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Castanha PMS, Azar SR, Yeung J, Wallace M, Kettenburg G, Watkins SC, Marques ETA, Vasilakis N, Barratt-Boyes SM. Aedes aegypti Mosquito Probing Enhances Dengue Virus Infection of Resident Myeloid Cells in Human Skin. Viruses 2024; 16:1253. [PMID: 39205228 PMCID: PMC11360165 DOI: 10.3390/v16081253] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/03/2024] [Revised: 07/29/2024] [Accepted: 08/02/2024] [Indexed: 09/04/2024] Open
Abstract
The most prevalent arthropod-borne viruses, including the dengue viruses, are primarily transmitted by infected mosquitoes. However, the dynamics of dengue virus (DENV) infection and dissemination in human skin following Aedes aegypti probing remain poorly understood. We exposed human skin explants to adult female Ae. aegypti mosquitoes following their infection with DENV-2 by intrathoracic injection. Skin explants inoculated with a similar quantity of DENV-2 by a bifurcated needle were used as controls. Quantitative in situ imaging revealed that DENV replication was greatest in keratinocytes in the base of the epidermis, accounting for 50-60% of all infected cells regardless of the route of inoculation. However, DENV inoculation by Ae. aegypti probing resulted in an earlier and increased viral replication in the dermis, infecting twice as many cells at 24 h when compared to needle inoculation. Within the dermis, enhanced replication of DENV by Ae. aegypti infected mosquitoes was mediated by increased local recruitment of skin-resident macrophages, dermal dendritic cells, and epidermal Langerhans cells relative to needle inoculation. An enhanced but less pronounced influx of resident myeloid cells to the site of mosquito probing was also observed in the absence of infection. Ae. aegypti probing also increased recruitment and infection of dermal mast cells. Our findings reveal for the first time that keratinocytes are the primary targets of DENV infection following Ae. aegypti inoculation, even though most of the virus is inoculated into the dermis during probing. The data also show that mosquito probing promotes the local recruitment and infection of skin-resident myeloid cells in the absence of an intact vasculature, indicating that influx of blood-derived neutrophils is not an essential requirement for DENV spread within and out of skin.
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Affiliation(s)
- Priscila M. S. Castanha
- Department of Infectious Diseases and Microbiology, School of Public Health, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA 15261, USA; (P.M.S.C.); (M.W.); (G.K.); (E.T.A.M.)
| | - Sasha R. Azar
- Center for Tissue Engineering, Department of Surgery, Houston Methodist Research Institute, Houston Methodist Hospital, Houston, TX 77030, USA;
- Department of Pathology, University of Texas Medical Branch, Galveston, TX 77555-0609, USA
| | - Jason Yeung
- Department of Biochemistry, Cellular and Molecular Biology, University of Texas Medical Branch, Galveston, TX 77555-0645, USA;
| | - Megan Wallace
- Department of Infectious Diseases and Microbiology, School of Public Health, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA 15261, USA; (P.M.S.C.); (M.W.); (G.K.); (E.T.A.M.)
| | - Gwenddolen Kettenburg
- Department of Infectious Diseases and Microbiology, School of Public Health, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA 15261, USA; (P.M.S.C.); (M.W.); (G.K.); (E.T.A.M.)
| | - Simon C. Watkins
- Center for Biologic Imaging, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA 15261, USA;
- Department of Immunology, School of Medicine, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA 15213, USA
| | - Ernesto T. A. Marques
- Department of Infectious Diseases and Microbiology, School of Public Health, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA 15261, USA; (P.M.S.C.); (M.W.); (G.K.); (E.T.A.M.)
- Aggeu Magalhaes Institute, Oswaldo Cruz Foundation, Recife 50.740-465, Pernambuco, Brazil
| | - Nikos Vasilakis
- Department of Pathology, University of Texas Medical Branch, Galveston, TX 77555-0609, USA
- Center for Vector-Borne and Zoonotic Diseases, University of Texas Medical Branch, Galveston, TX 77555-0609, USA
- Institute for Human Infection and Immunity, University of Texas Medical Branch, Galveston, TX 77555-0610, USA
| | - Simon M. Barratt-Boyes
- Department of Infectious Diseases and Microbiology, School of Public Health, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA 15261, USA; (P.M.S.C.); (M.W.); (G.K.); (E.T.A.M.)
- Department of Immunology, School of Medicine, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA 15213, USA
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2
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Wang ZY, Nie KX, Niu JC, Cheng G. Research progress toward the influence of mosquito salivary proteins on the transmission of mosquito-borne viruses. INSECT SCIENCE 2024; 31:663-673. [PMID: 37017683 DOI: 10.1111/1744-7917.13193] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/10/2022] [Revised: 02/16/2023] [Accepted: 02/24/2023] [Indexed: 06/19/2023]
Abstract
Mosquito-borne viruses (MBVs) are a large class of viruses transmitted mainly through mosquito bites, including dengue virus, Zika virus, Japanese encephalitis virus, West Nile virus, and chikungunya virus, which pose a major threat to the health of people around the world. With global warming and extended human activities, the incidence of many MBVs has increased significantly. Mosquito saliva contains a variety of bioactive protein components. These not only enable blood feeding but also play a crucial role in regulating local infection at the bite site and the remote dissemination of MBVs as well as in remodeling the innate and adaptive immune responses of host vertebrates. Here, we review the physiological functions of mosquito salivary proteins (MSPs) in detail, the influence and the underlying mechanism of MSPs on the transmission of MBVs, and the current progress and issues that urgently need to be addressed in the research and development of MSP-based MBV transmission blocking vaccines.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhao-Yang Wang
- Tsinghua University-Peking University Joint Center for Life Sciences, School of Medicine, Tsinghua University, Beijing, China
- Institute of Infectious Diseases, Shenzhen Bay Laboratory, Shenzhen, Guangdong, China
| | - Kai-Xiao Nie
- Department of Pathogen Biology, School of Basic Medicine, Shandong First Medical University & Shandong Academy of Medical Sciences, Jinan, China
| | - Ji-Chen Niu
- Tsinghua University-Peking University Joint Center for Life Sciences, School of Medicine, Tsinghua University, Beijing, China
- Institute of Infectious Diseases, Shenzhen Bay Laboratory, Shenzhen, Guangdong, China
| | - Gong Cheng
- Tsinghua University-Peking University Joint Center for Life Sciences, School of Medicine, Tsinghua University, Beijing, China
- Institute of Infectious Diseases, Shenzhen Bay Laboratory, Shenzhen, Guangdong, China
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3
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Martin-Martin I, Kojin BB, Aryan A, Williams AE, Molina-Cruz A, Valenzuela-Leon PC, Shrivastava G, Botello K, Minai M, Adelman ZN, Calvo E. Aedes aegypti D7 long salivary proteins modulate blood feeding and parasite infection. mBio 2023; 14:e0228923. [PMID: 37909749 PMCID: PMC10746281 DOI: 10.1128/mbio.02289-23] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/25/2023] [Accepted: 09/27/2023] [Indexed: 11/03/2023] Open
Abstract
IMPORTANCE During blood feeding, mosquitoes inject saliva into the host skin, preventing hemostasis and inflammatory responses. D7 proteins are among the most abundant components of the saliva of blood-feeding arthropods. Aedes aegypti, the vector of yellow fever and dengue, expresses two D7 long-form salivary proteins: D7L1 and D7L2. These proteins bind and counteract hemostatic agonists such as biogenic amines and leukotrienes. D7L1 and D7L2 knockout mosquitoes showed prolonged probing times and carried significantly less Plasmodium gallinaceum oocysts per midgut than wild-type mosquitoes. We hypothesize that reingested D7s play a vital role in the midgut microenvironment with important consequences for pathogen infection and transmission.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ines Martin-Martin
- Laboratory of Malaria and Vector Research, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Rockville, Maryland, USA
- Laboratory of Medical Entomology, National Center for Microbiology, Instituto de Salud Carlos III, Madrid, Spain
| | | | - Azadeh Aryan
- Department of Entomology, Fralin Life Science Institute, Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, Virginia, USA
| | - Adeline E. Williams
- Laboratory of Malaria and Vector Research, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Rockville, Maryland, USA
| | - Alvaro Molina-Cruz
- Laboratory of Malaria and Vector Research, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Rockville, Maryland, USA
| | - Paola Carolina Valenzuela-Leon
- Laboratory of Malaria and Vector Research, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Rockville, Maryland, USA
| | - Gaurav Shrivastava
- Laboratory of Malaria and Vector Research, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Rockville, Maryland, USA
| | - Karina Botello
- Laboratory of Malaria and Vector Research, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Rockville, Maryland, USA
| | - Mahnaz Minai
- Infectious Disease Pathogenesis Section, Comparative Medicine Branch, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Rockville, Maryland, USA
| | - Zach N. Adelman
- Department of Entomology, Texas A&M University, College Station, Texas, USA
- Department of Entomology, Fralin Life Science Institute, Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, Virginia, USA
| | - Eric Calvo
- Laboratory of Malaria and Vector Research, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Rockville, Maryland, USA
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4
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Chowdhury A, Modahl CM, Missé D, Kini RM, Pompon J. High resolution proteomics of Aedes aegypti salivary glands infected with either dengue, Zika or chikungunya viruses identify new virus specific and broad antiviral factors. Sci Rep 2021; 11:23696. [PMID: 34880409 PMCID: PMC8654903 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-021-03211-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/20/2021] [Accepted: 11/30/2021] [Indexed: 11/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Arboviruses such as dengue (DENV), Zika (ZIKV) and chikungunya (CHIKV) viruses infect close to half a billion people per year, and are primarily transmitted through Aedes aegypti bites. Infection-induced changes in mosquito salivary glands (SG) influence transmission by inducing antiviral immunity, which restricts virus replication in the vector, and by altering saliva composition, which influences skin infection. Here, we profiled SG proteome responses to DENV serotype 2 (DENV2), ZIKV and CHIKV infections by using high-resolution isobaric-tagged quantitative proteomics. We identified 218 proteins with putative functions in immunity, blood-feeding or related to the cellular machinery. We observed that 58, 27 and 29 proteins were regulated by DENV2, ZIKV and CHIKV infections, respectively. While the regulation patterns were mostly virus-specific, we separately depleted four uncharacterized proteins that were upregulated by all three viral infections to determine their effects on these viral infections. Our study suggests that gamma-interferon responsive lysosomal thiol-like (GILT-like) has an anti-ZIKV effect, adenosine deaminase (ADA) has an anti-CHIKV effect, salivary gland surface protein 1 (SGS1) has a pro-ZIKV effect and salivary gland broad-spectrum antiviral protein (SGBAP) has an antiviral effect against all three viruses. The comprehensive description of SG responses to three global pathogenic viruses and the identification of new restriction factors improves our understanding of the molecular mechanisms influencing transmission.
