Enterohepatic recirculation of bioactive ginger phytochemicals is associated with enhanced tumor growth-inhibitory activity of ginger extract

Therapeutic target mapping from the genome of Kingella negevensis and biophysical inhibition assessment through PNP synthase binding with traditional medicinal compounds

Kingella negevensis belongs to the Neisseriaceae family. It is implied that it has significant virulence potential due to RTX toxin production, which can cause hemolysis. It usually colonizes the orophayrynx of pediatric population, along with Kingella kingae but has also been isolated from vagina. Todate no report on its drug targets is present, therefore putative therapeutic targets were identified from its genomic sequence data. Traditional Chinese (n > 36,000) and Indian medicinal compounds (n > 2000) were then screened against its pyridoxine 5'-phosphate synthase, a vital therapeutic target. Prioritized TCM compounds included ZINC02525131, ZINC33833737 and ZINC85486932, and Cadiyenol, 9,11,13-Octadecatrienoic acid and 6-Gingerol from Indian medicinal library. Molecular dynamics simulation of top compounds revealed ZINC02525131 as having best stability for 100 ns, compared to Cadiyenol. ADMET profiling was then done, along with physiologically based pharmacokinetic simulation of these compounds in a population of 200 individuals, for 12 h to see fate of the ingested compound. Additionally, the impact of these compounds in a population with cirrhosis and renal impairment was also simulated. We imply in light of all the studied parameters of safety and bioavailability, etc., that 6-Gingerol from Zingiber officinalis rhizome must be proceeded further for in vitro and in vivo testing for inhibition of K. negevensis.

Anticancer perspective of 6-shogaol: anticancer properties, mechanism of action, synergism and delivery system

Cancer is a malignant disease that has plagued human beings all the time, but the treatment effect of commonly used anticancer drugs in clinical practice is not ideal by reason of their drug tolerance and Strong adverse reactions to patients. Therefore, it is imperative to find effective and low-toxic anticancer drugs. Many research works have shown that natural products in Chinese herbal medicine have great anticancer potential, such as 6-shogaol, a monomer composition obtained from Chinese herbal ginger, which has been confirmed by numerous in vitro or vivo studies to be an excellent anti-cancer active substance. In addition, most notably, 6-shogaol has different selectivity for normal and cancer cells during treatment, which makes it valuable for further research and clinical development. Therefore, this review focus on the anti-cancer attributes, the mechanism and the regulation of related signaling pathways of 6-shogaol. In addition, its synergy with commonly used anticancer drugs, potential drug delivery systems and prospects for future research are discussed. This is the first review to comprehensively summarize the anti-cancer mechanism of 6-shogaol, hoping to provide a theoretical basis and guiding significance for future anti-cancer research and clinical development of 6-shogaol.

Research Trend and Detailed Insights into the Molecular Mechanisms of Food Bioactive Compounds against Cancer: A Comprehensive Review with Special Emphasis on Probiotics

In an attempt to find a potential cure for cancer, scientists have been probing the efficacy of the food we eat and its bioactive components. Over the decades, there has been an exponentially increasing trend of research correlating food and cancer. This review explains the molecular mechanisms by which bioactive food components exhibit anticancer effects in several cancer models. These bioactive compounds are mainly plant based or microbiome based. While plants remain the primary source of these phytochemicals, little is known about probiotics, i.e., microbiome sources, and their relationships with cancer. Thus, the molecular mechanisms underlying the anticancer effect of probiotics are discussed in this review. The principal mode of cell death for most food bioactives is found to be apoptosis. Principal oncogenic signaling axes such as Akt/PI3K, JAK/STAT, and NF-κB seem to be modulated due to these bioactives along with certain novel targets that provide a platform for further oncogenic research. It has been observed that probiotics have an immunomodulatory effect leading to their chemopreventive actions. Various foods exhibit better efficacy as complete extracts than their individual phytochemicals, indicating an orchestrated effect of the food components. Combining bioactive agents with available chemotherapies helps synergize the anticancer action of both to overcome drug resistance. Novel techniques to deliver bioactive agents enhance their therapeutic response. Such combinations and novel approaches are also discussed in this review. Notably, most of the food components that have been studied for cancer have shown their efficacy in vivo. This bolsters the claims of these studies and, thus, provides us with hope of discovering anticancer agents in the food that we eat.

