Rapid assembly of sensitive antigen-capture assays for Marburg virus, using in vitro selection of llama single-domain antibodies, at biosafety level 4

A review on camelid nanobodies with potential application in veterinary medicine

The single variable domains of camelid heavy-chain only antibodies, known as nanobodies, have taken a long journey since their discovery in 1989 until the first nanobody-based drug's entrance to the market in 2022. On account of their unique properties, nanobodies have been successfully used for diagnosis and therapy against various diseases or conditions. Although research on the application of recombinant antibodies has focused on human medicine, the development of nanobodies has paved the way for incorporating recombinant antibody production in favour of veterinary medicine. Currently, despite many efforts in developing these biomolecules with diversified applications, significant opportunities exist for exploiting these highly versatile and cost-effective antibodies in veterinary medicine. The present study attempts to identify existing gaps and shed light on paths for future research by presenting an updated review on camelid nanobodies with potential applications in veterinary medicine.

Nanobodies in the fight against infectious diseases: repurposing nature's tiny weapons

Nanobodies are the smallest known antigen-binding molecules to date. Their small size, good tissue penetration, high stability and solubility, ease of expression, refolding ability, and negligible immunogenicity in the human body have granted them excellence over conventional antibodies. Those exceptional attributes of nanobodies make them promising candidates for various applications in biotechnology, medicine, protein engineering, structural biology, food, and agriculture. This review presents an overview of their structure, development methods, advantages, possible challenges, and applications with special emphasis on infectious diseases-related ones. A showcase of how nanobodies can be harnessed for applications including neutralization of viruses and combating antibiotic-resistant bacteria is detailed. Overall, the impact of nanobodies in vaccine design, rapid diagnostics, and targeted therapies, besides exploring their role in deciphering microbial structures and virulence mechanisms are highlighted. Indeed, nanobodies are reshaping the future of infectious disease prevention and treatment.

Antibody Phage Display Technology for Sensor-Based Virus Detection: Current Status and Future Prospects

Viruses are widespread in the environment, and many of them are major pathogens of serious plant, animal, and human diseases. The risk of pathogenicity, together with the capacity for constant mutation, emphasizes the need for measures to rapidly detect viruses. The need for highly sensitive bioanalytical methods to diagnose and monitor socially significant viral diseases has increased in the past few years. This is due, on the one hand, to the increased incidence of viral diseases in general (including the unprecedented spread of a new coronavirus infection, SARS-CoV-2), and, on the other hand, to the need to overcome the limitations of modern biomedical diagnostic methods. Phage display technology antibodies as nano-bio-engineered macromolecules can be used for sensor-based virus detection. This review analyzes the commonly used virus detection methods and approaches and shows the prospects for the use of antibodies prepared by phage display technology as sensing elements for sensor-based virus detection.

Recombinant antibodies by phage display for bioanalytical applications

Antibody phage display, aimed at preparing antibodies to defined antigens, is a useful replacement for hybridoma technology. The phage system replaces all work stages that follow animal immunization with simple procedures for manipulating DNA and bacteria. It enables the time needed to generate stable antibody-producing clones to be shortened considerably, making the process noticeably cheaper. Antibodies prepared by phage display undergo several affinity selection steps and can be used as selective receptors in biosensors. This article briefly describes the techniques used in the making of phage antibodies to various antigens. The possibilities and prospects are discussed of using phage antibodies as selective agents in analytical systems, including biosensors.

Nanobodies in the limelight: Multifunctional tools in the fight against viruses

Antibodies are natural antivirals generated by the vertebrate immune system in response to viral infection or vaccination. Unsurprisingly, they are also key molecules in the virologist's molecular toolbox. With new developments in methods for protein engineering, protein functionalization and application, smaller antibody-derived fragments are moving in focus. Among these, camelid-derived nanobodies play a prominent role. Nanobodies can replace full-sized antibodies in most applications and enable new possible applications for which conventional antibodies are challenging to use. Here we review the versatile nature of nanobodies, discuss their promise as antiviral therapeutics, for diagnostics, and their suitability as research tools to uncover novel aspects of viral infection and disease.

Generating Uniformly Cross-Reactive Ebolavirus spp. Anti-nucleoprotein Nanobodies to Facilitate Forward Capable Detection Strategies

It is often challenging for a single monoclonal antibody to cross-react equally with all species of a particular viral genus that are separated by time and geographies to ensure broad long-term global immunodiagnostic use. Here, we set out to isolate nanobodies or single-domain antibodies (sdAbs) with uniform cross-reactivity to the genus Ebolavirus by immunizing a llama with recombinant nucleoprotein (NP) representing the 5 cultivated species to assemble a phage display repertoire for mining. Screening sdAbs for reactivity against the C-terminal domain of NP guided the isolation of clones that could perform as both captor and tracer for polyvalent antigen in sandwich assays. Two promising sdAbs had equivalent reactivities across all 5 species and greatly enhanced the equilibrium concentration at 50% (EC₅₀) for recombinant NP when compared with a differentially cross-reactive nonimmune sdAb isolated previously. Uniform reactivity and enhanced sensitivity were relayed to live virus titrations, resulting in lower limits of detection of 2-5 pfu for the best sdAbs, representing 10-, 20-, and 100-fold improvements for Zaire, Sudan/Reston, and Taï Forest viruses, respectively. Fusions of the sdAbs with ascorbate peroxidase (APEX2) and mNeonGreen generated one-step immunoreagents useful for colorimetric and fluorescent visualization of cellular NP. Both sdAbs were also able to recognize recombinant NPs from the recently discovered Bombali virus, a putative sixth Ebolavirus species unknown at the start of these experiments, validating the forward capabilities of the sdAbs. The simplicity and modularity of these sdAbs should enable advances in antigen-based diagnostic technologies to be retuned toward filoviral detection relatively easily, thereby proactively safeguarding human health.

Visualizing Filoviral Nucleoproteins Using Nanobodies Fused to the Ascorbate Peroxidase Derivatives APEX2 and dEAPX

Fusions of single-domain antibodies (sdAbs, nanobodies) to enzymatic reporters make convenient molecular probes to detect the presence of an antigen of interest. We have previously fused the monomeric hyperactive ascorbate peroxidase derivative APEX2 to anti-Ebolavirus and anti-Marburgvirus sdAbs to generate immunoreagents useful in detecting nucleoprotein (NP) on western blots, ELISA, and within cells following transfection of NP expression plasmids or following virus infection. Here we present the methods used to overexpress and purify these sdAb-APEX2 fusion proteins, and to employ them as probes in various scenarios with colorimetric and fluorometric signal development. We also introduce a dimeric hyperactive ascorbate peroxidase derivative dEAPX that enables bivalent sdAb probes to be produced while avoiding the need to generate more complex tandem sdAbs, leveraging avidity for improved signal strength. The APEX2 and dEAPX reagents appear interchangeable with any existing detection platform and the methods described here should enable a user to study their antigen of interest by simply swapping out the sdAb for their recombinant affinity reagent of choice.