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Affiliation(s)
- Avisha Chowdhury
- grid.4280.e0000 0001 2180 6431Department of Biological Science, National University of Singapore, Singapore, Singapore ,grid.428397.30000 0004 0385 0924Present Address: Programme in Emerging Infectious Diseases, Duke-NUS Medical School, Singapore, Singapore
| | - Cassandra M. Modahl
- grid.4280.e0000 0001 2180 6431Department of Biological Science, National University of Singapore, Singapore, Singapore ,grid.48004.380000 0004 1936 9764Present Address: Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine, Pembroke Place, Liverpool, UK
| | - Dorothée Missé
- grid.462603.50000 0004 0382 3424MIVEGEC, Univ. Montpellier, IRD, CNRS, Montpellier, France
| | - R. Manjunatha Kini
- grid.4280.e0000 0001 2180 6431Department of Biological Science, National University of Singapore, Singapore, Singapore ,grid.4280.e0000 0001 2180 6431Department of Pharmacology, Yong Loo Lin School of Medicine, National University of Singapore, Singapore, Singapore
| | - Julien Pompon
- MIVEGEC, Univ. Montpellier, IRD, CNRS, Montpellier, France. .,Programme in Emerging Infectious Diseases, Duke-NUS Medical School, Singapore, Singapore. .,MIVEGEC, Univ. Montpellier, IRD, CNRS, Montpellier, France.
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5
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Lara PG, Esteves E, Sales-Campos H, Assis JB, Henrique MO, Barros MS, Neto LS, Silva PI, Martins JO, Cardoso CRB, Ribeiro JMC, Sá-Nunes A. AeMOPE-1, a Novel Salivary Peptide From Aedes aegypti, Selectively Modulates Activation of Murine Macrophages and Ameliorates Experimental Colitis. Front Immunol 2021; 12:681671. [PMID: 34349757 PMCID: PMC8327214 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2021.681671] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/17/2021] [Accepted: 06/25/2021] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
The sialotranscriptomes of Aedes aegypti revealed a transcript overexpressed in female salivary glands that codes a mature 7.8 kDa peptide. The peptide, specific to the Aedes genus, has a unique sequence, presents a putative secretory nature and its function is unknown. Here, we confirmed that the peptide is highly expressed in the salivary glands of female mosquitoes when compared to the salivary glands of males, and its secretion in mosquito saliva is able to sensitize the vertebrate host by inducing the production of specific antibodies. The synthetic version of the peptide downmodulated nitric oxide production by activated peritoneal murine macrophages. The fractionation of a Ae. aegypti salivary preparation revealed that the fractions containing the naturally secreted peptide reproduced the nitric oxide downmodulation. The synthetic peptide also selectively interfered with cytokine production by murine macrophages, inhibiting the production of IL-6, IL-12p40 and CCL2 without affecting TNF-α or IL-10 production. Likewise, intracellular proteins associated with macrophage activation were also distinctively modulated: while iNOS and NF-κB p65 expression were diminished, IκBα and p38 MAPK expression did not change in the presence of the peptide. The anti-inflammatory properties of the synthetic peptide were tested in vivo on a dextran sulfate sodium-induced colitis model. The therapeutic administration of the Ae. aegypti peptide reduced the leukocytosis, macrophage activity and nitric oxide levels in the gut, as well as the expression of cytokines associated with the disease, resulting in amelioration of its clinical signs. Given its biological properties in vitro and in vivo, the molecule was termed Aedes-specific MOdulatory PEptide (AeMOPE-1). Thus, AeMOPE-1 is a novel mosquito-derived immunobiologic with potential to treat immune-mediated disorders.
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Affiliation(s)
- Priscila G. Lara
- Department of Immunology, Institute of Biomedical Sciences, University of Sao Paulo, Sao Paulo, Brazil
| | - Eliane Esteves
- Department of Immunology, Institute of Biomedical Sciences, University of Sao Paulo, Sao Paulo, Brazil
| | - Helioswilton Sales-Campos
- Department of Clinical Analysis, Toxicology and Food Sciences, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences of Ribeirao Preto, University of Sao Paulo, Ribeirao Preto, Brazil
| | - Josiane B. Assis
- Department of Immunology, Institute of Biomedical Sciences, University of Sao Paulo, Sao Paulo, Brazil
| | - Maressa O. Henrique
- Department of Immunology, Institute of Biomedical Sciences, University of Sao Paulo, Sao Paulo, Brazil
| | - Michele S. Barros
- Department of Immunology, Institute of Biomedical Sciences, University of Sao Paulo, Sao Paulo, Brazil
| | - Leila S. Neto
- Department of Immunology, Institute of Biomedical Sciences, University of Sao Paulo, Sao Paulo, Brazil
| | - Pedro I. Silva
- Laboratory for Applied Toxinology, Butantan Institute, Sao Paulo, Brazil
| | - Joilson O. Martins
- Department of Clinical and Toxicological Analyses, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Sao Paulo, Sao Paulo, Brazil
| | - Cristina R. B. Cardoso
- Department of Clinical Analysis, Toxicology and Food Sciences, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences of Ribeirao Preto, University of Sao Paulo, Ribeirao Preto, Brazil
| | - José M. C. Ribeiro
- Section of Vector Biology, Laboratory of Malaria and Vector Research, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Rockville, MD, United States
| | - Anderson Sá-Nunes
- Department of Immunology, Institute of Biomedical Sciences, University of Sao Paulo, Sao Paulo, Brazil
- National Institute of Science and Technology in Molecular Entomology, National Council of Scientific and Technological Development (INCT-EM/CNPq), Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
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6
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Karmakar S, Nath S, Sarkar B, Chakraborty S, Paul S, Karan M, Pal C. Insect vectors' saliva and gut microbiota as a blessing in disguise: probability versus possibility. Future Microbiol 2021; 16:657-670. [PMID: 34100305 DOI: 10.2217/fmb-2020-0239] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Drawing of host blood is a natural phenomenon during the bite of blood-probing insect vectors. Along with the blood meal, the vectors introduce salivary components and a trail of microbiota. In the case of infected vectors, the related pathogen accompanies the aforementioned biological components. In addition to Anopheles gambiae or Anopheles stephensi, the bites of other nonmalarial vectors cannot be ignored in malaria-endemic regions. Similarly, the bite incidence of Phlebotomus papatasi cannot be ignored in visceral leishmaniasis-endemic regions. Even the chances of getting bitten by uninfected vectors are higher than the infected vectors. We have discussed the probability or possibility of uninfected, infected, and/or nonvector's saliva and gut microbiota as a therapeutic option leading to the initial deterrent to pathogen establishment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Suman Karmakar
- Cellular Immunology & Experimental Therapeutics Laboratory, Department of Zoology, West Bengal State University, Barasat, North 24 Parganas, West Bengal, 700126, India.,Vector Molecular Biology Laboratory, Department of Zoology, West Bengal State University, Barasat, North 24 Parganas, West Bengal, 700126, India
| | - Supriya Nath
- Cellular Immunology & Experimental Therapeutics Laboratory, Department of Zoology, West Bengal State University, Barasat, North 24 Parganas, West Bengal, 700126, India.,Vector Molecular Biology Laboratory, Department of Zoology, West Bengal State University, Barasat, North 24 Parganas, West Bengal, 700126, India
| | - Biswajyoti Sarkar
- Cellular Immunology & Experimental Therapeutics Laboratory, Department of Zoology, West Bengal State University, Barasat, North 24 Parganas, West Bengal, 700126, India.,Vector Molecular Biology Laboratory, Department of Zoology, West Bengal State University, Barasat, North 24 Parganas, West Bengal, 700126, India
| | - Sondipon Chakraborty
- Vector Molecular Biology Laboratory, Department of Zoology, West Bengal State University, Barasat, North 24 Parganas, West Bengal, 700126, India
| | - Sharmistha Paul
- Vector Molecular Biology Laboratory, Department of Zoology, West Bengal State University, Barasat, North 24 Parganas, West Bengal, 700126, India
| | - Mintu Karan
- Vector Molecular Biology Laboratory, Department of Zoology, West Bengal State University, Barasat, North 24 Parganas, West Bengal, 700126, India
| | - Chiranjib Pal
- Cellular Immunology & Experimental Therapeutics Laboratory, Department of Zoology, West Bengal State University, Barasat, North 24 Parganas, West Bengal, 700126, India.,Vector Molecular Biology Laboratory, Department of Zoology, West Bengal State University, Barasat, North 24 Parganas, West Bengal, 700126, India
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7
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Rathore APS, St John AL. Immune responses to dengue virus in the skin. Open Biol 2019; 8:rsob.180087. [PMID: 30135238 PMCID: PMC6119867 DOI: 10.1098/rsob.180087] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/15/2018] [Accepted: 07/13/2018] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Dengue virus (DENV) causes infection in humans and current estimates place 40% of the world population at risk for contracting disease. There are four DENV serotypes that induce a febrile illness, which can develop into a severe and life-threatening disease in some cases, characterized primarily by vascular dysregulation. As a mosquito-borne infection, the skin is the initial site of DENV inoculation and also where primary host immune responses are initiated. This review discusses the early immune response to DENV in the skin by both infection target cells such as dendritic cells and by immune sentinels such as mast cells. We provide an overview of the mechanisms of immune sensing and functional immune responses that have been shown to aid clearance of DENV in vivo. Finally, we discuss factors that can influence the immune response to DENV in the skin, such as mosquito saliva, which is co-injected with virus during natural route infection, and pre-existing immunity to other DENV serotypes or to related flaviviruses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Abhay P S Rathore
- Department of Pathology, Duke University Medical Center, Durham, NC, USA
| | - Ashley L St John
- Program in Emerging Infectious Diseases, Duke-National University of Singapore, Republic of Singapore .,Department of Pathology, Duke University Medical Center, Durham, NC, USA.,Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Yong Loo Lin School of Medicine, National University of Singapore, Republic of Singapore
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8
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Vogt MB, Lahon A, Arya RP, Kneubehl AR, Spencer Clinton JL, Paust S, Rico-Hesse R. Mosquito saliva alone has profound effects on the human immune system. PLoS Negl Trop Dis 2018; 12:e0006439. [PMID: 29771921 PMCID: PMC5957326 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pntd.0006439] [Citation(s) in RCA: 53] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/28/2017] [Accepted: 04/10/2018] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Mosquito saliva is a very complex concoction of >100 proteins, many of which have unknown functions. The effects of mosquito saliva proteins injected into our skin during blood feeding have been studied mainly in mouse models of injection or biting, with many of these systems producing results that may not be relevant to human disease. Here, we describe the numerous effects that mosquito bites have on human immune cells in mice engrafted with human hematopoietic stem cells. We used flow cytometry and multiplex cytokine bead array assays, with detailed statistical analyses, to detect small but significant variations in immune cell functions after 4 mosquitoes fed on humanized mice footpads. After preliminary analyses, at different early times after biting, we focused on assessing innate immune and subsequent cellular responses at 6 hours, 24 hours and 7 days after mosquito bites. We detected both Th1 and Th2 human immune responses, and delayed effects on cytokine levels in the blood, and immune cell compositions in the skin and bone marrow, up to 7 days post-bites. These are the first measurements of this kind, with human immune responses in whole animals, bitten by living mosquitoes, versus previous studies using incomplete mouse models and salivary gland extracts or needle injected saliva. The results have major implications for the study of hematophagous insect saliva, its effects on the human immune system, with or without pathogen transmission, and the possibility of determining which of these proteins to target for vaccination, in attempts to block transmission of numerous tropical diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Megan B. Vogt
- Integrative Molecular and Biomedical Sciences Graduate Program, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, Texas, United States of America
| | - Anismrita Lahon
- Department of Molecular Virology and Microbiology, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, Texas, United States of America
| | - Ravi P. Arya
- Department of Molecular Virology and Microbiology, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, Texas, United States of America
| | - Alexander R. Kneubehl
- Department of Molecular Virology and Microbiology, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, Texas, United States of America
| | - Jennifer L. Spencer Clinton
- Department of Molecular Virology and Microbiology, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, Texas, United States of America
| | - Silke Paust
- Department of Pediatrics, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, Texas, United States of America
| | - Rebecca Rico-Hesse
- Department of Molecular Virology and Microbiology, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, Texas, United States of America
- * E-mail:
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9
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Pingen M, Schmid MA, Harris E, McKimmie CS. Mosquito Biting Modulates Skin Response to Virus Infection. Trends Parasitol 2017; 33:645-657. [PMID: 28495485 DOI: 10.1016/j.pt.2017.04.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 59] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/03/2017] [Revised: 04/11/2017] [Accepted: 04/12/2017] [Indexed: 01/19/2023]
Abstract
Mosquito-borne infections are increasing in number and are spreading to new regions at an unprecedented rate. In particular, mosquito-transmitted viruses, such as those that cause Zika, dengue, West Nile encephalitis, and chikungunya, have become endemic or have caused dramatic epidemics in many parts of the world. Aedes and Culex mosquitoes are the main culprits, spreading infection when they bite. Importantly, mosquitoes do not act as simple conduits that passively transfer virus from one individual to another. Instead, host responses to mosquito-derived factors have an important influence on infection and disease, aiding replication and dissemination within the host. Here, we discuss the latest research developments regarding this fascinating interplay between mosquito, virus, and the mammalian host.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marieke Pingen
- Virus Host Interaction Team, Section of Infection and Immunity, Leeds Institute of Cancer and Pathology, University of Leeds, Leeds LS9 7TF, UK
| | - Michael A Schmid
- Laboratory of Virology and Chemotherapy, Rega Institute for Medical Research, Department of Immunology and Microbiology, University of Leuven, Leuven, Belgium
| | - Eva Harris
- Division of Infectious Diseases and Vaccinology, School of Public Health, University of California, Berkeley, Berkeley, California, USA
| | - Clive S McKimmie
- Virus Host Interaction Team, Section of Infection and Immunity, Leeds Institute of Cancer and Pathology, University of Leeds, Leeds LS9 7TF, UK.
