest of pre-B lymphomas. Cell Immunol 1992; 139:44-57. [PMID: 1728970 DOI: 10.1016/0008-8749(92)90098-a] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/28/2022]
Abstract
Little is known about the role of signals transduced by cell surface IgM (sIgM) expressed during early B cell development. A subclone (1.6) of the late pre-B cell lymphoma 70Z/3.12 was used to study signal transduction by surface mu heavy (H) chain before and after transition to the early immature B cell stage, and the functional consequences thereof. Although kappa L chain expression can be induced on 1.6 cells by LPS or cytokines, immunoprecipitations indicated that the non-induced 1.6 cells expressed mu H chain with an alternative protein(s) which may be a surrogate light chain(s). Consistent with this, anti-mu but not anti-kappa or anti-lambda antibodies caused transient Ca2+ mobilization in noninduced 1.6 cells. The Ca2+ signal was derived from both intracellular stores and Ca2+ influx in either noninduced cells or in cells that had been preinduced to express kappa L chain. Thus, the ability of mu H chain to mobilize Ca2+ as a second messenger does not depend upon the expression of mature L chains. The immature B lymphomas, WEHI-231 and CH1, express mature forms of IgM and undergo growth arrest when stimulated by anti-mu antibody. In contrast, signals generated by mu H chain on either noninduced or preinduced 1.6 cells or in the sIgM+ pre-B cell transfectant 300-19 mu lambda 36/8 did not cause growth arrest. These results suggest that mu H chain expressed on pre-B cells is capable of mobilizing Ca2+, but that this signal alone is insufficient to induce growth arrest in the pre-B cell.
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Affiliation(s)
- A Tsutsumi
- Department of Molecular Immunology, Syntex Research, Palo Alto, California 94304
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40
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Decker DJ, Klinman NR. Interrelating B cell subpopulations and environmental regulation with the expression of three tiers of repertoire diversity. Int Rev Immunol 1992; 8:159-71. [PMID: 1602210 DOI: 10.3109/08830189209055571] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/27/2022]
Abstract
The B cell repertoire consists of three tiers of clonotype diversity. One tier, which is the product of H chain V region rearrangements in the absence of N additions, is of limited diversity (less than 10(8) clonotypes) so that clonotypes of this tier would be expected to recur within and among B cells of individuals of an inbred strain. These clonotypes, therefore, could be subjected to, and conserved by, evolutionary selective pressures such as those imposed by ubiquitous bacterial pathogens. The second tier of clonotypes is created by H chain V region rearrangements that include N additions, and is, therefore, exceedingly diverse. Clonotypes of this tier would be unlikely to recur; however, by providing maximal diversity they would ensure protection against a wide spectrum of pathogens. The third tier of diversity is that which is generated by the superimposition of somatic mutations on clonotypes of the other two tiers. This tier of clonotypes is reflective of the refinement of specificities that are destined for expression in memory B cells. B cells exists as three distinct subpopulations, Ly-1 B cells, conventional primary B cells and memory B cells. These subpopulations differ functionally, developmentally, and by the extent to which they are impacted by immunoregulatory processes. Furthermore, B cells of these subpopulations differentially express the three tiers of clonotype diversity.
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Affiliation(s)
- D J Decker
- Department of Immunology, Scripps Research Institute, La Jolla, CA 92037
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41
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Coutinho A, Freitas AA, Holmberg D, Grandien A. Expression and selection of murine antibody repertoires. Int Rev Immunol 1992; 8:173-87. [PMID: 1602211 DOI: 10.3109/08830189209055572] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/27/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- A Coutinho
- Unité d'Immunobiologie, CNRS URA 359, Institut Pasteur, Paris, France
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42
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Melchers F, Haasner D, Karasuyama H, Reininger L, Rolink A. Progenitor and precursor B lymphocytes of mice. Proliferation and differentiation in vitro and population, differentiation and turnover in SCID mice in vivo of normal and abnormal cells. Curr Top Microbiol Immunol 1992; 182:3-12. [PMID: 1490368 DOI: 10.1007/978-3-642-77633-5_1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/27/2022]
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43
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Morrow T, Schlissel M. The purification of B-cell precursors from mouse fetal liver. Curr Top Microbiol Immunol 1992; 182:55-64. [PMID: 1490391 DOI: 10.1007/978-3-642-77633-5_7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/27/2022]
Abstract
Lymphocyte progenitor cells isolated on sequential days of gestation from mouse fetal liver represent distinct stages in B cell development. We have utilized polymerase chain reaction (PCR)-based assays to detect immunoglobulin (Ig) gene rearrangement and flow cytometry to assay cell surface markers following fractionation based on the differential expression of the B cell-specific phosphatase CD45 (B220). The purification of B220+ cells from day 17 fetal liver resulted in a 10-fold enrichment of cells which had undergone gene rearrangement events. We have also shown that day 13 fetal liver cells activate successive Ig gene rearrangements during short-term culture in the presence of fetal calf serum (FCS), interleukin-3 (IL3), and interleukin-7 (IL7). However, partially purified lymphocyte precursors fail to activate Ig gene rearrangement in culture unless they are cultured in the presence of a stromal cell line.