Nanobodies: The "Magic Bullets" in therapeutics, drug delivery and diagnostics

Antibodies represent a well-established class of clinical diagnostics for medical applications as well as essential research and biotechnological tools. Although both polyclonal and monoclonal antibodies are indispensable reagents in basic research and diagnostics but both of them have their limitations. Hence, there is urgent need to develop strategies aimed at production of alternative scaffolds and recombinant antibodies of smaller dimensions that could be easily produced, selected and manipulated. Unlike conventional antibodies, members of Camelidae and sharks produce antibodies composed only of heavy chains with small size, high solubility, thermal stability, refolding capacity and good tissue penetration in vivo. The discovery of these naturally occurring antibodies having only heavy-chain in Camelidae family and their further development into small recombinant nanobodies represents an attractive alternative in drug delivery, diagnostics and imaging. Nanobody derivatives are soluble, stable, versatile, have unique refolding capacities, reduced aggregation tendencies and high-target binding capabilities. They can be genetically customized to target enzymes, transmembrane proteins or molecular interactions. Their ability to recognize recessed antigenic sites has been attributed to their smaller size and the ability of the extended CDR3 loop to quickly penetrate into such epitopes. With the advent of molecular engineering and phage display technology, they can be of potential use in molecular imaging, drug delivery and therapeutics for several major diseases. In this review we present the recent advances in nanobodies for modulating immune functions, for targeting cancers, viruses, toxins and microbes as well as their utility as diagnostic and biosensor tools.

Paratope Duality and Gullying are Among the Atypical Recognition Mechanisms Used by a Trio of Nanobodies to Differentiate Ebolavirus Nucleoproteins

We had previously shown that three anti–Marburg virus nanobodies (VHH or single-domain antibody [sdAb]) targeted a cryptotope within an alpha-helical assembly at the nucleoprotein (NP) C-terminus that was conserved through half a century of viral evolution. Here, we wished to determine whether an anti–Ebola virus sdAb, that was cross-reactive within the Ebolavirus genus, recognized a similar structural feature upstream of the ebolavirus NP C-terminus. In addition, we sought to determine whether the specificities of a less cross-reactive anti–Zaire ebolavirus sdAb and a totally specific anti–Sudan ebolavirus sdAb were the result of exclusion from this region. Binding and X-ray crystallographic studies revealed that the primary determinant of cross-reactivity did indeed appear to be a preference for the helical feature. Specificity, in the case of the Zaire ebolavirus–specific sdAb, arose from the footprint shifting away from the helices to engage more variable residues. While both sdAbs used CDRs, they also had atypical side-on approaches, with framework 2 helping to accommodate parts of the epitope in sizeable paratope gullies. The Sudan ebolavirus–specific sdAb was more remarkable and appeared to bind two C-terminal domains simultaneously via nonoverlapping epitopes—“paratope duality.” One mode involved paratope gullying, whereas the other involved only CDRs, with CDR3 restructuring to wedge in between opposing walls of an interdomain crevice. The varied routes used by sdAbs to engage antigens discovered here deepen our appreciation of the small scaffold’s architectural versatility and also reveal lucrative opportunities within the ebolavirus NP C-termini that might be leveraged for diagnostics and novel therapeutic targeting.

Isolation of nanobodies against Xenopus embryonic antigens using immune and non-immune phage display libraries

The use of Xenopus laevis as a model for vertebrate developmental biology is limited by a lack of antibodies specific for embryonic antigens. This study evaluated the use of immune and non-immune phage display libraries for the isolation of single domain antibodies, or nanobodies, with specificities for Xenopus embryonic antigens. The immune nanobody library was derived from peripheral blood lymphocyte RNA obtained from a llama immunized with Xenopus gastrula homogenates. Screening this library by immunostaining of embryonic tissues with pooled periplasmic material and sib-selection led to the isolation of several monoclonal phages reactive with the cytoplasm and nuclei of gastrula cells. One antigen recognized by a group of nanobodies was identified using a reverse proteomics approach as nucleoplasmin, an abundant histone chaperone. As an alternative strategy, a semi-synthetic non-immune llama nanobody phage display library was panned on highly purified Xenopus proteins. This proof-of-principle approach isolated monoclonal nanobodies that specifically bind Nuclear distribution element-like 1 (Ndel1) in multiple immunoassays. Our results suggest that immune and non-immune phage display screens on crude and purified embryonic antigens can efficiently identify nanobodies useful to the Xenopus developmental biology community.

Periplasmic Nanobody-APEX2 Fusions Enable Facile Visualization of Ebola, Marburg, and Mĕnglà virus Nucleoproteins, Alluding to Similar Antigenic Landscapes among Marburgvirus and Dianlovirus

We explore evolved soybean ascorbate peroxidase (APEX2) as a reporter when fused to the C-termini of llama nanobodies (single-domain antibodies, sdAb; variable domains of heavy chain-only antibodies, VHH) targeted to the E. coli periplasm. Periplasmic expression preserves authentic antibody N-termini, intra-domain disulphide bond(s), and capitalizes on efficient haem loading through the porous E. coli outer membrane. Using monomeric and dimeric anti-nucleoprotein (NP) sdAb cross-reactive within the Marburgvirus genus and cross-reactive within the Ebolavirus genus, we show that periplasmic sdAb–APEX2 fusion proteins are easily purified at multi-mg amounts. The fusions were used in Western blotting, ELISA, and microscopy to visualize NPs using colorimetric and fluorescent imaging. Dimeric sdAb–APEX2 fusions were superior at binding NPs from viruses that were evolutionarily distant to that originally used to select the sdAb. Partial conservation of the anti-Marburgvirus sdAb epitope enabled the recognition of a novel NP encoded by the recently discovered Mĕnglà virus genome. Antibody–antigen interactions were rationalized using monovalent nanoluciferase titrations and contact mapping analysis of existing crystal structures, while molecular modelling was used to reveal the potential landscape of the Mĕnglà NP C-terminal domain. The sdAb–APEX2 fusions also enabled live Marburgvirus and Ebolavirus detection 24 h post-infection of Vero E6 cells within a BSL-4 laboratory setting. The simple and inexpensive mining of large amounts of periplasmic sdAb–APEX2 fusion proteins should help advance studies of past, contemporary, and perhaps Filovirus species yet to be discovered.

Diagnostics for filovirus detection: impact of recent outbreaks on the diagnostic landscape

Ebolaviruses and Marburg virus (MARV) both belong to the family Filoviridae and cause severe haemorrhagic fever in humans. Due to high mortality rates and potential for spread from rural to urban regions, they are listed on the WHO R&D blueprint of high-priority pathogens. Recent ebolavirus outbreaks in Western and Central Africa have highlighted the importance of diagnostic testing in epidemic preparedness for these pathogens and led to the rapid development of a number of commercially available benchtop and point-of-care nucleic acid amplification tests as well as serological assays and rapid diagnostic tests. Despite these advancements, challenges still remain. While products approved under emergency use licenses during outbreak periods may continue to be used post-outbreak, a lack of clarity and incentive surrounding the regulatory approval pathway during non-outbreak periods has deterred many manufacturers from seeking full approvals. Waning of funding and poor access to samples after the 2014–2016 outbreak also contributed to cessation of development once the outbreak was declared over. There is a need for tests with improved sensitivity and specificity, and assays that can use alternative sample types could reduce the need for invasive procedures and expensive equipment, making testing in field conditions more feasible. For MARV, availability of diagnostic tests is still limited, restricted to a single ELISA test and assay panels designed to differentiate between multiple pathogens. It may be helpful to extend the target product profile for ebolavirus diagnostics to include MARV, as the viruses have many overlapping characteristics.