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10
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Wichit S, Ferraris P, Choumet V, Missé D. The effects of mosquito saliva on dengue virus infectivity in humans. Curr Opin Virol 2016; 21:139-145. [PMID: 27770704 DOI: 10.1016/j.coviro.2016.10.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/27/2016] [Revised: 10/04/2016] [Accepted: 10/06/2016] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
Arboviruses such as Dengue, Chikungunya, and Zika viruses represent a major public health problem due to globalization and propagation of susceptible vectors worldwide. Arthropod vector-derived salivary factors have the capacity to modulate human cells function by enhancing or suppressing viral replication and, therefore, modify the establishment of local and systemic viral infection. Here, we discuss how mosquito saliva may interfere with Dengue virus (DENV) infection in humans. Identification of saliva factors that enhance infectivity will allow the production of vector-based vaccines and therapeutics that would interfere with viral transmission by targeting arthropod saliva components. Understanding the role of salivary proteins in DENV transmission will provide tools to control not only Dengue but also other arboviral diseases transmitted by the same vectors.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Pauline Ferraris
- Laboratory of MIVEGEC, UMR 224 IRD/CNRS/UM1, Montpellier, France
| | - Valérie Choumet
- Environment and Infectious Risks Unit, Pasteur Institute, Paris, France
| | - Dorothée Missé
- Laboratory of MIVEGEC, UMR 224 IRD/CNRS/UM1, Montpellier, France.
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11
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Conway MJ, Londono-Renteria B, Troupin A, Watson AM, Klimstra WB, Fikrig E, Colpitts TM. Aedes aegypti D7 Saliva Protein Inhibits Dengue Virus Infection. PLoS Negl Trop Dis 2016; 10:e0004941. [PMID: 27632170 PMCID: PMC5025043 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pntd.0004941] [Citation(s) in RCA: 58] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/31/2016] [Accepted: 08/02/2016] [Indexed: 12/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Aedes aegypti is the primary vector of several medically relevant arboviruses including dengue virus (DENV) types 1–4. Ae. aegypti transmits DENV by inoculating virus-infected saliva into host skin during probing and feeding. Ae. aegypti saliva contains over one hundred unique proteins and these proteins have diverse functions, including facilitating blood feeding. Previously, we showed that Ae. aegypti salivary gland extracts (SGEs) enhanced dissemination of DENV to draining lymph nodes. In contrast, HPLC-fractionation revealed that some SGE components inhibited infection. Here, we show that D7 proteins are enriched in HPLC fractions that are inhibitory to DENV infection, and that recombinant D7 protein can inhibit DENV infection in vitro and in vivo. Further, binding assays indicate that D7 protein can directly interact with DENV virions and recombinant DENV envelope protein. These data reveal a novel role for D7 proteins, which inhibits arbovirus transmission to vertebrates through a direct interaction with virions. Dengue virus (DENV) is transmitted to humans by Aedes aegypti during the blood feeding process. During blood feeding, DENV and saliva proteins are inoculated into human skin. D7 proteins are prevalent and immunogenic proteins present in Ae. aegypti saliva, and assist the blood feeding process by scavenging biogenic amines. Previous data suggests that antibodies against D7 protein from Culex spp. can increase West Nile virus infection. We hypothesized that D7 proteins may also have antiviral activity. Here, we show that recombinant Ae. aegypti D7 protein can inhibit DENV infection in vitro and in vivo, and that D7 can bind to DENV virions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michael J. Conway
- Foundational Sciences, Central Michigan University College of Medicine, Mt. Pleasant, Michigan, United States of America
- * E-mail:
| | - Berlin Londono-Renteria
- Department of Pathology, Microbiology and Immunology, University of South Carolina School of Medicine, Columbia, South Carolina, United States of America
| | - Andrea Troupin
- Department of Pathology, Microbiology and Immunology, University of South Carolina School of Medicine, Columbia, South Carolina, United States of America
| | - Alan M. Watson
- Center for Vaccine Research and Department of Microbiology and Molecular Genetics, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, United States of America
| | - William B. Klimstra
- Center for Vaccine Research and Department of Microbiology and Molecular Genetics, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, United States of America
| | - Erol Fikrig
- Section of Infectious Diseases, Department of Internal Medicine, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, Connecticut, United States of America
- Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Chevy Chase, Maryland, United States of America
| | - Tonya M. Colpitts
- Department of Pathology, Microbiology and Immunology, University of South Carolina School of Medicine, Columbia, South Carolina, United States of America
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Schmid MA, Glasner DR, Shah S, Michlmayr D, Kramer LD, Harris E. Mosquito Saliva Increases Endothelial Permeability in the Skin, Immune Cell Migration, and Dengue Pathogenesis during Antibody-Dependent Enhancement. PLoS Pathog 2016; 12:e1005676. [PMID: 27310141 PMCID: PMC4911004 DOI: 10.1371/journal.ppat.1005676] [Citation(s) in RCA: 65] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/22/2015] [Accepted: 05/12/2016] [Indexed: 01/24/2023] Open
Abstract
Dengue remains the most prevalent arthropod-borne viral disease in humans. While probing for blood vessels, Aedes aegypti and Ae. albopictus mosquitoes transmit the four serotypes of dengue virus (DENV1-4) by injecting virus-containing saliva into the skin. Even though arthropod saliva is known to facilitate transmission and modulate host responses to other pathogens, the full impact of mosquito saliva on dengue pathogenesis is still not well understood. Inoculating mice lacking the interferon-α/β receptor intradermally with DENV revealed that mosquito salivary gland extract (SGE) exacerbates dengue pathogenesis specifically in the presence of enhancing serotype-cross-reactive antibodies—when individuals already carry an increased risk for severe disease. We further establish that SGE increases viral titers in the skin, boosts antibody-enhanced DENV infection of dendritic cells and macrophages in the dermis, and amplifies dendritic cell migration to skin-draining lymph nodes. We demonstrate that SGE directly disrupts endothelial barrier function in vitro and induces endothelial permeability in vivo in the skin. Finally, we show that surgically removing the site of DENV transmission in the skin after 4 hours rescued mice from disease in the absence of SGE, but no longer prevented lethal antibody-enhanced disease when SGE was present. These results indicate that SGE accelerates the dynamics of dengue pathogenesis after virus transmission in the skin and induces severe antibody-enhanced disease systemically. Our study reveals novel aspects of dengue pathogenesis and suggests that animal models of dengue and pre-clinical testing of dengue vaccines should consider mosquito-derived factors as well as enhancing antibodies. Mosquitoes inject saliva into the skin while probing for blood vessels. Saliva facilitates blood feeding and can contain pathogens when the mosquito is infected. In tropical regions, Aedes mosquitoes transmit the four serotypes of dengue virus (DENV1-4) and infect almost 400 million humans every year. DENV causes severe disease especially in people who have already been exposed to a different serotype. During antibody-dependent enhancement, antibodies that were generated during the first infection bind, but do not neutralize, DENV, and instead enhance infection of immune cells. We injected mouse ears with DENV alone or with extracts from mosquito salivary glands to study the impact on disease. We found that saliva induced severe disease and death only during antibody-enhanced infection. Saliva increased DENV infection in the dermis, immune cell migration to skin and lymph nodes, and permeability of endothelial cells that line blood vessels. Removing the site of DENV inoculation in the skin rescued mice from severe disease, but this protective effect was lost when saliva was present. Our study reveals that mosquito saliva affects dendritic cell migration, increases endothelial permeability, and augments dengue disease severity. Mosquito saliva and enhancing antibodies thus need to be considered when developing vaccines and drugs against dengue.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michael A. Schmid
- Division of Infectious Diseases and Vaccinology, School of Public Health, University of California, Berkeley, Berkeley, California, United States of America
- * E-mail: (MAS); (EH)
| | - Dustin R. Glasner
- Division of Infectious Diseases and Vaccinology, School of Public Health, University of California, Berkeley, Berkeley, California, United States of America
| | - Sanjana Shah
- Division of Infectious Diseases and Vaccinology, School of Public Health, University of California, Berkeley, Berkeley, California, United States of America
| | - Daniela Michlmayr
- Division of Infectious Diseases and Vaccinology, School of Public Health, University of California, Berkeley, Berkeley, California, United States of America
| | - Laura D. Kramer
- Wadsworth Center, New York State Department of Health, Albany, New York, United States of America
| | - Eva Harris
- Division of Infectious Diseases and Vaccinology, School of Public Health, University of California, Berkeley, Berkeley, California, United States of America
- * E-mail: (MAS); (EH)
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Clark KB, Hsiao HM, Bassit L, Crowe JE, Schinazi RF, Perng GC, Villinger F. Characterization of dengue virus 2 growth in megakaryocyte-erythrocyte progenitor cells. Virology 2016; 493:162-72. [PMID: 27058763 DOI: 10.1016/j.virol.2016.03.024] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/26/2016] [Revised: 03/26/2016] [Accepted: 03/28/2016] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
Abstract
Megakaryocyte-erythrocyte progenitor (MEP) cells are potential in vivo targets of dengue virus (DENV); the virus has been found associated with megakaryocytes ex vivo and platelets during DENV-induced thrombocytopenia. We report here that DENV serotype 2 (DENV2) propagates well in human nondifferentiated MEP cell lines (Meg01 and K562). In comparison to virus propagated in Vero cells, viruses from MEP cell lines had similar structure and buoyant density. However, differences in MEP-DENV2 stability and composition were suggested by distinct protein patterns in western blot analysis. Also, antibody neutralization of envelope domain I/II on MEP-DENV2 was reduced relative to that on Vero-DENV2. Infectious DENV2 was produced at comparable kinetics and magnitude in MEP and Vero cells. However, fewer virion structures appeared in electron micrographs of MEP cells. We propose that DENV2 infects and produces virus efficiently in megakaryocytes and that megakaryocyte impairment might contribute to dengue disease pathogenesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kristina B Clark