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Affiliation(s)
- T Morrow
- Department of Medicine, John Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland 21205
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44
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Rolink A, Streb M, Melchers F. The kappa/lambda ratio in surface immunoglobulin molecules on B lymphocytes differentiating from DHJH-rearranged murine pre-B cell clones in vitro. Eur J Immunol 1991; 21:2895-8. [PMID: 1936127 DOI: 10.1002/eji.1830211137] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/29/2022]
Abstract
The expression of kappa and lambda light chains in surface immunoglobulin (sIg) molecules on B lymphocytes differentiating from murine pre-B cell clones in vitro was analyzed. The four pre-B cell clones used represent a very early pre-B cell stage. They have their heavy chain loci DJ rearranged and their light chain loci in germ-line configuration. In order to grow in vitro, these clones require contact with stromal cells and the stimulatory activity of interleukin (IL) 7. Upon removal of IL 7 from the cultures, these clones differentiate within 3 days into sIg+ B cells. Between 7% and 12% of IgM+ B cells could be detected in these cultures. The majority (78%-92%) of the IgM+ B cells co-expressed kappa light chains. The percentage of lambda light chain expressing B cells was below detectable level. Upon lipopolysaccharide (LPS) stimulation, the percentages of IgM+ B cells increased dramatically (from 32%-64%). The majority (91%-97%) of the IgM+ B cells express kappa chains, but a very small percentage (3.1%-5.0%) express lambda. A similarly high kappa/lambda ratio was found in 418 hybridomas prepared from these LPS-stimulated B cells (388 kappa+ and 30 lambda+). Thus, the high kappa/lambda ratio characteristic of the mouse peripheral B cell repertoire is already evident in the antigen-independent transition from pre-B to B cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- A Rolink
- Basel Institute for Immunology, Switzerland
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45
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Reynaud CA, Anquez V, Weill JC. The chicken D locus and its contribution to the immunoglobulin heavy chain repertoire. Eur J Immunol 1991; 21:2661-70. [PMID: 1936114 DOI: 10.1002/eji.1830211104] [Citation(s) in RCA: 82] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/29/2022]
Abstract
Sixteen D elements were characterized from the chicken genome, 15 of which are extremely homologous. Early expression of this D repertoire was studied for both DJ and VDJ alleles. No N diversification occurs at either DJ or VD junctions. Only P additions were observed, the length of which does not appear restricted to a dinucleotide. A selection for the almost exclusive usage of the first reading frame of the D elements takes place during B cell expansion in the bursa, in parallel with the selection of productive rearrangements. All three reading frames were observed for the DJ allele at each developmental stage, although some bias for the first reading frame occurs already at the junctional stage. The high incidence of D-D junctions observed (25% among DJ sequences) might represent the major functional contribution of this multigene cluster in a system in which diversity will be generated later on by successive superimposed gene conversions. Other possible functions are discussed. The onset of D diversification through gene conversion between day 15 and day 18 of embryonic development is further documented.
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46
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Affiliation(s)
- A Rolink
- Basel Institute for Immunology, Switzerland
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47
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Imhof BA, Schlienger C, Handloser K, Hesse B, Slanicka M, Gisler R. Monoclonal antibodies that block adhesion of B cell progenitors to bone marrow stroma in vitro prevent B cell differentiation in vivo. Eur J Immunol 1991; 21:2043-9. [PMID: 1889455 DOI: 10.1002/eji.1830210911] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/29/2022]
Abstract
B cell differentiation requires adhesion of B cell progenitors to bone marrow (BM) or fetal liver stroma. We show that B lymphoid cells can adhere to the BM stroma cell line CS 1.3, in vitro. Two monoclonal antibodies, SAB-1 and SAB-2, inhibited the adhesion of a B220+ progenitor B cell line but did not interfere with the binding of cytoplasmic mu chain-positive pre-B cells or mature B cells to the BM stromal cell line. Injection of both SAB-1 and SAB-2 antibodies into pregnant mice reduced by 90% the number of B220+n B lineage cells in the livers of their embryos. Livers from such embryos also were virtually devoid of cells able to give rise to B cell colonies in soft agar cultures (CFU-preB). Either antibody separately had no effect. Flow cytometry analysis show that SAB-1 is present on CS 1.3 stroma cells and on a pre-B cell line while SAB-2 is present on pro-B and pre-B cell lines, but not on CS 1.3 stromal cells. SAB-1 and SAB-2 react with different molecules and neither antibody seems to recognize CD44, and adhesion molecule that may also participate in B cell differentiation. Proteinase K and trypsin can digest both SAB-1 and SAB-2 antigens from viable cells suggesting that both are cell surface proteins. We propose that antibodies SAB-1 and SAB-2 probably recognize novel cell-cell adhesion molecules, and that these molecules are involved in the interactions between B cell progenitors and stroma cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- B A Imhof
- Basel Institute for Immunology, Switzerland
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48
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Marcos MA, Gutierrez JC, Huetz F, Martinez C, Dieterlen-Lièvre F. Waves of B-lymphopoiesis in the establishment of the mouse B-cell compartment. Scand J Immunol 1991; 34:129-35. [PMID: 1714100 DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-3083.1991.tb01529.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/28/2022]
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49
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Adams JM, Cory S. Transgenic models for haemopoietic malignancies. BIOCHIMICA ET BIOPHYSICA ACTA 1991; 1072:9-31. [PMID: 2018781 DOI: 10.1016/0304-419x(91)90004-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/29/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- J M Adams
- Walter and Eliza Hall Institute of Medical Research, Melbourne, Australia
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50
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Osmond DG. Proliferation kinetics and the lifespan of B cells in central and peripheral lymphoid organs. Curr Opin Immunol 1991; 3:179-85. [PMID: 2069745 DOI: 10.1016/0952-7915(91)90047-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 117] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/30/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- D G Osmond
- McGill University, Montreal, Quebec, Canada
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