Selection and characterization of protective anti-chikungunya virus single domain antibodies

Chikungunya virus (CHIKV) is a mosquito-borne alphavirus that causes an arthralgia febrile illness that has affected millions of people on three continents. Previously, neutralizing monoclonal antibodies that have prophylactic and therapeutic activity were found to remove virus in joint tissues, thereby reducing the severity of symptoms in mice and non-human primates. In this study, we sought to develop thermostable small recombinant antibodies against CHIKV for future diagnostic, prophylactic and therapeutic applications. To develop these single domain antibodies (sdAb) a CHIKV immune library was constructed by displaying the consortium of variable heavy domains (VHH) amplified from peripheral white blood cells isolated from llamas immunized with CHIKV virus-like particles (VLPs). Five anti-CHIKV sdAb isolated using bio-panning were evaluated for their affinity and thermal stability. Their ability to detect CHIKV VLPs was demonstrated in both MagPlex- and ELISA- based assays. Finally, the ability of two sdAb, CC3 and CA6, to inhibit CHIKV infection were tested using a plaque reduction and neutralization test (PRNT), yielding PRNT₅₀ values of 0.6 and 45.6 nM, respectively.

Genetic Fusion of an Anti-BclA Single-Domain Antibody with Beta Galactosidase

The Bacillus collagen-like protein of anthracis (BclA), found in Bacillus anthracis spores, is an attractive target for immunoassays. Previously, using phage display we had selected llama-derived single-domain antibodies that bound to B. anthracis spore proteins including BclA. Single-domain antibodies (sdAbs), the recombinantly expressed heavy domains from the unique heavy-chain-only antibodies found in camelids, provide stable and well-expressed binding elements with excellent affinity. In addition, sdAbs offer the important advantage that they can be tailored for specific applications through protein engineering. A fusion of a BclA targeting sdAb with the enzyme Beta galactosidase (β-gal) would enable highly sensitive immunoassays with no need for a secondary reagent. First, we evaluated five anti-BclA sdAbs, including four that had been previously identified but not characterized. Each was tested to determine its binding affinity, melting temperature, producibility, and ability to function as both capture and reporter in sandwich assays for BclA. The sdAb with the best combination of properties was constructed as a fusion with β-gal and shown to enable sensitive detection. This fusion has the potential to be incorporated into highly sensitive assays for the detection of anthrax spores.

Phage-Mediated Competitive Chemiluminescent Immunoassay for Detecting Cry1Ab Toxin by Using an Anti-Idiotypic Camel Nanobody

Cry toxins have been widely used in genetically modified organisms for pest control, raising public concern regarding their effects on the natural environment and food safety. In this work, a phage-mediated competitive chemiluminescent immunoassay (c-CLIA) was developed for determination of Cry1Ab toxin using anti-idiotypic camel nanobodies. By extracting RNA from camels' peripheral blood lymphocytes, a naive phage-displayed nanobody library was established. Using anti-Cry1Ab toxin monoclonal antibodies (mAbs) against the library for anti-idiotypic antibody screening, four anti-idiotypic nanobodies were selected and confirmed to be specific for anti-Cry1Ab mAb binding. Thereafter, a c-CLIA was developed for detection of Cry1Ab toxin based on anti-idiotypic camel nanobodies and employed for sample testing. The results revealed a half-inhibition concentration of developed assay to be 42.68 ± 2.54 ng/mL, in the linear range of 10.49-307.1 ng/mL. The established method is highly specific for Cry1Ab recognition, with negligible cross-reactivity for other Cry toxins. For spiked cereal samples, the recoveries of Cry1Ab toxin ranged from 77.4% to 127%, with coefficient of variation of less than 9%. This study demonstrated that the competitive format based on phage-displayed anti-idiotypic nanobodies can provide an alternative strategy for Cry toxin detection.

Single-Domain Antibodies As Therapeutics against Human Viral Diseases

In full-size formats, monoclonal antibodies have been highly successful as therapeutics against cancer and immune diseases. However, their large size leads to inaccessibility of some epitopes and relatively high production costs. As an alternative, single-domain antibodies (sdAbs) offer special advantages compared to full-size antibodies, including smaller size, larger number of accessible epitopes, relatively low production costs and improved robustness. Currently, sdAbs are being developed against a number of viruses, including human immunodeficiency virus-1 (HIV-1), influenza viruses, hepatitis C virus (HCV), respiratory syncytial virus (RSV), and enteric viruses. Although sdAbs are very potent inhibitors of viral infections, no sdAbs have been approved for clinical use against virial infection or any other diseases. In this review, we discuss the current state of research on sdAbs against viruses and their potential as therapeutics against human viral diseases.

Ebola virus - epidemiology, diagnosis, and control: threat to humans, lessons learnt, and preparedness plans - an update on its 40 year's journey

Ebola virus (EBOV) is an extremely contagious pathogen and causes lethal hemorrhagic fever disease in man and animals. The recently occurred Ebola virus disease (EVD) outbreaks in the West African countries have categorized it as an international health concern. For the virus maintenance and transmission, the non-human primates and reservoir hosts like fruit bats have played a vital role. For curbing the disease timely, we need effective therapeutics/prophylactics, however, in the absence of any approved vaccine, timely diagnosis and monitoring of EBOV remains of utmost importance. The technologically advanced vaccines like a viral-vectored vaccine, DNA vaccine and virus-like particles are underway for testing against EBOV. In the absence of any effective control measure, the adaptation of high standards of biosecurity measures, strict sanitary and hygienic practices, strengthening of surveillance and monitoring systems, imposing appropriate quarantine checks and vigilance on trade, transport, and movement of visitors from EVD endemic countries remains the answer of choice for tackling the EBOV spread. Herein, we converse with the current scenario of EBOV giving due emphasis on animal and veterinary perspectives along with advances in diagnosis and control strategies to be adopted, lessons learned from the recent outbreaks and the global preparedness plans. To retrieve the evolutionary information, we have analyzed a total of 56 genome sequences of various EBOV species submitted between 1976 and 2016 in public databases.