- Division of Microbiology and Immunology, Yerkes National Primate Research Center, Emory University, Atlanta, GA, USA
| | - Hui-Mien Hsiao
- Center for AIDS Research, Department of Pediatrics, Emory University School of Medicine and Veterans Affairs Medical Center, Atlanta, GA, USA
| | - Leda Bassit
- Center for AIDS Research, Department of Pediatrics, Emory University School of Medicine and Veterans Affairs Medical Center, Atlanta, GA, USA
| | - James E Crowe
- Departments of Pediatrics, Pathology, Microbiology, and Immunology, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, TN, USA
| | - Raymond F Schinazi
- Center for AIDS Research, Department of Pediatrics, Emory University School of Medicine and Veterans Affairs Medical Center, Atlanta, GA, USA
| | - Guey Chuen Perng
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, College of Medicine, National Cheng Kung University, Tainan, Taiwan
| | - Francois Villinger
- Division of Microbiology and Immunology, Yerkes National Primate Research Center, Emory University, Atlanta, GA, USA; New Iberia Research Center, University of Louisiana at Lafayette, New Iberia, LA, USA
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14
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Oktarianti R, Senjarini K, Hayano T, Fatchiyah F, Aulanni’am. Proteomic analysis of immunogenic proteins from salivary glands of Aedes aegypti. J Infect Public Health 2015; 8:575-82. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jiph.2015.04.022] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/13/2015] [Revised: 04/01/2015] [Accepted: 04/03/2015] [Indexed: 10/23/2022] Open
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15
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Source and Purity of Dengue-Viral Preparations Impact Requirement for Enhancing Antibody to Induce Elevated IL-1β Secretion: A Primary Human Monocyte Model. PLoS One 2015; 10:e0136708. [PMID: 26301593 PMCID: PMC4547738 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0136708] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/18/2014] [Accepted: 08/07/2015] [Indexed: 12/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Dengue virus is a major global health threat and can lead to life-threatening hemorrhagic complications due to immune activation and cytokine production. Cross-reactive antibodies to an earlier dengue virus infection are a recognized risk factor for severe disease. These antibodies bind heterologous dengue serotypes and enhance infection into Fc-receptor-bearing cells, a process known as antibody-dependent enhancement of infection. One crucial cytokine seen elevated in severe dengue patients is IL-1β, a potent inflammatory cytokine matured by the inflammasome. We used a highly-physiologic system by studying antibody-dependent enhancement of IL-1β in primary human monocytes with anti-dengue human monoclonal antibodies isolated from patients. Antibody-enhancement increased viral replication in primary human monocytes inoculated with supernatant harvested from Vero cells infected with dengue virus serotype 2 (DENV-2) 16681. Surprisingly, IL-1β secretion induced by infectious supernatant harvested from two independent Vero cell lines was not enhanced by antibody. Secretion of multiple other inflammatory cytokines was also independent of antibody signaling. However, IL-1β secretion did require NLRP3 and caspase-1 activity. Immunodepletion of dengue virions from the infectious supernatant confirmed that virus was not the main IL-1β-inducing agent, suggesting that a supernatant component(s) not associated with the virion induced IL-1β production. We excluded RNA, DNA, contaminating LPS, viral NS1 protein, complement, and cytokines. In contrast, purified Vero-derived DENV-2 16681 exhibited antibody-enhancement of both infection and IL-1β induction. Furthermore, C6/36 mosquito cells did not produce such an inflammatory component, as crude supernatant harvested from insect cells infected with DENV-2 16681 induced antibody-dependent IL-1β secretion. This study indicates that Vero cells infected with DENV-2 16681 may produce inflammatory components during dengue virus propagation that mask the virus-specific immune response. Thus, the choice of host cell and viral purity should be carefully considered, while insect-derived virus represents a system that elicits antibody-dependent cytokine responses to dengue virus with fewer confounding issues.
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16
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Schmid MA, Diamond MS, Harris E. Dendritic cells in dengue virus infection: targets of virus replication and mediators of immunity. Front Immunol 2014; 5:647. [PMID: 25566258 PMCID: PMC4269190 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2014.00647] [Citation(s) in RCA: 80] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/09/2014] [Accepted: 12/04/2014] [Indexed: 12/28/2022] Open
Abstract
Dendritic cells (DCs) are sentinels of the immune system and detect pathogens at sites of entry, such as the skin. In addition to the ability of DCs to control infections directly via their innate immune functions, DCs help to prime adaptive B- and T-cell responses by processing and presenting antigen in lymphoid tissues. Infected Aedes aegypti or Aedes albopictus mosquitoes transmit the four dengue virus (DENV) serotypes to humans while probing for small blood vessels in the skin. DENV causes the most prevalent arthropod-borne viral disease in humans, yet no vaccine or specific therapeutic is currently licensed. Although primary DENV infection confers life-long protective immunity against re-infection with the same DENV serotype, secondary infection with a different DENV serotype can lead to increased disease severity via cross-reactive T-cells or enhancing antibodies. This review summarizes recent findings in humans and animal models about DENV infection of DCs, monocytes, and macrophages. We discuss the dual role of DCs as both targets of DENV replication and mediators of innate and adaptive immunity, and summarize immune evasion strategies whereby DENV impairs the function of infected DCs. We suggest that DCs play a key role in priming DENV-specific neutralizing or potentially harmful memory B- and T-cell responses, and that future DC-directed therapies may help induce protective memory responses and reduce dengue pathogenesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michael A Schmid
- Division of Infectious Diseases and Vaccinology, School of Public Health, University of California Berkeley , Berkeley, CA , USA
| | - Michael S Diamond
- Department of Medicine, Washington University School of Medicine , St. Louis, MO , USA ; Department of Molecular Microbiology, Washington University School of Medicine , St. Louis, MO , USA ; Department of Pathology and Immunology, Washington University School of Medicine , St. Louis, MO , USA
| | - Eva Harris
- Division of Infectious Diseases and Vaccinology, School of Public Health, University of California Berkeley , Berkeley, CA , USA
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17
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Monocyte recruitment to the dermis and differentiation to dendritic cells increases the targets for dengue virus replication. PLoS Pathog 2014; 10:e1004541. [PMID: 25474197 PMCID: PMC4256458 DOI: 10.1371/journal.ppat.1004541] [Citation(s) in RCA: 87] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/01/2014] [Accepted: 10/27/2014] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Dengue virus (DENV) causes the most prevalent arthropod-borne viral disease in humans. Although Aedes mosquitoes transmit DENV when probing for blood in the skin, no information exists on DENV infection and immune response in the dermis, where the blood vessels are found. DENV suppresses the interferon response, replicates, and causes disease in humans but not wild-type mice. Here, we used mice lacking the interferon-α/β receptor (Ifnar(-/-)), which had normal cell populations in the skin and were susceptible to intradermal DENV infection, to investigate the dynamics of early DENV infection of immune cells in the skin. CD103(+) classical dendritic cells (cDCs), Ly6C(-) CD11b(+) cDCs, and macrophages in the steady-state dermis were initial targets of DENV infection 12-24 hours post-inoculation but then decreased in frequency. We demonstrated recruitment of adoptively-transferred Ly6C(high) monocytes from wild-type and Ifnar(-/-) origin to the DENV-infected dermis and differentiation to Ly6C(+) CD11b(+) monocyte-derived DCs (moDCs), which became DENV-infected after 48 hours, and were then the major targets for virus replication. Ly6C(high) monocytes that entered the DENV-infected dermis expressed chemokine receptor CCR2, likely mediating recruitment. Further, we show that ∼ 100-fold more hematopoietic cells in the dermis were DENV-infected compared to Langerhans cells in the epidermis. Overall, these results identify the dermis as the main site of early DENV replication and show that DENV infection in the skin occurs in two waves: initial infection of resident cDCs and macrophages, followed by infection of monocytes and moDCs that are recruited to the dermis. Our study reveals a novel viral strategy of exploiting monocyte recruitment to increase the number of targets for infection at the site of invasion in the skin and highlights the skin as a potential site for therapeutic action or intradermal vaccination.
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18
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Cabrera-Romo S, Recio-Tótoro B, Alcalá AC, Lanz H, del Ángel RM, Sánchez-Cordero V, Rodríguez-Moreno Á, Ludert JE. Experimental inoculation of Artibeus jamaicensis bats with dengue virus serotypes 1 or 4 showed no evidence of sustained replication. Am J Trop Med Hyg 2014; 91:1227-34. [PMID: 25311698 PMCID: PMC4257650 DOI: 10.4269/ajtmh.14-0361] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/10/2014] [Accepted: 08/06/2014] [Indexed: 11/07/2022] Open
Abstract
Dengue is the most important mosquito-borne viral disease to humans. Bats are potential reservoirs for flaviviruses, including dengue virus (DENV). In this work, Artibeus jamaicensis bats were inoculated with two serotypes of DENV using different routes. For experimental inoculations (EI) 1 and 2, bats were inoculated subcutaneously or intraperitoneally with DENV-4; for EI-3 bats were inoculated intraperitoneally with DENV-1. Mock inoculated bats were kept as controls. In EI-4, bats were bitten by Aedes aegypti mosquitoes infected with DENV-1 or 4. Reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction assays in plasma and spleen tissue collected from Day 1 to Days 9-17 after inoculation failed to reveal the presence of viral RNA in any of the samples. No evidence of circulating NS1 or specific anti-DENV IgG was detected in the plasma of the inoculated bats. These results indicate that A. jamaicensis bats are incapable of sustaining dengue virus replication and are unlikely to act as reservoirs for this virus.