Effects of ginger extract and its major component 6-gingerol on anti-tumor property through mitochondrial biogenesis in CD8+ T cells

Ginger extract (GE) and its major component 6-gingerol (6G) have been reported to exert anti-tumor effects in various cancers. The underlying mechanism, however, has not been well demonstrated. Here, we have focused on the relationship between promotion of mitochondrial biogenesis in tumor infiltrating CD8+ T cells induced by GE and 6G and their cytotoxic effect. The results showed that GE induced 56% inhibition of tumor growth in Lewis lung carcinoma (LLC) xenograft mouse model and 6G induced 33% (25 mg/kg) and 37% (50 mg/kg) inhibition. GE increased mitochondrial mass of CD8+ T cells in tumor and draining lymph nodes (DLNs) significantly, while 6G had no significant effect. GE and 6G both had no significant influence on histopathological changes of liver and kidney in mice. In the co-culture system of CTLL-2 cells and LLC cells, GE enhanced the cytotoxicity of CTLL-2 cells against LLC cells by 14% and 19% at concentrations of 2.5 and 5 mg/ml, respectively. 6G did not promote cytotoxicity of CTLL-2 cells. GE increased mitochondrial mass at 5 and 10 mg/ml and mtDNA copy number and ATP production at 2.5, 5, 10 mg/ml in CTLL-2 cells. 6G promoted mtDNA copy number at 50, 100, 150 µM and mitochondrial mass and ATP production at 25, 50, 100, 150 µM in CTLL-2 cells. These results suggest that promotion of mitochondrial biogenesis and function in tumor infiltrating CD8+ T cells may play an essential role in GE-induced inhibition of tumor growth. The current results perfect the mechanism of anti-tumor effect of ginger, which is beneficial for further application in cancer management. PRACTICAL APPLICATION: Ginger, as a worldwide food seasoning and herbal medicine in traditional Chinese medicine, has been reported to possess anti-tumor efficacy. To our knowledge, it is the first time to focus on ginger's ability of promoting mitochondrial biogenesis in tumor infiltrating CD8+ T cells to explore the mechanism of its anti-tumor effect. Our observations demonstrate that ginger inhibits tumor growth via promoting mitochondrial biogenesis and function of T cells. The present study links food to anti-tumor immunity and provides impetus to investigate and design dietary supplements for cancer management.

6‑Gingerol suppresses cell viability, migration and invasion via inhibiting EMT, and inducing autophagy and ferroptosis in LPS‑stimulated and LPS‑unstimulated prostate cancer cells

6-Gingerol is a bioactive compound isolated from Zingiber officinale. 6-Gingerol has been shown to have anticancer effects in numerous types of cancer cell. The mechanisms underlying the anticancer effect of 6-Gingerol in prostate cancer requires investigation. In the present study, the effect on cell viability of 6-Gingerol on LNCaP, PC3 and DU145 prostate cancer cells were determined using the MTT and colony formation assays. 6-Gingerol significantly inhibited cell migration, adhesion and invasion in LPS-stimulated and LPS-unstimulated prostate cancer cells. Furthermore, these changes were accompanied by alterations in the protein expression levels of epithelial-mesenchymal transition biomarkers, including E-cadherin, N-cadherin, Vimentin and zonula occludens-1. 6-Gingerol also induced autophagy by significantly increasing LC3B-II and Beclin-1 protein expression levels in prostate cancer cells. Combining 6-Gingerol with LY294002, an autophagy inhibitor, significantly increased cell survival in DU145 cells. Furthermore, 6-Gingerol significantly decreased the protein expression levels of glutathione (GSH) peroxidase 4 and nuclear factor erythroid 2-related factor 2 in prostate cancer cells. Reactive oxygen species (ROS) levels were significantly increased but GSH levels were decreased following 6-Gingerol treatment in prostate cancer cells. Co-treatment with the ferroptosis inhibitor, ferrostatin-1, significantly increased cell viability and significantly decreased ROS levels in 6-Gingerol-treated cells. These results suggested that 6-Gingerol may have inhibited prostate cell cancer viability via the regulation of autophagy and ferroptosis. In addition, 6-Gingerol inhibited cell migration, adhesion and invasion via the regulation of EMT-related protein expression levels in LPS-stimulated and LPS-unstimulated prostate cancer cells. In conclusion, 6-Gingerol may induce protective autophagy, autophagic cell death and ferroptosis-mediated cell death in prostate cancer cells. These findings may provide a strategy for the treatment and prevention of prostate cancer.