Unveiling a Drift Resistant Cryptotope within Marburgvirus Nucleoprotein Recognized by Llama Single-Domain Antibodies

Marburg virus (MARV) is a highly lethal hemorrhagic fever virus that is increasingly re-emerging in Africa, has been imported to both Europe and the US, and is also a Tier 1 bioterror threat. As a negative sense RNA virus, MARV has error prone replication which can yield progeny capable of evading countermeasures. To evaluate this vulnerability, we sought to determine the epitopes of 4 llama single-domain antibodies (sdAbs or VHH) specific for nucleoprotein (NP), each capable of forming MARV monoclonal affinity reagent sandwich assays. Here, we show that all sdAb bound the C-terminal region of NP, which was produced recombinantly to derive X-ray crystal structures of the three best performing antibody-antigen complexes. The common epitope is a trio of alpha helices that form a novel asymmetric basin-like depression that accommodates each sdAb paratope via substantial complementarity-determining region (CDR) restructuring. Shared core contacts were complemented by unique accessory contacts on the sides and overlooks of the basin yielding very different approach routes for each sdAb to bind the antigen. The C-terminal region of MARV NP was unable to be crystallized alone and required engagement with sdAb to form crystals suggesting the antibodies acted as crystallization chaperones. While gross structural homology is apparent between the two most conserved helices of MARV and Ebolavirus, the positions and morphologies of the resulting basins were markedly different. Naturally occurring amino acid variations occurring in bat and human Marburgvirus strains all mapped to surfaces distant from the predicted sdAb contacts suggesting a vital role for the NP interface in virus replication. As an essential internal structural component potentially interfacing with a partner protein it is likely the C-terminal epitope remains hidden or “cryptic” until virion disruption occurs. Conservation of this epitope over 50 years of Marburgvirus evolution should make these sdAb useful foundations for diagnostics and therapeutics resistant to drift.

Intracellular Crosslinking of Filoviral Nucleoproteins with Xintrabodies Restricts Viral Packaging

Viruses assemble large macromolecular repeat structures that become part of the infectious particles or virions. Ribonucleocapsids (RNCs) of negative strand RNA viruses are a prime example where repetition of nucleoprotein (NP) along the genome creates a core polymeric helical scaffold that accommodates other nucleocapsid proteins including viral polymerase. The RNCs are transported through the cytosol for packaging into virions through association with viral matrix proteins at cell membranes. We hypothesized that RNC would be ideal targets for crosslinkers engineered to promote aberrant protein–protein interactions, thereby blocking their orderly transport and packaging. Previously, we had generated single-domain antibodies (sdAbs) against Filoviruses that have all targeted highly conserved C-terminal regions of NP known to be repetitively exposed along the length of the RNCs of Marburgvirus (MARV) and Ebolavirus (EBOV). Our crosslinker design consisted of dimeric sdAb expressed intracellularly, which we call Xintrabodies (X- for crosslinking). Electron microscopy of purified NP polymers incubated with purified sdAb constructs showed NP aggregation occurred in a genus-specific manner with dimeric and not monomeric sdAb. A virus-like particle (VLP) assay was used for initial evaluation where we found that dimeric sdAb inhibited NP incorporation into VP40-based VLPs whereas monomeric sdAb did not. Inhibition of NP packaging was genus specific. Confocal microscopy revealed dimeric sdAb was diffuse when expressed alone but focused on pools of NP when the two were coexpressed, while monomeric sdAb showed ambivalent partition. Infection of stable Vero cell lines expressing dimeric sdAb specific for either MARV or EBOV NP resulted in smaller plaques and reduced progeny of cognate virus relative to wild-type Vero cells. Though the impact was marginal at later time-points, the collective data suggest that viral replication can be reduced by crosslinking intracellular NP using relatively small amounts of dimeric sdAb to restrict NP packaging. The stoichiometry and ease of application of the approach would likely benefit from transitioning away from intracellular expression of crosslinking sdAb to exogenous delivery of antibody. By retuning sdAb specificity, the approach of crosslinking highly conserved regions of assembly critical proteins may well be applicable to inhibiting replication processes of a broad spectrum of viruses.

From hybridomas to a robust microalgal-based production platform: molecular design of a diatom secreting monoclonal antibodies directed against the Marburg virus nucleoprotein

Background

The ideal protein expression system should provide recombinant proteins in high quality and quantity involving low production costs only. However, especially for complex therapeutic proteins like monoclonal antibodies many challenges remain to meet this goal and up to now production of monoclonal antibodies is very costly and delicate. Particularly, emerging disease outbreaks like Ebola virus in Western Africa in 2014–2016 make it necessary to reevaluate existing production platforms and develop robust and cheap alternatives that are easy to handle.

Results

In this study, we engineered the microalga Phaeodactylum tricornutum to produce monoclonal IgG antibodies against the nucleoprotein of Marburg virus, a close relative of Ebola virus causing severe hemorrhagic fever with high fatality rates in humans. Sequences for both chains of a mouse IgG antibody were retrieved from a murine hybridoma cell line and implemented in the microalgal system. Fully assembled antibodies were shown to be secreted by the alga and antibodies were proven to be functional in western blot, ELISA as well as IFA studies just like the original hybridoma produced IgG. Furthermore, synthetic variants with constant regions of a rabbit IgG and human IgG with optimized codon usage were produced and characterized.

Conclusions

This study highlights the potential of microalgae as robust and low cost expression platform for monoclonal antibodies secreting IgG antibodies directly into the culture medium. Microalgae possess rapid growth rates, need basically only water, air and sunlight for cultivation and are very easy to handle.

Electronic supplementary material

The online version of this article (doi:10.1186/s12934-017-0745-2) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

From hybridomas to a robust microalgal-based production platform: molecular design of a diatom secreting monoclonal antibodies directed against the Marburg virus nucleoprotein

BACKGROUND

The ideal protein expression system should provide recombinant proteins in high quality and quantity involving low production costs only. However, especially for complex therapeutic proteins like monoclonal antibodies many challenges remain to meet this goal and up to now production of monoclonal antibodies is very costly and delicate. Particularly, emerging disease outbreaks like Ebola virus in Western Africa in 2014-2016 make it necessary to reevaluate existing production platforms and develop robust and cheap alternatives that are easy to handle.

RESULTS

In this study, we engineered the microalga Phaeodactylum tricornutum to produce monoclonal IgG antibodies against the nucleoprotein of Marburg virus, a close relative of Ebola virus causing severe hemorrhagic fever with high fatality rates in humans. Sequences for both chains of a mouse IgG antibody were retrieved from a murine hybridoma cell line and implemented in the microalgal system. Fully assembled antibodies were shown to be secreted by the alga and antibodies were proven to be functional in western blot, ELISA as well as IFA studies just like the original hybridoma produced IgG. Furthermore, synthetic variants with constant regions of a rabbit IgG and human IgG with optimized codon usage were produced and characterized.

CONCLUSIONS

This study highlights the potential of microalgae as robust and low cost expression platform for monoclonal antibodies secreting IgG antibodies directly into the culture medium. Microalgae possess rapid growth rates, need basically only water, air and sunlight for cultivation and are very easy to handle.