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Affiliation(s)
- Salomé Cabrera-Romo
- Departament of Infectomics and Molecular Pathogenesis, Center for Research and Advanced Studies (CINVESTAV-IPN), Mexico City, Mexico; Center for Research on Infectious Diseases (CISEI), National Institute of Public Health (INSP), Cuernavaca, Mexico; Institute of Biology, Mexico City, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Mexico
| | - Benito Recio-Tótoro
- Departament of Infectomics and Molecular Pathogenesis, Center for Research and Advanced Studies (CINVESTAV-IPN), Mexico City, Mexico; Center for Research on Infectious Diseases (CISEI), National Institute of Public Health (INSP), Cuernavaca, Mexico; Institute of Biology, Mexico City, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Mexico
| | - Ana C Alcalá
- Departament of Infectomics and Molecular Pathogenesis, Center for Research and Advanced Studies (CINVESTAV-IPN), Mexico City, Mexico; Center for Research on Infectious Diseases (CISEI), National Institute of Public Health (INSP), Cuernavaca, Mexico; Institute of Biology, Mexico City, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Mexico
| | - Humberto Lanz
- Departament of Infectomics and Molecular Pathogenesis, Center for Research and Advanced Studies (CINVESTAV-IPN), Mexico City, Mexico; Center for Research on Infectious Diseases (CISEI), National Institute of Public Health (INSP), Cuernavaca, Mexico; Institute of Biology, Mexico City, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Mexico
| | - Rosa María del Ángel
- Departament of Infectomics and Molecular Pathogenesis, Center for Research and Advanced Studies (CINVESTAV-IPN), Mexico City, Mexico; Center for Research on Infectious Diseases (CISEI), National Institute of Public Health (INSP), Cuernavaca, Mexico; Institute of Biology, Mexico City, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Mexico
| | - Victor Sánchez-Cordero
- Departament of Infectomics and Molecular Pathogenesis, Center for Research and Advanced Studies (CINVESTAV-IPN), Mexico City, Mexico; Center for Research on Infectious Diseases (CISEI), National Institute of Public Health (INSP), Cuernavaca, Mexico; Institute of Biology, Mexico City, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Mexico
| | - Ángel Rodríguez-Moreno
- Departament of Infectomics and Molecular Pathogenesis, Center for Research and Advanced Studies (CINVESTAV-IPN), Mexico City, Mexico; Center for Research on Infectious Diseases (CISEI), National Institute of Public Health (INSP), Cuernavaca, Mexico; Institute of Biology, Mexico City, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Mexico
| | - Juan E Ludert
- Departament of Infectomics and Molecular Pathogenesis, Center for Research and Advanced Studies (CINVESTAV-IPN), Mexico City, Mexico; Center for Research on Infectious Diseases (CISEI), National Institute of Public Health (INSP), Cuernavaca, Mexico; Institute of Biology, Mexico City, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Mexico
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Ockenfels B, Michael E, McDowell MA. Meta-analysis of the effects of insect vector saliva on host immune responses and infection of vector-transmitted pathogens: a focus on leishmaniasis. PLoS Negl Trop Dis 2014; 8:e3197. [PMID: 25275509 PMCID: PMC4183472 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pntd.0003197] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/20/2014] [Accepted: 08/18/2014] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
A meta-analysis of the effects of vector saliva on the immune response and progression of vector-transmitted disease, specifically with regard to pathology, infection level, and host cytokine levels was conducted. Infection in the absence or presence of saliva in naïve mice was compared. In addition, infection in mice pre-exposed to uninfected vector saliva was compared to infection in unexposed mice. To control for differences in vector and pathogen species, mouse strain, and experimental design, a random effects model was used to compare the ratio of the natural log of the experimental to the control means of the studies. Saliva was demonstrated to enhance pathology, infection level, and the production of Th2 cytokines (IL-4 and IL-10) in naïve mice. This effect was observed across vector/pathogen pairings, whether natural or unnatural, and with single salivary proteins used as a proxy for whole saliva. Saliva pre-exposure was determined to result in less severe leishmaniasis pathology when compared with unexposed mice infected either in the presence or absence of sand fly saliva. The results of further analyses were not significant, but demonstrated trends toward protection and IFN-γ elevation for pre-exposed mice. Arthropod vectors transmit a wide variety of diseases resulting in substantial human morbidity and economic costs worldwide. When hematophagous arthropods blood feed, they release saliva into the host. This saliva elicits a strong immune response and has recently been a focus for vaccine research. There is evidence that the saliva enhances infection in naïve hosts, but that prior exposure to saliva results in less severe infection. This analysis endeavored to determine whether there was a statistically significant enhancement or protective effect with regard to saliva exposure and the progression of disease, and to determine the underlying immune mechanism driving these effects. We found that saliva does indeed enhance infection levels of vector-transmitted pathogens and leishmaniasis pathology in naïve mice and elevates Th2 cytokine levels (IL-4 and IL-10). We also determined that pre-exposure to saliva results in less severe pathology of experimental leishmaniasis in mice. These results are important for vaccine trials and vector control programs, though more studies are needed with regard to pre-exposure.
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Affiliation(s)
- Brittany Ockenfels
- Eck Institute for Global Health, Department of Biological Sciences, University of Notre Dame, Notre Dame, Indiana, United States of America
| | - Edwin Michael
- Eck Institute for Global Health, Department of Biological Sciences, University of Notre Dame, Notre Dame, Indiana, United States of America
| | - Mary Ann McDowell
- Eck Institute for Global Health, Department of Biological Sciences, University of Notre Dame, Notre Dame, Indiana, United States of America
- * E-mail:
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20
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Sariol CA, White LJ. Utility, limitations, and future of non-human primates for dengue research and vaccine development. Front Immunol 2014; 5:452. [PMID: 25309540 PMCID: PMC4174039 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2014.00452] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/03/2014] [Accepted: 09/05/2014] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Dengue is considered the most important emerging, human arboviruses, with worldwide distribution in the tropics. Unfortunately, there are no licensed dengue vaccines available or specific anti-viral drugs. The development of a dengue vaccine faces unique challenges. The four serotypes co-circulate in endemic areas, and pre-existing immunity to one serotype does not protect against infection with other serotypes, and actually may enhance severity of disease. One foremost constraint to test the efficacy of a dengue vaccine is the lack of an animal model that adequately recapitulates the clinical manifestations of a dengue infection in humans. In spite of this limitation, non-human primates (NHP) are considered the best available animal model to evaluate dengue vaccine candidates due to their genetic relatedness to humans and their ability to develop a viremia upon infection and a robust immune response similar to that in humans. Therefore, most dengue vaccines candidates are tested in primates before going into clinical trials. In this article, we present a comprehensive review of published studies on dengue vaccine evaluations using the NHP model, and discuss critical parameters affecting the usefulness of the model. In the light of recent clinical data, we assess the ability of the NHP model to predict immunological parameters of vaccine performances in humans and discuss parameters that should be further examined as potential correlates of protection. Finally, we propose some guidelines toward a more standardized use of the model to maximize its usefulness and to better compare the performance of vaccine candidates from different research groups.
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Affiliation(s)
- Carlos A Sariol
- Department of Microbiology and Medical Zoology, Caribbean Primate Research Center, University of Puerto Rico-Medical Sciences Campus , San Juan, PR , USA ; Department of Internal Medicine, Caribbean Primate Research Center, University of Puerto Rico-Medical Sciences Campus , San Juan, PR , USA
| | - Laura J White
- Global Vaccine Incorporation , Research Triangle Park, NC , USA
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Abstract
Many arboviral diseases are uncontrolled, and the viruses that cause them are globally emerging or reemerging pathogens that produce significant disease throughout the world. The increased spread and prevalence of disease are occurring during a period of substantial scientific growth in the vector-borne disease research community. This growth has been supported by advances in genomics and proteomics, and by the ability to genetically alter disease vectors. For the first time, researchers are elucidating the molecular details of vector host-seeking behavior, the susceptibility of disease vectors to arboviruses, the immunological control of infection in disease vectors, and the determinants that facilitate transmission of arboviruses from a vector to a host. These discoveries are facilitating the development of novel strategies to combat arboviral disease, including the release of transgenic mosquitoes harboring dominant lethal genes, the introduction of arbovirus-blocking microbes into mosquito populations, and the development of acquisition- and transmission-blocking therapeutics. Understanding the role of the vector in arbovirus transmission has provided critical practical and theoretical tools to control arboviral disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michael J Conway
- Foundational Sciences, Central Michigan University College of Medicine, Mt. Pleasant, Michigan 48859
| | - Tonya M Colpitts
- Department of Tropical Medicine, Tulane University School of Public Health and Tropical Medicine, New Orleans, Louisiana 70112
| | - Erol Fikrig
- Department of Internal Medicine, Infectious Diseases Section, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, Connecticut 06520; .,Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Chevy Chase, Maryland 20815
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Bernard Q, Jaulhac B, Boulanger N. Smuggling across the Border: How Arthropod-Borne Pathogens Evade and Exploit the Host Defense System of the Skin. J Invest Dermatol 2014; 134:1211-1219. [DOI: 10.1038/jid.2014.36] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/28/2013] [Revised: 12/04/2013] [Accepted: 12/28/2013] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
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Analysis of early dengue virus infection in mice as modulated by Aedes aegypti probing. J Virol 2013; 88:1881-9. [PMID: 24198426 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.01218-13] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Dengue virus (DENV), the etiologic agent of dengue fever, is transmitted during probing of human skin by infected-mosquito bite. The expectorated viral inoculum also contains an assortment of mosquito salivary proteins that have been shown to modulate host hemostasis and innate immune responses. To examine the potential role of mosquito probing in DENV establishment within the vertebrate host, we inoculated mice intradermally with DENV serotype 2 strain 1232 at sites where Aedes aegypti had or had not probed immediately prior. We assayed these sites 3 h postinoculation with transcript arrays for the Toll-like receptor (TLR), RIG-I-like receptor, and NOD-like receptor signaling pathways of the innate immune system. We then chose TLR7, transcription factor p65 (RelA), gamma interferon (IFN-γ), and IFN-γ-inducible protein 10 (IP-10) from the arrays for further investigation and assayed these transcripts at 10 min, 3 h, and 6 h postinoculation. The transcripts for TLR7, RelA, IFN-γ, and IP-10 were significantly downregulated between 2- and 3-fold in the group subjected to mosquito probing relative to the virus-only inoculation group at 3 h postinoculation. A reduction in these transcripts could indicate reduced DENV recognition and antigen presentation and diminished inhibition of viral replication and spread. Further, mosquito probing resulted in viremia titers significantly higher than those in mice that did not receive probing. A. aegypti probing has a significant effect on the innate immune response to DENV infection and generates an early immune environment more permissive to the establishment of infection.
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Sakhon OS, Severo MS, Kotsyfakis M, Pedra JHF. A Nod to disease vectors: mitigation of pathogen sensing by arthropod saliva. Front Microbiol 2013; 4:308. [PMID: 24155744 PMCID: PMC3801108 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2013.00308] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/23/2013] [Accepted: 09/26/2013] [Indexed: 01/29/2023] Open
Abstract
Arthropod saliva possesses anti-hemostatic, anesthetic, and anti-inflammatory properties that facilitate feeding and, inadvertently, dissemination of pathogens. Vector-borne diseases caused by these pathogens affect millions of people each year. Many studies address the impact of arthropod salivary proteins on various immunological components. However, whether and how arthropod saliva counters Nod-like (NLR) sensing remains elusive. NLRs are innate immune pattern recognition molecules involved in detecting microbial molecules and danger signals. Nod1/2 signaling results in activation of the nuclear factor-κB and the mitogen-activated protein kinase pathways. Caspase-1 NLRs regulate the inflammasome~– a protein scaffold that governs the maturation of interleukin (IL)-1β and IL-18. Recently, several vector-borne pathogens have been shown to induce NLR activation in immune cells. Here, we provide a brief overview of NLR signaling and discuss clinically relevant vector-borne pathogens recognized by NLR pathways. We also elaborate on possible anti-inflammatory effects of arthropod saliva on NLR signaling and microbial pathogenesis for the purpose of exchanging research perspectives.