Efficacy based ginger fingerprinting reveals potential antiproliferative analytes for triple negative breast cancer

Ginger (Zingiber officinale) is one of the most widely consumed dietary supplements worldwide. Its anticancer potential has been demonstrated in various studies. However, ginger roots obtained from different geographical locations showed extensive variability in their activities, mainly due to differences in the levels of bioactive compounds. Here we evaluated the effect of these differences on the anticancer activity of ginger by performing efficacy-based fingerprinting. We characterized the fingerprint profiles of 22 ginger samples using liquid chromatography-mass spectroscopy, followed by a principal component analysis (PCA) and pearson correlation analysis. We also evaluated the anti-proliferative effects (IC50) of these samples on triple-negative breast cancer cells using the MTT assays. The supervised PCA identified a subset of analytes whose abundance strongly associated with the IC50 values of the ginger extracts, providing a link between ginger extract composition and in vitro anticancer efficacy. This study demonstrated that variation in the ginger fingerprint profiles resulting from differences in their chemical composition could have a significant impact on efficacy and bioactivity of ginger extracts. Also, this first-of-a-kind efficacy-based fingerprinting approach proposed here can identify potent anticancer candidates from the ginger fingerprint without the need for isolating individual components from the extracts.

6-Gingerol delays tumorigenesis in benzo[a]pyrene and dextran sulphate sodium-induced colorectal cancer in mice

Colorectal cancer (CRC) has been linked to dietary consumption of benzo[a]pyrene (B[a]P). 6-Gingerol (6-G), a component of ginger has been reported to possess anti-inflammatory and antioxidant activities, but little is known regarding the mechanism of 6-G in CRC chemoprevention. We therefore investigated the effect of 6-G on B[a]P. and dextran sulphate sodium (DSS) induced CRC in mice. Mice in Group I and Group II received corn oil and 6-G orally at 2 ml/kg and 100 mg/kg, respectively for 126 days. Group III were administered 125 mg/kg of B[a]P for 5 days followed by 3 cycles of 4% dextran sulphate sodium (DSS). Group IV received 6-G for 7 days followed by co-administration with 125 mg/kg of B[a]P. for 5 days and 3 cycles of 4% DSS. Tumor formation was reduced and expression of Ki-67, WNT3a, DVL-2 and β-catenin following 6-G exposure. Also, 6-G increases expression of APC, P53, TUNEL positive nuclei and subsequently decreased the expression of TNF-α, IL-1β, INOS, COX-2 and cyclin D1. 6-G inhibited angiogenesis by decreasing the concentration of VEGF, Angiopoietin-1, FGF and GDF-15 in the colon of B[a]P. and DSS exposed mice. Overall, 6-G attenuated B[a]P and DSS-induced CRC in mice via anti-inflammatory, anti-proliferative and apoptotic mechanisms.

Metabolism and Pharmacokinetics of Phytochemicals in the Human Body

Background:

Phytochemicals are obtained from various plants and used for the treatment of diseases as both traditional and modern medicines. Poor bioavailability of phytochemicals is a major concern in applying phytochemicals as a therapeutic agent. It is, therefore, necessary to understand the metabolism and pharmacokinetics of phytochemicals for its implication as a therapeutic agent.

Methods:

Articles on the metabolism of phytochemicals from the PubMed database. The articles were classified into the digestion, absorption, metabolism, excretion, toxicity, and bioavailability of phytochemicals and the effect of gut microbiota on the metabolism of phytochemicals.

Results:

The metabolism of each phytochemical is largely dependent on the individual's digestive ability, membrane transporters, metabolizing enzymes and gut microbiota. Further, the form of the phytochemical and genetic make-up of the individual greatly influences the metabolism of phytochemicals.

Conclusion:

The metabolism of phytochemicals is mostly depended on the form of phytochemicals and individualspecific variations in the metabolism of phytochemicals. Understanding the metabolism and pharmacokinetics of phytochemicals might help in applying plant-based medicines for the treatment of various diseases.