Enhancing Stability of Camelid and Shark Single Domain Antibodies: An Overview

Single domain antibodies (sdAbs) are gaining a reputation as superior recognition elements as they combine the advantages of the specificity and affinity found in conventional antibodies with high stability and solubility. Melting temperatures (T_ms) of sdAbs cover a wide range from below 50 to over 80°C. Many sdAbs have been engineered to increase their T_m, making them stable until exposed to extreme temperatures. SdAbs derived from the variable heavy chains of camelid and shark heavy chain-only antibodies are termed VHH and VNAR, respectively, and generally exhibit some ability to refold and bind antigen after heat denaturation. This ability to refold varies from 0 to 100% and is a property dependent on both intrinsic factors of the sdAb and extrinsic conditions such as the sample buffer ionic strength, pH, and sdAb concentration. SdAbs have also been engineered to increase their solubility and refolding ability, which enable them to function even after exposure to temperatures that exceed their melting point. In addition, efforts to improve their stability at extreme pH and in the presence of chemical denaturants or proteases have been undertaken. Multiple routes have been employed to engineer sdAbs with these enhanced stabilities. The methods utilized to achieve these goals include grafting complementarity-determining regions onto stable frameworks, introduction of non-canonical disulfide bonds, random mutagenesis combined with stringent selection, point mutations such as inclusion of negative charges, and genetic fusions. Increases of up to 20°C have been realized, pushing the T_m of some sdAbs to over 90°C. Herein, we present an overview of the work done to stabilize sdAbs derived from camelids and sharks. Utilizing these various strategies sdAbs have been stabilized without significantly compromising their affinity, thereby providing superior reagents for detection, diagnostic, and therapeutic applications.

Pairing Alpaca and Llama-Derived Single Domain Antibodies to Enhance Immunoassays for Ricin

Previously, our group isolated and evaluated anti-ricin single domain antibodies (sdAbs) derived from llamas, engineered them to further increase their thermal stability, and utilized them for the development of sensitive immunoassays. In work focused on the development of therapeutics, Vance et al. 2013 described anti-ricin sdAbs derived from alpacas. Herein, we evaluated the utility of selected alpaca-derived anti-ricin sdAbs for detection applications, and engineered an alpaca-derived sdAb to increase its melting temperature, providing a highly thermal stable reagent for use in ricin detection. Four of the alpaca-derived anti-ricin A-chain sdAbs were produced and characterized. All four bound to epitopes that overlapped with our previously described llama sdAbs. One alpaca sdAb, F6, was found to possess both a high melting temperature (73 °C) and to work optimally with a thermally stable llama anti-ricin sdAb in sandwich assays for ricin detection. We employed a combination of consensus sequence mutagenesis and the addition of a non-canonical disulfide bond to further enhance the thermal stability of F6 to 85 °C. It is advantageous to have a choice of recognition reagents when developing assays. This work resulted in defining an additional pair of highly thermal stable sdAbs for the sensitive detection of ricin.

Conjugation of biotin-coated luminescent quantum dots with single domain antibody-rhizavidin fusions

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Single domain antibody—rhizavidin fusion bioconjugated biotin coated quantum dots.

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Provided facile and effective method to orient antibodies on QD surface.

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Accomplished improved production of His-tagged rhizavidin (RZh) in E. coli.

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Demonstrated utility of RZh as a replacement for tetrameric biotin binders.

Straightforward and effective methods are required for the bioconjugation of proteins to surfaces and particles. Previously we demonstrated that the fusion of a single domain antibody with the biotin binding molecule rhizavidin provided a facile method to coat biotin-modified surfaces with a highly active and oriented antibody. Here, we constructed similar single domain antibody—rhizavidin fusions as well as unfused rhizavidin with a His-tag. The unfused rhizavidin produced efficiently and its utility for assay development was demonstrated in surface plasmon resonance experiments. The single domain antibody-rhizavidin fusions were utilized to coat quantum dots that had been prepared with surface biotins. Preparation of antibody coated quantum dots by this means was found to be both easy and effective. The prepared single domain antibody-quantum dot reagent was characterized by surface plasmon resonance and applied to toxin detection in a fluoroimmunoassay sensing format.

Nanobody binding to a conserved epitope promotes norovirus particle disassembly

Human noroviruses are icosahedral single-stranded RNA viruses. The capsid protein is divided into shell (S) and protruding (P) domains, which are connected by a flexible hinge region. There are numerous genetically and antigenically distinct noroviruses, and the dominant strains evolve every other year. Vaccine and antiviral development is hampered by the difficulties in growing human norovirus in cell culture and the continually evolving strains. Here, we show the X-ray crystal structures of human norovirus P domains in complex with two different nanobodies. One nanobody, Nano-85, was broadly reactive, while the other, Nano-25, was strain specific. We showed that both nanobodies bound to the lower region on the P domain and had nanomolar affinities. The Nano-85 binding site mainly comprised highly conserved amino acids among the genetically distinct genogroup II noroviruses. Several of the conserved residues also were recognized by a broadly reactive monoclonal antibody, which suggested this region contained a dominant epitope. Superposition of the P domain nanobody complex structures into a cryoelectron microscopy particle structure revealed that both nanobodies bound at occluded sites on the particles. The flexible hinge region, which contained ~10 to 12 amino acids, likely permitted a certain degree of P domain movement on the particles in order to accommodate the nanobodies. Interestingly, the Nano-85 binding interaction with intact particles caused the particles to disassemble in vitro. Altogether, these results suggested that the highly conserved Nano-85 binding epitope contained a trigger mechanism for particle disassembly. Principally, this epitope represents a potential site of norovirus vulnerability.

IMPORTANCE

We characterized two different nanobodies (Nano-85 and Nano-25) that bind to human noroviruses. Both nanobodies bound with high affinities to the lower region of the P domain, which was occluded on intact particles. Nano-25 was specific for GII.10, whereas Nano-85 bound several different GII genotypes, including GII.4, GII.10, and GII.12. We showed that Nano-85 was able to detect norovirus virions in clinical stool specimens using a sandwich enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay. Importantly, we found that Nano-85 binding to intact particles caused the particles to disassemble. We believe that with further testing, Nano-85 not only will work as a diagnostic reagent in norovirus detection systems but also could function as a broadly reactive GII norovirus antiviral.