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Affiliation(s)
- Olivia S Sakhon
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of Maryland School of Medicine Baltimore, MD, USA
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Mosquito saliva serine protease enhances dissemination of dengue virus into the mammalian host. J Virol 2013; 88:164-75. [PMID: 24131723 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.02235-13] [Citation(s) in RCA: 108] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Dengue virus (DENV), a flavivirus of global importance, is transmitted to humans by mosquitoes. In this study, we developed in vitro and in vivo models of saliva-mediated enhancement of DENV infectivity. Serine protease activity in Aedes aegypti saliva augmented virus infectivity in vitro by proteolyzing extracellular matrix proteins, thereby increasing viral attachment to heparan sulfate proteoglycans and inducing cell migration. A serine protease inhibitor reduced saliva-mediated enhancement of DENV in vitro and in vivo, marked by a 100-fold reduction in DENV load in murine lymph nodes. A saliva-mediated infectivity enhancement screen of fractionated salivary gland extracts identified serine protease CLIPA3 as a putative cofactor, and short interfering RNA knockdown of CLIPA3 in mosquitoes demonstrated its role in influencing DENV infectivity. Molecules in mosquito saliva that facilitate viral infectivity in the vertebrate host provide novel targets that may aid in the prevention of disease.
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Novel immunomodulators from hard ticks selectively reprogramme human dendritic cell responses. PLoS Pathog 2013; 9:e1003450. [PMID: 23825947 PMCID: PMC3695081 DOI: 10.1371/journal.ppat.1003450] [Citation(s) in RCA: 63] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/02/2013] [Accepted: 05/07/2013] [Indexed: 12/28/2022] Open
Abstract
Hard ticks subvert the immune responses of their vertebrate hosts in order to feed for much longer periods than other blood-feeding ectoparasites; this may be one reason why they transmit perhaps the greatest diversity of pathogens of any arthropod vector. Tick-induced immunomodulation is mediated by salivary components, some of which neutralise elements of innate immunity or inhibit the development of adaptive immunity. As dendritic cells (DC) trigger and help to regulate adaptive immunity, they are an ideal target for immunomodulation. However, previously described immunoactive components of tick saliva are either highly promiscuous in their cellular and molecular targets or have limited effects on DC. Here we address the question of whether the largest and globally most important group of ticks (the ixodid metastriates) produce salivary molecules that specifically modulate DC activity. We used chromatography to isolate a salivary gland protein (Japanin) from Rhipicephalus appendiculatus ticks. Japanin was cloned, and recombinant protein was produced in a baculoviral expression system. We found that Japanin specifically reprogrammes DC responses to a wide variety of stimuli in vitro, radically altering their expression of co-stimulatory and co-inhibitory transmembrane molecules (measured by flow cytometry) and their secretion of pro-inflammatory, anti-inflammatory and T cell polarising cytokines (assessed by Luminex multiplex assays); it also inhibits the differentiation of DC from monocytes. Sequence alignments and enzymatic deglycosylation revealed Japanin to be a 17.7 kDa, N-glycosylated lipocalin. Using molecular cloning and database searches, we have identified a group of homologous proteins in R. appendiculatus and related species, three of which we have expressed and shown to possess DC-modulatory activity. All data were obtained using DC generated from at least four human blood donors, with rigorous statistical analysis. Our results suggest a previously unknown mechanism for parasite-induced subversion of adaptive immunity, one which may also facilitate pathogen transmission. Dendritic cells (DC) are specialised cells of the vertebrate immune system. DC can sense different types of infectious agents and parasites, and both trigger and help regulate the specific types of immunity needed to eliminate them. We have discovered that the largest and globally most important group of hard ticks produce a unique family of proteins in their saliva that selectively targets DC, radically altering functions that would otherwise induce robust immune responses; these proteins also prevent DC developing from precursor cells. The production of these salivary molecules may help to explain two highly unusual features of these hard ticks compared with other blood-feeding parasites: their ability to feed continuously on their vertebrate hosts for considerable lengths of time (7 days or more) without eliciting potentially damaging immune responses, and their capacity to transmit possibly the greatest variety of pathogens of any type of invertebrate.
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Machain-Williams C, Reagan K, Wang T, Zeidner NS, Blair CD. Immunization with Culex tarsalis mosquito salivary gland extract modulates West Nile virus infection and disease in mice. Viral Immunol 2013; 26:84-92. [PMID: 23362833 DOI: 10.1089/vim.2012.0051] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Mosquito salivary proteins inoculated during blood feeding modulate the host immune response, which can contribute to the pathogenesis of viruses transmitted by mosquito bites. Previous studies with mosquito bite-naïve mice indicated that exposure to arthropod salivary proteins resulted in a shift toward a Th2-type immune response in flavivirus-susceptible mice but not flavivirus-resistant animals. In the study presented here, we tested the hypothesis that immunization with high doses of Culex tarsalis salivary gland extracts (SGE) with an adjuvant would prevent Th2 polarization after mosquito bite and enhance resistance to mosquito-transmitted West Nile virus (WNV). Our results indicate that mice immunized with Cx. tarsalis SGE produced increased levels of Th1-type cytokines (IFNγ and TNFα) after challenge with mosquito-transmitted WNV and exhibited both a delay in infection of the central nervous system (CNS) and significantly lower WNV brain titers compared to mock-immunized mice. Moreover, mortality was significantly reduced in the SGE-immunized mice, as none of these mice died, compared to mortality of 37.5% of mock-vaccinated mice by 8 days after infected mosquito bite. These results suggest that development of a mosquito salivary protein vaccine might be a strategy to control arthropod-borne viral pathogens such as WNV.
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Affiliation(s)
- Carlos Machain-Williams
- Arthropod-Borne and Infectious Diseases Laboratory, Department of Microbiology, Immunology and Pathology, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, CO 80523, USA.
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Abstract
West Nile Virus was introduced into the Western Hemisphere during the late summer of 1999 and has been causing significant and sometimes severe human diseases since that time. This article briefly touches upon the biology of the virus and provides a comprehensive review regarding recent discoveries about virus transmission, virus acquisition, and human infection and disease.
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Cox J, Mota J, Sukupolvi-Petty S, Diamond MS, Rico-Hesse R. Mosquito bite delivery of dengue virus enhances immunogenicity and pathogenesis in humanized mice. J Virol 2012; 86:7637-49. [PMID: 22573866 PMCID: PMC3416288 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.00534-12] [Citation(s) in RCA: 143] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/29/2012] [Accepted: 05/01/2012] [Indexed: 01/18/2023] Open
Abstract
Dengue viruses (DENV) are transmitted to humans by the bite of Aedes aegypti or Aedes albopictus mosquitoes, with millions of infections annually in over 100 countries. The diseases they produce, which occur exclusively in humans, are dengue fever (DF) and dengue hemorrhagic fever (DHF). We previously developed a humanized mouse model of DF in which mice transplanted with human hematopoietic stem cells produced signs of DENV disease after injection with low-passage, wild-type isolates. Using these mice, but now allowing infected A. aegypti to transmit dengue virus during feeding, we observed signs of more severe disease (higher and more sustained viremia, erythema, and thrombocytopenia). Infected mice mounted innate (gamma interferon [IFN-γ] and soluble interleukin 2 receptor alpha [sIL-2Rα]) and adaptive (anti-DENV antibodies) immune responses that failed to clear viremia until day 56, while a mosquito bite alone induced strong immunomodulators (tumor necrosis factor alpha [TNF-α], IL-4, and IL-10) and thrombocytopenia. This is the first animal model that allows an evaluation of human immunity to DENV infection after mosquito inoculation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jonathan Cox
- Department of Virology and Immunology, Texas Biomedical Research Institute, San Antonio, Texas, USA
| | - Javier Mota
- Department of Virology and Immunology, Texas Biomedical Research Institute, San Antonio, Texas, USA
| | - Soila Sukupolvi-Petty
- Departments of Medicine, Molecular Microbiology, Pathology, and Immunology, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, Missouri, USA
| | - Michael S. Diamond
- Departments of Medicine, Molecular Microbiology, Pathology, and Immunology, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, Missouri, USA
| | - Rebeca Rico-Hesse
- Department of Virology and Immunology, Texas Biomedical Research Institute, San Antonio, Texas, USA
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Bustos-Arriaga J, García-Machorro J, León-Juárez M, García-Cordero J, Santos-Argumedo L, Flores-Romo L, Méndez-Cruz AR, Juárez-Delgado FJ, Cedillo-Barrón L. Activation of the innate immune response against DENV in normal non-transformed human fibroblasts. PLoS Negl Trop Dis 2011; 5:e1420. [PMID: 22206025 PMCID: PMC3243703 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pntd.0001420] [Citation(s) in RCA: 51] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/16/2011] [Accepted: 10/21/2011] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND When mosquitoes infected with DENV are feeding, the proboscis must traverse the epidermis several times ("probing") before reaching a blood vessel in the dermis. During this process, the salivary glands release the virus, which is likely to interact first with cells of the various epidermal and dermal layers, cells which could be physiologically relevant to DENV infection and replication in humans. However, important questions are whether more abundant non-hematopoietic cells such as fibroblasts become infected, and whether they play any role in antiviral innate immunity in the very early stages of infection, or even if they might be used by DENV as primary replication cells. METHODOLOGY/PRINCIPAL FINDINGS Fibroblasts freshly released from healthy skin and infected 12 hours after their isolation show a positive signal for DENV. In addition, when primary skin fibroblast cultures were established and subsequently infected, we showed DENV-2 antigen-positive intracellular signal at 24 hours and 48 hours post-infection. Moreover, the fibroblasts showed productive infection in a conventional plaque assay. The skin fibroblasts infected with DENV-2 underwent potent signaling through both TLR3 and RIG- 1, but not Mda5, triggering up-regulation of IFNβ, TNFα, defensin 5 (HB5) and β defensin 2 (HβD2). In addition, DENV infected fibroblasts showed increased nuclear translocation of interferon (IFN) regulatory factor 3 (IRF3), but not interferon regulatory factor 7 (IRF7), when compared with mock-infected fibroblasts. CONCLUSIONS/SIGNIFICANCE In this work, we demonstrated the high susceptibility to DENV infection by primary fibroblasts from normal human skin, both in situ and in vitro. Our results suggest that these cells may contribute to the pro-inflammatory and anti-viral microenvironment in the early stages of interaction with DENV-2. Furthermore, the data suggest that fibroblast may also be used as a primary site of DENV replication and provide viral particles that may contribute to subsequent viral dissemination.