Ginger extract activates caspase independent paraptosis in cancer cells via ER stress, mitochondrial dysfunction, AIF translocation and DNA damage

The rhizome of ginger (Zingiber officinale) a common culinary agent is also known for its medicinal activity. We have earlier reported that pure 6-shogaol, an important component of ginger induces paraptosis in triple negative breast cancer (MDA-MB-231) and non small cell lung (A549) cancer cells. However, the chemopreventive potential of the whole ginger extract in food remains to be elucidated. Here, we demonstrate for the first time that ginger extract (GE) triggers similar anticancer activity/paraptosis against the same cell lines but through different molecular mechanisms. Q-TOF LC-MS analysis of the extract showed the presence of several other metabolites along with 6-shogaol and 6-gingerol. GE induces cytoplasmic vacuolation through ER stress and dilation of the ER. Drastic decrease in the mitochondrial membrane potential and ATP production along with the excess generation of ROS contributed to mitochondrial dysfunction. Consequently, GE caused the translocation of apoptosis inducing factor to the nucleus leading to the fragmentation of DNA. Taken together, these show a novel mechanism for ginger extract induced cancer cell death that can be of potential interest for cancer preventive strategies.

Bioactive Compounds and Bioactivities of Ginger (Zingiber officinale Roscoe)

Ginger (Zingiber officinale Roscoe) is a common and widely used spice. It is rich in various chemical constituents, including phenolic compounds, terpenes, polysaccharides, lipids, organic acids, and raw fibers. The health benefits of ginger are mainly attributed to its phenolic compounds, such as gingerols and shogaols. Accumulated investigations have demonstrated that ginger possesses multiple biological activities, including antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, antimicrobial, anticancer, neuroprotective, cardiovascular protective, respiratory protective, antiobesity, antidiabetic, antinausea, and antiemetic activities. In this review, we summarize current knowledge about the bioactive compounds and bioactivities of ginger, and the mechanisms of action are also discussed. We hope that this updated review paper will attract more attention to ginger and its further applications, including its potential to be developed into functional foods or nutraceuticals for the prevention and management of chronic diseases.

[10-gingerol inhibits proliferation of hepatocellular carcinoma HepG2 cells via Src/STAT3 signaling pathway]

OBJECTIVE

To study the inhibitory effect of 10-gingerol on the proliferation of hepatocellular carcinoma HepG2 cells and the role of Src/STAT3 signaling pathway in mediating the effect.

METHODS

SYBYL-X2.1 software was used to simulate the interaction between 10-gingerol and Src. HepG2 cells treated with 10-gingerol at 1, 3, 10 or μol/L for 24 h were assessed for cell viability using MTT assay, and EdU staining was used to detect the cell proliferation and calculate the number of positive cells. The expressions of p-Src and p-STAT3 were detected using Western blotting, and the mRNA expressions of the target genes of STAT3 (cyclin D1 and CMCC) were detected using qPCR.

RESULTS

10-gingerol was capable of forming hydrogen bond with such Src residues as TRY-340, MET-341, MET-314, ASP-404, and ILE-336. MTT assay showed that 10-gingerol at 3 and 10 μmol/L significantly lowered the viability of HepG2 cells (P < 0.001). Treatment with 1, 3, and 10 μmol/L 10-gingerol significantly reduces the number of EdU-positive HepG 2 cells (P < 0.001). Western blotting showed that 10-gingerol at 3 and 10 μmol/L significantly decreased the phosphorylation levels of Src and STAT3 in HepG2 cells (P < 0.01). 10-gingerol at 1, 3, and 10 μmol/L significantly decreased the mRNA expressions of cyclin D1 and CMCC as shown by qPCR (P < 0.01).

CONCLUSIONS

10-gingerol can dose-dependently inhibit the proliferation of HepG2 cells and suppress the activation of Src and STAT3.