Novel camelid antibody fragments targeting recombinant nucleoprotein of Araucaria hantavirus: a prototype for an early diagnosis of Hantavirus Pulmonary Syndrome

In addition to conventional antibodies, camelids produce immunoglobulins G composed exclusively of heavy chains in which the antigen binding site is formed only by single domains called VHH. Their particular characteristics make VHHs interesting tools for drug-delivery, passive immunotherapy and high-throughput diagnosis. Hantaviruses are rodent-borne viruses of the Bunyaviridae family. Two clinical forms of the infection are known. Hemorrhagic Fever with Renal Syndrome (HFRS) is present in the Old World, while Hantavirus Pulmonary Syndrome (HPS) is found on the American continent. There is no specific treatment for HPS and its diagnosis is carried out by molecular or serological techniques, using mainly monoclonal antibodies or hantavirus nucleoprotein (N) to detect IgM and IgG in patient serum. This study proposes the use of camelid VHHs to develop alternative methods for diagnosing and confirming HPS. Phage display technology was employed to obtain VHHs. After immunizing one Lama glama against the recombinant N protein (prNΔ₈₅) of a Brazilian hantavirus strain, VHH regions were isolated to construct an immune library. VHHs were displayed fused to the M13KO7 phage coat protein III and the selection steps were performed on immobilized prNΔ₈₅. After selection, eighty clones recognized specifically the N protein. These were sequenced, grouped based mainly on the CDRs, and five clones were analyzed by western blot (WB), surface plasmon resonance (SPR) device, and ELISA. Besides the ability to recognize prNΔ₈₅ by WB, all selected clones showed affinity constants in the nanomolar range. Additionaly, the clone KC329705 is able to detect prNΔ₈₅ in solution, as well as the native viral antigen. Findings support the hypothesis that selected VHHs could be a powerful tool in the development of rapid and accurate HPS diagnostic assays, which are essential to provide supportive care to patients and reduce the high mortality rate associated with hantavirus infections.

Phage-displayed single domain antibodies as recognition elements

The variable domains of antibodies can be expressed as a fusion with pIII, a minor coat protein of the bateriophage M13, for the generation of phage-display antibody reagents. The phage-display system is routinely used to enrich for recombinant antibodies against a specific target antigen from highly diverse naïve and immune libraries. Often once binders are selected, they are expressed as soluble proteins; however, it can be advantageous to use the phage-displayed antibody fragment as a reagent in binding assays. The repeating subunits of the viral capsid allows for significant signal amplification of binding events in downstream assays when utilizing a reporter-conjugated secondary antibody specific for the M13 capsid. Alternatively, labeling of the viral capsid with dyes or biotin molecules provides additional methods of achieving signal amplification in a variety of assay formats. The following protocols detail the use of phage-displayed single domain antibodies in sandwich assays for antigen detection.

Ebolavirus nucleoprotein C-termini potently attract single domain antibodies enabling monoclonal affinity reagent sandwich assay (MARSA) formulation

BACKGROUND

Antigen detection assays can play an important part in environmental surveillance and diagnostics for emerging threats. We are interested in accelerating assay formulation; targeting the agents themselves to bypass requirements for a priori genome information or surrogates. Previously, using in vitro affinity reagent selection on Marburg virus we rapidly established monoclonal affinity reagent sandwich assay (MARSA) where one recombinant antibody clone was both captor and tracer for polyvalent nucleoprotein (NP). Hypothesizing that the closely related Ebolavirus genus may share the same Achilles' heel, we redirected the scheme to see whether similar assays could be delivered and began to explore their mechanism.

METHODS AND FINDINGS

In parallel we selected panels of llama single domain antibodies (sdAb) from a semi-synthetic library against Zaire, Sudan, Ivory Coast, and Reston Ebola viruses. Each could perform as both captor and tracer in the same antigen sandwich capture assay thereby forming MARSAs. All sdAb were specific for NP and those tested required the C-terminal domain for recognition. Several clones were cross-reactive, indicating epitope conservation across the Ebolavirus genus. Analysis of two immune shark sdAb revealed they also targeted the C-terminal domain, and could be similarly employed, yet were less sensitive than a comparable llama sdAb despite stemming from immune selections.

CONCLUSIONS

The C-terminal domain of Ebolavirus NP is a strong attractant for antibodies and enables sensitive sandwich immunoassays to be rapidly generated using a single antibody clone. The polyvalent nature of nucleocapsid borne NP and display of the C-terminal region likely serves as a bountiful affinity sink during selections, and a highly avid target for subsequent immunoassay capture. Combined with the high degree of amino acid conservation through 37 years and across wide geographies, this domain makes an ideal handle for monoclonal affinity reagent driven antigen sandwich assays for the Ebolavirus genus.

Comparison of single domain antibody immobilization strategies evaluated by surface plasmon resonance

The use of single domain antibodies (sdAbs) in place of conventional antibodies for both therapeutic and diagnostic applications continues to grow. SdAbs offer a number of advantages when compared to conventional antibodies such as their small size and low structural complexity which allows them to readily be produced as fusions in a variety formats. In this work we compared the utility of various C-terminal fusions and immobilization strategies for two sdAbs; one which recognizes ricin and the other EA1, an S-layer protein, of Bacillus anthracis. Comparisons were made between direct covalent attachment and affinity immobilization using a biotin-streptavidin interaction for the standard sdAb monomers, randomly and site-specifically biotinylated monomers, and fusion constructs of alkaline phosphatase dimers and streptavidin core tetramers. The sdAb binding and regeneration was evaluated by surface plasmon resonance in a multiplexed format. The construct that provided the highest density of active molecules by at least a factor of two was the sdAb-streptavidin core tetramer, followed by the sdAb-alkaline phosphatase and then the site-specifically biotinylated monomer. The poorest performing immobilization methods were the two most common, direct covalent attachment and the randomly biotinylated sdAb attached via NeutrAvidin. These improvements directly correlated to antigen capture in SPR assays. Similarly, the oriented immobilization method also translated to improvements in limit of detection assays using a bead-based system. The sdAb-streptavidin core provided more than a 100-fold improvement in the limit of detection of EA1, from ~200 ng/mL to to 1.6 ng/mL, while improvement for ricin detection was less but still a significant 5-fold decrease, going from 1.6 ng/mL down to 0.32 ng/mL. This demonstrated improvement in limits of detection is an advantage that should be transferable to most assay formats.

Hapten mediated display and pairing of recombinant antibodies accelerates assay assembly for biothreat countermeasures

A bottle-neck in recombinant antibody sandwich immunoassay development is pairing, demanding protein purification and modification to distinguish captor from tracer. We developed a simple pairing scheme using microliter amounts of E. coli osmotic shockates bearing site-specific biotinylated antibodies and demonstrated proof of principle with a single domain antibody (sdAb) that is both captor and tracer for polyvalent Marburgvirus nucleoprotein. The system could also host pairs of different sdAb specific for the 7 botulinum neurotoxin (BoNT) serotypes, enabling recognition of the cognate serotype. Inducible supE co-expression enabled sdAb populations to be propagated as either phage for more panning from repertoires or expressed as soluble sdAb for screening within a single host strain. When combined with streptavidin-g3p fusions, a novel transdisplay system was formulated to retrofit a semi-synthetic sdAb library which was mined for an anti-Ebolavirus sdAb which was immediately immunoassay ready, thereby speeding up the recombinant antibody discovery and utilization processes.

Forty-five years of Marburg virus research

In 1967, the first reported filovirus hemorrhagic fever outbreak took place in Germany and the former Yugoslavia. The causative agent that was identified during this outbreak, Marburg virus, is one of the most deadly human pathogens. This article provides a comprehensive overview of our current knowledge about Marburg virus disease ranging from ecology to pathogenesis and molecular biology.