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Affiliation(s)
- José Bustos-Arriaga
- Departamento de Biomedicina Molecular Centro de Investigación y de Estudios Avanzados, México Distrito Federal, Mexico
| | - Jazmín García-Machorro
- Departamento de Biomedicina Molecular Centro de Investigación y de Estudios Avanzados, México Distrito Federal, Mexico
| | - Moisés León-Juárez
- Departamento de Biomedicina Molecular Centro de Investigación y de Estudios Avanzados, México Distrito Federal, Mexico
| | - Julio García-Cordero
- Departamento de Biomedicina Molecular Centro de Investigación y de Estudios Avanzados, México Distrito Federal, Mexico
| | - Leopoldo Santos-Argumedo
- Departamento de Biomedicina Molecular Centro de Investigación y de Estudios Avanzados, México Distrito Federal, Mexico
| | - Leopoldo Flores-Romo
- Departamento de Biología Celular Centro de Investigación y de Estudios Avanzados, México Distrito Federal, Mexico
| | - A. René Méndez-Cruz
- Laboratorio de Inmunología UMF de la FES Iztacala Universidad Autónoma de México, Tlalnepantla Estado de México, Mexico
| | | | - Leticia Cedillo-Barrón
- Departamento de Biomedicina Molecular Centro de Investigación y de Estudios Avanzados, México Distrito Federal, Mexico
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Abstract
Huge emphasis has been placed on the role of the adaptive immune system in dengue pathogenesis. Yet there is increasing evidence for the importance of the innate immune system in regulating dengue infection and possibly influencing the disease. This review focuses on the interplay between the innate immune system and dengue and highlights the role of soluble immunological mediators. Type I and type II interferons of the innate immune system demonstrate non-overlapping roles in dengue infection. Furthermore, while some IFN responses to dengue are protective, others may exert disease-related effects on the host. But aside from interferons, a number of cytokines have also been implicated in dengue pathogenesis. Our expanding knowledge of cytokines indicates that these soluble mediators act upon a complicated network of events to provoke the disease. This cytokine storm is generally attributed to massive T cell activation as an outcome of secondary infection. However, there is reason to believe that innate immune response-derived cytokines also have contributory effects, especially in the context of severe cases of primary dengue infection. Another less popular but interesting perspective on dengue pathogenesis is the effect of mosquito feeding on host immune responses and viral infection. Various studies have shown that soluble factors from vector saliva have the capacity to alter immune reactions and thereby influence pathogen transmission and establishment. Hence, modulation of the innate immune system at various levels of infection is a critical component of dengue disease. In the absence of an approved drug or vaccine for dengue, soluble mediators of the innate immune system could be a strategic foothold for developing anti-viral therapeutics and improving clinical management.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lyre Anni Espada-Murao
- Department of Virology, Institute of Tropical Medicine, GCOE Programme, Nagasaki University, Sakamoto machi 1-12-4, Nagasaki 852-8523, Japan
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Magez S, Caljon G. Mouse models for pathogenic African trypanosomes: unravelling the immunology of host-parasite-vector interactions. Parasite Immunol 2011; 33:423-9. [PMID: 21480934 DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-3024.2011.01293.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/06/2023]
Abstract
African trypanosomiasis is a parasitic disease that affects a variety of mammals, including humans, on the sub-Saharan African continent. To understand the diverse parameters that govern the host-parasite-vector interactions, mouse models for the disease have proven to be a cornerstone. Despite the fact that most trypanosomes cannot be considered natural pathogens for rodents, experimental infections in mice have shed a tremendous amount of light on the general biology of these parasites and their interaction with and evasion of the mammalian immune system. Different aspects including inflammation, vaccine failure, antigenic variation, resistance/sensitivity to normal human serum and the influence of tsetse compounds on parasite transmission have all been addressed using mouse models. In more recent years, the introduction of various 'knock-out' mouse strains has allowed to analyse the implication of various cytokines, particularly TNF, IFNγ and IL-10, in the regulation of parasitaemia and induction of pathological conditions during infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- S Magez
- Laboratory for Cellular and Molecular Immunology, VIB Department of Molecular and Cellular Interactions, Vrije Universiteit Brussel, Brussels, Belgium.
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33
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Noisakran S, Chokephaibulkit K, Songprakhon P, Onlamoon N, Hsiao HM, Villinger F, Ansari A, Perng GC. A re-evaluation of the mechanisms leading to dengue hemorrhagic fever. Ann N Y Acad Sci 2009; 1171 Suppl 1:E24-35. [PMID: 19751399 DOI: 10.1111/j.1749-6632.2009.05050.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
Viremia is one of the features of dengue virus infection among the flaviviruses. Dengue virus infection results in a spectrum of clinical symptoms, ranging from undifferentiated flu-like illness, mild dengue fever, to dengue hemorrhagic fever (DHF)/dengue shock syndrome (DSS), a life-threatening illness. Several mechanisms have been hypothesized based primarily on data collected from post-acute clinical phase to account for DHF/DSS. Lack of a suitable animal model for DHF/DSS has hindered progress in defining the etiology of DHF/DSS. Levels of circulating dengue virus have been well-correlated to severe dengue disease. However, the cell lineage(s) serving as a primary target for the source of viremia are largely unknown. Results from in vivo and in vitro pilot studies using molecular and more advanced technologies reveal that dengue virus appears to be associated with platelets and the megakaryocytic lineage. The observation may partially explain the dysfunction of platelets observed in dengue affected patients.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sansanee Noisakran
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, Emory Vaccine Center, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, Georgia 30322, USA
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Almeras L, Orlandi-Pradines E, Fontaine A, Villard C, Boucomont E, de Senneville LD, Baragatti M, Pascual A, Pradines B, Corre-Catelin N, Pages F, Reiter P, Rogier C, Fusai T. Sialome Individuality BetweenAedes aegyptiColonies. Vector Borne Zoonotic Dis 2009; 9:531-41. [DOI: 10.1089/vbz.2008.0056] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- L. Almeras
- Unité de recherche en biologie et en épidémiologie parasitaire, Institut de Médecine Tropicale du Service de Santé des Armées (IMTSSA): Marseille-Armées, France
| | - E. Orlandi-Pradines
- Unité de recherche en biologie et en épidémiologie parasitaire, Institut de Médecine Tropicale du Service de Santé des Armées (IMTSSA): Marseille-Armées, France
| | - A. Fontaine
- Unité de recherche en biologie et en épidémiologie parasitaire, Institut de Médecine Tropicale du Service de Santé des Armées (IMTSSA): Marseille-Armées, France
| | - C. Villard
- Plateau Proteomique Timone, Université Aix-Marseille II; Marseille, France
| | - E. Boucomont
- Unité de recherche en biologie et en épidémiologie parasitaire, Institut de Médecine Tropicale du Service de Santé des Armées (IMTSSA): Marseille-Armées, France
| | - L. Denis de Senneville
- Unité de recherche en biologie et en épidémiologie parasitaire, Institut de Médecine Tropicale du Service de Santé des Armées (IMTSSA): Marseille-Armées, France
| | - M. Baragatti
- Unité de recherche en biologie et en épidémiologie parasitaire, Institut de Médecine Tropicale du Service de Santé des Armées (IMTSSA): Marseille-Armées, France
| | - A. Pascual
- Unité de recherche en biologie et en épidémiologie parasitaire, Institut de Médecine Tropicale du Service de Santé des Armées (IMTSSA): Marseille-Armées, France
| | - B. Pradines
- Unité de recherche en biologie et en épidémiologie parasitaire, Institut de Médecine Tropicale du Service de Santé des Armées (IMTSSA): Marseille-Armées, France
| | - N. Corre-Catelin
- Institut Pasteur, Insects and Infectious Diseases Unit; Paris, France
| | - F. Pages
- Unité d'Entomologie Médicale, Institut de Médecine Tropicale du Service de Santé des Armées (IMTSSA); Marseille-Armées, France
| | - P. Reiter
- Institut Pasteur, Insects and Infectious Diseases Unit; Paris, France
| | - C. Rogier
- Unité de recherche en biologie et en épidémiologie parasitaire, Institut de Médecine Tropicale du Service de Santé des Armées (IMTSSA): Marseille-Armées, France
| | - T. Fusai
- Unité de recherche en biologie et en épidémiologie parasitaire, Institut de Médecine Tropicale du Service de Santé des Armées (IMTSSA): Marseille-Armées, France
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Cao-Lormeau VM. Dengue viruses binding proteins from Aedes aegypti and Aedes polynesiensis salivary glands. Virol J 2009; 6:35. [PMID: 19320997 PMCID: PMC2670272 DOI: 10.1186/1743-422x-6-35] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/08/2008] [Accepted: 03/25/2009] [Indexed: 11/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Dengue virus (DENV), the etiological agent of dengue fever, is transmitted to the human host during blood uptake by an infective mosquito. Infection of vector salivary glands and further injection of infectious saliva into the human host are key events of the DENV transmission cycle. However, the molecular mechanisms of DENV entry into the mosquito salivary glands have not been clearly identified. Otherwise, although it was demonstrated for other vector-transmitted pathogens that insect salivary components may interact with host immune agents and impact the establishment of infection, the role of mosquito saliva on DENV infection in human has been only poorly documented. To identify salivary gland molecules which might interact with DENV at these key steps of transmission cycle, we investigated the presence of proteins able to bind DENV in salivary gland extracts (SGE) from two mosquito species. Using virus overlay protein binding assay, we detected several proteins able to bind DENV in SGE from Aedes aegypti (L.) and Aedes polynesiensis (Marks). The present findings pave the way for the identification of proteins mediating DENV attachment or entry into mosquito salivary glands, and of saliva-secreted proteins those might be bound to the virus at the earliest step of human infection. The present findings might contribute to the identification of new targets for anti-dengue strategies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Van-Mai Cao-Lormeau
- Laboratoire de Recherche en Virologie Médicale, Institut Louis Malardé, Po Box 30, 98713 Papeete, Tahiti, French Polynesia.
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Alto BW, Lounibos LP, Mores CN, Reiskind MH. Larval competition alters susceptibility of adult Aedes mosquitoes to dengue infection. Proc Biol Sci 2008; 275:463-71. [PMID: 18077250 PMCID: PMC2289994 DOI: 10.1098/rspb.2007.1497] [Citation(s) in RCA: 155] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Dengue, the most important human arboviral disease, is transmitted primarily by Aedes aegypti and, to a lesser extent, by Aedes albopictus. The current distributions of these invasive species overlap and are affected by interspecific larval competition in their container habitats. Here we report that competition also enhances dengue infection and dissemination rates in one of these two vector species. We determined the effects of competition on adult A. aegypti and A. albopictus, comparing their susceptibility to infection with a Southeast Asian strain of dengue-2 virus. High levels of intra- or interspecific competition among larvae enhanced the susceptibility of A. albopictus to dengue virus infection and potential for transmission, as indicated by disseminated infections. Doubling the number of competing larvae (A. albopictus or A. aegypti), led to a significant (more than 60%) increase in the proportion of A. albopictus with disseminated dengue-2 infection. Competition-enhanced vector competence appears to result from a reduction in 'barriers' (morphological or physiological) to virus infection and dissemination and may contribute to the importance of A. albopictus in dengue transmission. Similar results for other unrelated arboviruses suggest that larval competition, common in mosquitoes, should be considered in estimates of vector competence for pathogens that infect humans.
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Affiliation(s)
- Barry W Alto
- Department of Entomology and Nematology, Florida Medical Entomology Laboratory, University of Florida, Vero Beach, FL 32962, USA.