Linking Single Domain Antibodies that Recognize Different Epitopes on the Same Target

Single domain antibodies (sdAb) are the recombinantly expressed variable regions from the heavy-chain-only antibodies found in camelids and sharks. SdAb are able to bind antigens with high affinity, and most are capable of refolding after heat or chemical denaturation to bind antigen again. Starting with our previously isolated ricin binding sdAb determined to bind to four non-overlapping epitopes, we constructed a series of sdAb pairs, which were genetically linked through peptides of different length. We designed the series so that the sdAb are linked in both orientations with respect to the joining peptide. We confirmed that each of the sdAb in the constructs was able to bind to the ricin target, and have evidence that they are both binding ricin simultaneously. Through this work we determined that the order of genetically linked sdAb seems more important than the linker length. The genetically linked sdAb allowed for improved ricin detection with better limits of detection than the best anti-ricin monoclonal we evaluated, however they were not able to refold as well as unlinked component sdAb.

Llama-derived single domain antibodies specific for Abrus agglutinin

Llama derived single domain antibodies (sdAb), the recombinantly expressed variable heavy domains from the unique heavy-chain only antibodies of camelids, were isolated from a library derived from llamas immunized with a commercial abrin toxoid preparation. Abrin is a potent toxin similar to ricin in structure, sequence and mechanism of action. The selected sdAb were evaluated for their ability to bind to commercial abrin as well as abrax (a recombinant abrin A-chain), purified abrin fractions, Abrus agglutinin (a protein related to abrin but with lower toxicity), ricin, and unrelated proteins. Isolated sdAb were also evaluated for their ability to refold after heat denaturation and ability to be used in sandwich assays as both capture and reporter elements. The best binders were specific for the Abrus agglutinin, showing minimal binding to purified abrin fractions or unrelated proteins. These binders had sub nM affinities and regained most of their secondary structure after heating to 95 °C. They functioned well in sandwich assays. Through gel analysis and the behavior of anti-abrin monoclonal antibodies, we determined that the commercial toxoid preparation used for the original immunizations contained a high percentage of Abrus agglutinin, explaining the selection of Abrus agglutinin binders. Used in conjunction with anti-abrin monoclonal and polyclonal antibodies, these reagents can fill a role to discriminate between the highly toxic abrin and the related, but much less toxic, Abrus agglutinin and distinguish between different crude preparations.

Isolation of a highly thermal stable lama single domain antibody specific for Staphylococcus aureus enterotoxin B

Background

Camelids and sharks possess a unique subclass of antibodies comprised of only heavy chains. The antigen binding fragments of these unique antibodies can be cloned and expressed as single domain antibodies (sdAbs). The ability of these small antigen-binding molecules to refold after heating to achieve their original structure, as well as their diminutive size, makes them attractive candidates for diagnostic assays.

Results

Here we describe the isolation of an sdAb against Staphyloccocus aureus enterotoxin B (SEB). The clone, A3, was found to have high affinity (Kd = 75 pM) and good specificity for SEB, showing no cross reactivity to related molecules such as Staphylococcal enterotoxin A (SEA), Staphylococcal enterotoxin D (SED), and Shiga toxin. Most remarkably, this anti-SEB sdAb had an extremely high Tm of 85°C and an ability to refold after heating to 95°C. The sharp Tm determined by circular dichroism, was found to contrast with the gradual decrease observed in intrinsic fluorescence. We demonstrated the utility of this sdAb as a capture and detector molecule in Luminex based assays providing limits of detection (LODs) of at least 64 pg/mL.

Conclusion

The anti-SEB sdAb A3 was found to have a high affinity and an extraordinarily high Tm and could still refold to recover activity after heat denaturation. This combination of heat resilience and strong, specific binding make this sdAb a good candidate for use in antibody-based toxin detection technologies.

Clinical aspects of Marburg hemorrhagic fever

Marburg virus belongs to the genus Marburgvirus in the family Filoviridae and causes a severe hemorrhagic fever, known as Marburg hemorrhagic fever (MHF), in both humans and nonhuman primates. Similar to the more widely known Ebola hemorrhagic fever, MHF is characterized by systemic viral replication, immunosuppression and abnormal inflammatory responses. These pathological features of the disease contribute to a number of systemic dysfunctions including hemorrhages, edema, coagulation abnormalities and, ultimately, multiorgan failure and shock, often resulting in death. A detailed understanding of the pathological processes that lead to this devastating disease remains elusive, a fact that contributes to the lack of licensed vaccines or effective therapeutics. This article will review the clinical aspects of MHF and discuss the pathogenesis and possible options for diagnosis, treatment and prevention.

Biotechnological applications of recombinant single-domain antibody fragments

BACKGROUND

Single-domain antibody fragments possess structural features, such as a small dimension, an elevated stability, and the singularity of recognizing epitopes non-accessible for conventional antibodies that make them interesting for several research and biotechnological applications.

RESULTS

The discovery of the single-domain antibody's potentials has stimulated their use in an increasing variety of fields. The rapid accumulation of articles describing new applications and further developments of established approaches has made it, therefore, necessary to update the previous reviews with a new and more complete summary of the topic.

CONCLUSIONS

Beside the necessary task of updating, this work analyses in detail some applicative aspects of the single-domain antibodies that have been overseen in the past, such as their efficacy in affinity chromatography, as co-crystallization chaperones, protein aggregation controllers, enzyme activity tuners, and the specificities of the unconventional single-domain fragments.

Laboratory detection and diagnosis of filoviruses

Ebola virus (EBOV) and Marburg virus (MARV), belonging to the Filoviridae family, emerged four decades ago and caused severe viral hemorrhagic fever in human and other primates. As high as 50-90% mortality, filoviruses can cause significant threats to public health. However, so far no specific and efficient vaccine has been available, nor have other treatment methods proved to be effective. It is of great importance to detect these pathogens specific, rapidly and sensitively in order to control future filovirus outbreaks. Here, recent progresses in the development of detection and diagnosis methods for EBOV and MARV are summarized.

Nanobody; an old concept and new vehicle for immunotargeting

The use of antibodies in cancer therapy has come a long way since the day Paul Ehrlich described the concept and Kohler and Milstein devised the hybridoma technology to bring this theory to reality. The synthesis of murine monoclonal antibodies (mAbs) was the first success in this field, leading to the invention of chimerization, the production of variable fragments (Fv) with the progression to domain antibodies (dAb) and later humanization technologies to maximize the clinical utility of murine mAbs. It was just by chance that dAbs were found to exist in ?heavy chain? immunoglobulins from Camelidae family and cartilaginous fish. These unique antibody fragments interact with antigen by virtue of only one single variable domain, referred to as VHH or nanobody. Several characteristics make nanobody use superior to the abovementioned antibodies. They are non-immunogenic and show high thermal and chemical stability. There are several reports of raising specific nanobodies against enzymes, haptens, pathogens, toxins and tumor markers, which are outlined in this paper. All these characteristics make them strong candidates as targeting agents for cancer therapy.

Evaluation of antidiphtheria toxin nanobodies

Nanobodies are the smallest fragments of naturally occurring single-domain antibodies that have evolved to be fully functional in the absence of a light chain. Conventional antibodies are glycoproteins comprising two heavy and two light chains. Surprisingly, all members of the Camelidae family possess a fraction of antibodies devoid of both light chains and the first constant domain. These types of antibodies are known as heavy-chain antibody (HcAb) nanobodies. There are three subclasses of IgG in dromedaries, namely IgG1, IgG2, and IgG3 of which IgG2 and IgG3 are of the HcAb type. These heavy chain antibodies constitute approximately 50% of the IgG in llama serum and as much as 75% of the IgG in camel serum. In the present work, the different IgG subclasses from an immunized camel (Camelus dromedarius) with divalent diphtheria-tetanus vaccine were purified using their different affinity for protein A and protein G and their absorbance measured at 280 nm. Purity control and characterization by 12% sodium dodecyl sulfate-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis of IgG subclasses was done under reducing conditions. Protein bands were visualized after staining with Coomassie Blue, showing two bands at 50 kDa and 30 kDa for IgG1, while IgG2 and IgG3 produced only one band at 46 kDa and 43 kDa, respectively. An enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay test using diphtheria toxin and purified IgG subclasses from the immunized camel were performed to evaluate their efficiency. Compared with conventional IgG1, heavy chain antibodies (nanobodies) were shown to be more efficient in binding to diphtheria toxin antigen. This study revealed the possibility of using IgG2 and IgG3 nanobodies as an effective antitoxin for the treatment of diphtheria in humans.

Llama single domain antibodies specific for the 7 botulinum neurotoxin serotypes as heptaplex immunoreagents

BACKGROUND

There are currently 7 known serotypes of botulinum neurotoxin (BoNT) classified upon non-cross reactivity of neutralizing immunoglobulins. Non-neutralizing immunoglobulins, however, can exhibit cross-reactivities between 2 or more serotypes, particularly mosaic forms, which can hamper the development of highly specific immunoassays, especially if based on polyclonal antisera. Here we employ facile recombinant antibody technology to subtractively select ligands to each of the 7 BoNT serotypes, resulting in populations with very high specificity for their intended serotype.

METHODS AND FINDINGS

A single llama was immunized with a cocktail of 7 BoNT toxoids to generate a phage display library of single domain antibodies (sdAb, VHH or nanobodies) which were selected on live toxins. Resulting sdAb were capable of detecting both toxin and toxin complex with the best combinations able to detect 100s-10s of pg per 50 microL sample in a liquid bead array. The most sensitive sdAb were combined in a heptaplex assay to identify each of the BoNT serotypes in buffer and milk and to a lesser extent in carrot juice, orange juice and cola. Several anti-A(1) sdAb recognized A2 complex, showing that subtype cross-reactivity within a serotype was evident. Many of our sdAb could act as both captor and tracer for several toxin and toxin complexes suggesting sdAb can be used as architectural probes to indicate BoNT oligomerisation. Six of 14 anti-A clones exhibited inhibition of SNAP-25 cleavage in the neuro-2A assay indicating some sdAb had toxin neutralizing capabilities. Many sdAb were also shown to be refoldable after exposure to high temperatures in contrast to polyclonal antisera, as monitored by circular dichroism.

CONCLUSIONS

Our panel of molecularly flexible antibodies should not only serve as a good starting point for ruggedizing assays and inhibitors, but enable the intricate architectures of BoNT toxins and complexes to be probed more extensively.

Development of antiricin single domain antibodies toward detection and therapeutic reagents

Single domain antibodies (sdAb) that bind ricin with high affinity and specificity were selected from a phage display library derived from the mRNA of heavy chain antibodies obtained from lymphocytes of immunized llamas. The sdAb were found to recognize three distinct epitopes on ricin. Representative sdAb were demonstrated to function as both capture and tracer elements in fluid array immunoassays, a limit of detection of 1.6 ng/mL was obtained. One sdAb pair in particular was found to be highly specific for ricin. While polyclonal antibodies cross react strongly with RCA120, the sdAb pair had minimal cross reactivity. In addition, the binders were found to be thermal stable, regaining their ricin binding activity following heating to 85 degrees C for an hour. Cycles of thermally induced unfolding of the sdAb and their subsequent refolding upon cooling was monitored by circular dichroism. As several of the sdAb were observed to bind to ricin's A chain, cell free translation assays were performed to monitor the ability of the sdAbs to inhibit ricin's biological activity. One of the sdAb (C8) was particularly effective and blocked ricin's biological activity with an effectiveness equal to that of a mouse antiricin antibody. These results indicate that antiricin sdAb have great potential for both diagnostic and therapeutic applications.

Single domain antibodies: promising experimental and therapeutic tools in infection and immunity

Antibodies are important tools for experimental research and medical applications. Most antibodies are composed of two heavy and two light chains. Both chains contribute to the antigen-binding site which is usually flat or concave. In addition to these conventional antibodies, llamas, other camelids, and sharks also produce antibodies composed only of heavy chains. The antigen-binding site of these unusual heavy chain antibodies (hcAbs) is formed only by a single domain, designated VHH in camelid hcAbs and VNAR in shark hcAbs. VHH and VNAR are easily produced as recombinant proteins, designated single domain antibodies (sdAbs) or nanobodies. The CDR3 region of these sdAbs possesses the extraordinary capacity to form long fingerlike extensions that can extend into cavities on antigens, e.g., the active site crevice of enzymes. Other advantageous features of nanobodies include their small size, high solubility, thermal stability, refolding capacity, and good tissue penetration in vivo. Here we review the results of several recent proof-of-principle studies that open the exciting perspective of using sdAbs for modulating immune functions and for targeting toxins and microbes.

Ricin detection using phage displayed single domain antibodies

Phage-displayed single domain antibodies (sdAb) were compared to monomeric solubly expressed sdAb and llama polyclonal antibodies for the detection of ricin. SdAb are comprised of the variable domain derived from camelid heavy chain only antibodies (HcAb). Although HcAb lack variable light chains, they as well as their derivative sdAb are able to bind antigens with high affinity. The small size of sdAb (∼16 kDa), while advantageous in many respects, limits the number of labels that can be incorporated. The ability to incorporate multiple labels is a beneficial attribute for reporter elements. Opportunely, sdAb are often selected using phage display methodology. Using sdAb displayed on bacteriophage M13 as the reporter element gives the potential for incorporating a very high number of labels. We have demonstrated the use of both sdAb and phage- displayed sdAb for the detection of ricin using both enzyme linked immunosorbent assays (ELISAs) and Luminex fluid array assays. The phage-displayed sdAb led to five to ten fold better detection of ricin in both the ELISA and Luminex assays, resulting in limits of detection of 1 ng/mL and 64 pg/mL respectively. The phage-displayed sdAb were also dramatically more effective for the visualization of binding to target in nitrocellulose dot blot assays, a method frequently used for epitope mapping.