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37
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Langner KFA, Darpel KE, Denison E, Drolet BS, Leibold W, Mellor PS, Mertens PPC, Nimtz M, Greiser-Wilke I. Collection and analysis of salivary proteins from the biting midge Culicoides nubeculosus (Diptera: Ceratopogonidae). JOURNAL OF MEDICAL ENTOMOLOGY 2007; 44:238-48. [PMID: 17427692 DOI: 10.1603/0022-2585(2007)44[238:caaosp]2.0.co;2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/14/2023]
Abstract
Salivary proteins of hematophagous Culicoides spp. are thought to play an important role in pathogen transmission and skin hypersensitivity. Analysis of these proteins, however, has been problematic due to the difficulty in obtaining adequate amounts of secreted Culicoides saliva. In the current study, a collection method for midge saliva was developed. Over a 3-d period, 3- to 5-d-old male and female Culicoides nubeculosus Meigen (Diptera: Ceratopogonidae) were repeatedly placed onto the collection system and allowed to deposit saliva into a filter. Salivary products were eluted from the filters and evaluated by gel electrophoresis and mass spectrometry as well as by intradermal testing and determination of clotting time. Gel electrophoresis revealed approximately 55 protein spots displaying relative molecular masses from 5 to 67 kDa and isoelectric points ranging from 4.5 to 9.8. The majority of molecular species analyzed by mass spectrometry showed high convergence with salivary proteins recently obtained from a cDNA library of Culicoides sonorensis Wirth & Jones, including proteins involved in sugarmeal digestion, defense, and coagulation inhibition as well as members of the D7 family and unclassified salivary proteins. In addition, the proteome analysis revealed a number of peptides that were related to proteins from insect species other than Culicoides. Intradermal injection of the saliva in human skin produced edema, vasodilatation, and pruritus. The anticoagulant activity of the saliva was demonstrated by significantly prolonged clotting times for human platelets. The potential role of the identified salivary proteins in the transmission of pathogens and the induction of allergies is discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kathrin F A Langner
- USDA-ARS, Arthropod-Borne Animal Diseases Research Laboratory, 1000 E. University Ave., Laramie, WY 82071, USA.
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38
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Abstract
PURPOSE OF REVIEW The continued emergence of dengue virus infection and its severe disease manifestation, dengue hemorrhagic fever, is a growing public health problem. The majority of severe infections occur upon secondary encounters with heterologous dengue virus serotypes, suggesting an immune-mediated process. RECENT FINDINGS Significant findings in the past year include a greater understanding of dengue virus interactions with target cells such as dendritic cells, hepatocytes and endothelial cells. Infection of these cells results in the production of immune mediators that then shape the adaptive humoral and cellular immune response. The circulation of high levels of secreted NS1 in the presence of pre-existing heterologous non-neutralizing antibody may mediate complement activation and trigger plasma leakage. The role of enhancing antibodies in disease pathogenesis remains unclear. Recent studies demonstrate low avidity crossreactive T cells, which may produce an altered profile of cytokines leading to plasma leakage. Ongoing prospective studies that include epidemiological, virological and immunological risk factors are crucial to our understanding of the mechanisms of immunopathogenesis of dengue hemorrhagic fever. SUMMARY The immune mechanisms that lead to dengue hemorrhagic fever are complex and need to be elucidated further for the development of therapeutics as well as safe and efficacious dengue vaccines.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sharone Green
- University of Massachusetts Medical School, Center for Infectious Disease and Vaccine Research, Worcester, Massachusetts 01655, USA
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Smith DR, Aguilar PV, Coffey LL, Gromowski GD, Wang E, Weaver SC. Venezuelan equine encephalitis virus transmission and effect on pathogenesis. Emerg Infect Dis 2006; 12:1190-6. [PMID: 16965696 PMCID: PMC3291203 DOI: 10.3201/eid1708.050841] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Quantifying the dose of an arbovirus transmitted by mosquitoes is essential for designing pathogenesis studies simulating natural infection of vertebrates. Titration of saliva collected in vitro from infected mosquitoes may not accurately estimate titers transmitted during blood feeding, and infection by needle injection may affect vertebrate pathogenesis. We compared the amount of Venezuelan equine encephalitis virus collected from the saliva of Aedes taeniorhynchus to the amount injected into a mouse during blood feeding. Less virus was transmitted by mosquitoes in vivo (geometric mean 11 PFU) than was found for comparable times of salivation in vitro (mean saliva titer 74 PFU). We also observed slightly lower early and late viremia titers in mice that were needle injected with 8 PFU, which represents the low end of the in vivo transmission range. No differences in survival were detected, regardless of the dose or infection route.
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Affiliation(s)
- Darci R. Smith
- University of Texas Medical Branch, Galveston, Texas, USA
| | | | - Lark L. Coffey
- University of Texas Medical Branch, Galveston, Texas, USA
| | | | - Eryu Wang
- University of Texas Medical Branch, Galveston, Texas, USA
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Rosinski-Chupin I, Briolay J, Brouilly P, Perrot S, Gomez SM, Chertemps T, Roth CW, Keime C, Gandrillon O, Couble P, Brey PT. SAGE analysis of mosquito salivary gland transcriptomes during Plasmodium invasion. Cell Microbiol 2006; 9:708-24. [PMID: 17054438 DOI: 10.1111/j.1462-5822.2006.00822.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/22/2023]
Abstract
Invasion of the vector salivary glands by Plasmodium is a critical step for malaria transmission. To describe salivary gland cellular responses to sporozoite invasion, we have undertaken the analysis of Anopheles gambiae salivary gland transcriptome using Serial Analysis of Gene Expression (SAGE). Statistical analysis of the more than 160000 sequenced tags generated from four libraries, two from glands infected by Plasmodium berghei, two from glands of controls, revealed that at least 57 Anopheles genes are differentially expressed in infected salivary glands. Among the 37 immune-related genes identified by SAGE tags, four (Defensin1, GNBP, Serpin6 and Cecropin2) were found to be upregulated during salivary gland invasion, while five genes encoding small secreted proteins display induction patterns strongly reminiscent of that of Cecropin2. Invasion by Plasmodium has also an impact on the expression of genes involved in transport, lipid and energy metabolism, suggesting that the sporozoite may exploit the metabolism of its host. In contrast, protein composition of saliva is predicted to be only slightly modified after infection. This study, which is the first transcriptome analysis of the salivary gland response to Plasmodium infection, provides a basis for a better understanding of Plasmodium/Anopheles salivary gland interactions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Isabelle Rosinski-Chupin
- Unité de Biochimie et Biologie Moléculaire des Insectes, Institut Pasteur, 28 rue du Dr Roux, 75724, Paris, France.
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Smith DR, Aguilar PV, Coffey LL, Gromowski GD, Wang E, Weaver SC. Venezuelan equine encephalitis virus transmission and effect on pathogenesis. Emerg Infect Dis 2006; 12. [PMID: 16965696 PMCID: PMC3291203 DOI: 10.3201/eid1208.050841] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Quantifying the dose of an arbovirus transmitted by mosquitoes is essential for designing pathogenesis studies simulating natural infection of vertebrates. Titration of saliva collected in vitro from infected mosquitoes may not accurately estimate titers transmitted during blood feeding, and infection by needle injection may affect vertebrate pathogenesis. We compared the amount of Venezuelan equine encephalitis virus collected from the saliva of Aedes taeniorhynchus to the amount injected into a mouse during blood feeding. Less virus was transmitted by mosquitoes in vivo (geometric mean 11 PFU) than was found for comparable times of salivation in vitro (mean saliva titer 74 PFU). We also observed slightly lower early and late viremia titers in mice that were needle injected with 8 PFU, which represents the low end of the in vivo transmission range. No differences in survival were detected, regardless of the dose or infection route.
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Affiliation(s)
- Darci R. Smith
- University of Texas Medical Branch, Galveston, Texas, USA
| | | | - Lark L. Coffey
- University of Texas Medical Branch, Galveston, Texas, USA
| | | | - Eryu Wang
- University of Texas Medical Branch, Galveston, Texas, USA
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Titus RG, Bishop JV, Mejia JS. The immunomodulatory factors of arthropod saliva and the potential for these factors to serve as vaccine targets to prevent pathogen transmission. Parasite Immunol 2006; 28:131-41. [PMID: 16542315 DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-3024.2006.00807.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 84] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
In general, attempts to develop vaccines for pathogens transmitted by arthropods have met with little or no success. It has been widely observed that the saliva of arthropods that transmit disease enhances the infectivity of pathogens the arthropod transmits to the vertebrate host. Indeed, it has been observed that vaccinating against components of the saliva of arthropods or against antigens expressed in the gut of arthropods can protect the host from infection and decrease the viability of the arthropod. These results suggest that multi-subunit vaccines that target the pathogen itself as well as arthropod salivary gland components and arthropod gut antigens may be the most effective at controlling arthropod-borne pathogens as these vaccines would target several facets of the lifecycle of the pathogen. This review covers known immunomodulators in arthropod salivary glands, instances when arthropod saliva has been shown to enhance infection and a limited number of examples of antiarthropod vaccines, with emphasis on three arthropods: sandflies, mosquitoes and hard ticks.
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Affiliation(s)
- R G Titus
- Department of Microbiology, Immunology and Pathology, Colorado State University, 80523, USA
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Andrade BB, Teixeira CR, Barral A, Barral-Netto M. Haematophagous arthropod saliva and host defense system: a tale of tear and blood. AN ACAD BRAS CIENC 2005; 77:665-93. [PMID: 16341443 DOI: 10.1590/s0001-37652005000400008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 74] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
The saliva from blood-feeding arthropod vectors is enriched with molecules that display diverse functions that mediate a successful blood meal. They function not only as weapons against host's haemostatic, inflammatory and immune responses but also as important tools to pathogen establishment. Parasites, virus and bacteria taking advantage of vectors' armament have adapted to facilitate their entry in the host. Today, many salivary molecules have been identified and characterized as new targets to the development of future vaccines. Here we focus on current information on vector's saliva and the molecules responsible to modify host's hemostasis and immune response, also regarding their role in disease transmission.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bruno B Andrade
- Centro de Pesquisas Gonçalo Moniz, FIOCRUZ, 40295-001 Salvador, BA, Brazil
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Gillan V, Devaney E. Mosquito transmission modulates the immune response in mice infected with the L3 of Brugia pahangi. Parasite Immunol 2005; 26:359-63. [PMID: 15679633 DOI: 10.1111/j.0141-9838.2004.00714.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/01/2022]
Abstract
Mice infected by syringe inoculation with the L3 of the filarial nematode Brugia pahangi generate a strong Th2 response. In this study we compared immune responses in mice infected via syringe with those infected by mosquito transmission of L3. Levels of antigen-specific IL-4, IL-5 and IL-10 were significantly reduced in mice infected via mosquito. A possible explanation of these results was that mice infected via mosquito received fewer L3 than those infected via syringe. To investigate this possibility, mice were infected with different numbers of L3 (50, 25 or 10). However there was no difference in responses in these animals, suggesting that the reduced immune reactivity in mice infected by mosquito cannot be solely ascribed to exposure to lower numbers of parasites. These results also demonstrate that the L3 is an extremely potent stimulus for Th2 differentiation, with 10 L3 sufficient to drive a strong Th2 response. The differences in immune reactivity between syringe and mosquito infected mice may relate to the presence of immuno-suppressive factors in mosquito saliva inoculated at the time of transmission or may reflect the interaction of L3 with different populations of antigen presenting cells in the two groups of mice. Further studies will be required to differentiate between these possibilities.
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Affiliation(s)
- Victoria Gillan
- Veterinary Parasitology, Institute of Comparative Medicine, University of Glasgow, Garscube Estate, Bearsden Road, Glasgow G61 1QH, UK
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