Ginger Extract and [6]-Gingerol Inhibit Contraction of Rat Entire Small Intestine

This study aims to investigate the effect of oral administration and the direct action of ginger extract or [6]-gingerol on small intestinal contractility. The direct effect of 10 minutes preincubation of ginger ethanolic extract (10, 100 and 300 μg/mL) or [6]-gingerol (1, 30, and 100 μM) on 0.01 to 30 μM ACh-induced contractions of all parts of the small intestine isolated from normal rats was investigated using the organ bath technique. For in vivo study, the rats were orally administered with extract (10, 20, and 100 mg/kg/d) or [6]-gingerol (2 mg/kg/d) for 7 days, followed by determining the contractile responses to ACh of rat isolated duodenum, jejunum, and ileum and their histology were assessed. Direct application of the extract or [6]-gingerol attenuated ACh-induced contractions in each small intestinal segment, E_max was reduced by 40% to 80%, while EC₅₀ increased 3- to 8-fold from control. Similarly, in the in vivo study ACh-induced contractions were reduced in all parts of the small intestine isolated from rats orally treated with ginger extract (20 and 100 mg/kg/d) or [6]-gingerol (2 mg/kg/d). E_max decreased 15% to 30%, while EC₅₀ increased 1- to 3-fold compared to control. No discernable changes in the histology of intestinal segments were detectable. Thus, the results support the clinical application of ginger for disorders of gastrointestinal motility.

Phytochemicals: Current strategies for treating breast cancer

Females with early-stage metastatic, estrogen-dependent breast cancer are generally treated with surgery, radiation and chemotherapy, or with more targeted approaches such as aromatase inhibitors (anastrozole or letrozole) or anti-estrogens (tamoxifen). Despite widespread successful usage of these agents for the treatment of breast cancer, resistance, tumor relapse and metastasis remain the principal causes of mortality for patients with breast cancer. While numerous groups have made major contributions toward an improved understanding of resistance mechanisms, the currently insufficient grasp of the most critical pathways involved in resistance is evident in the inability to adequately treat and drastically improve patient outcomes in females with hormone-refractory breast cancer, including triple negative breast cancer. Therefore, further investigation of novel therapeutic approaches is paramount to reveal previously unconsidered agents that could be utilized to treat metastatic disease. Numerous naturally occurring phytochemicals have recently gained interest as potential therapeutic breast cancer agents appear to directly affect estrogen-dependent and estrogen-independent breast cancer cell proliferation, potentially via affecting breast cancer stem cell populations. While numerous natural compounds have exhibited promise, they are limited by their bioavailability. Therefore, to effectively treat future hormone-refractory breast tumors, it is critical to adequately refine and formulate these agents for effective therapeutic use and delivery. Herein, the literature on the current state of phytochemicals is reviewed, including their limitations and potential as targeted therapies for breast cancer.

Occurrence, biological activity and metabolism of 6-shogaol

As one of the main bioactive compounds of dried ginger, 6-shogaol has been widely used to alleviate many ailments. It is also a major pungent flavor component, and its precursor prior to dehydration is 6-gingerol, which is reported to be responsible for the pungent flavor and biological activity of fresh ginger. Structurally, gingerols including 6-gingerol have a β-hydroxyl ketone moiety and is liable to dehydrate to generate an α,β-unsaturated ketone under heat and/or acidic conditions. The conjugation of the α,β-unsaturated ketone skeleton in the chemical structure of 6-shogaol explicates its higher potency and efficacy than 6-gingerol in terms of antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, anticancer, antiemetic and other bioactivities. Research on the health benefits of 6-shogaol has been conducted and results have been reported recently; however, scientific data are scattered due to a lack of systematic collection. In addition, action mechanisms of the preventive and/or therapeutic actions of 6-shogaol remain obscurely non-collective. Herein, we review the preparations, biological activity and mechanisms, and metabolism of 6-shogaol as well as the properties of 6-shogaol metabolites.

Pharmacokinetic-pharmacodynamic correlations in the development of ginger extract as an anticancer agent

Anticancer efficacy of ginger phenolics (GPs) has been demonstrated in various in vitro assays and xenograft mouse models. However, only sub-therapeutic plasma concentrations of GPs were detected in human and mouse pharmacokinetic (PK) studies. Intriguingly, a significant portion of GPs occurred as phase II metabolites (mainly glucuronide conjugates) in plasma. To evaluate the disposition of GPs and understand the real players responsible for efficacy, we performed a PK and tissue distribution study in mice. Plasma exposure of GPs was similar on day 1 and 7, suggesting no induction or inhibition of clearance pathways. Both free and conjugated GPs accumulated in all tissues including tumors. While non-cytotoxicity of 6-ginerol glucuronide precluded the role of conjugated GPs in cell death, the free forms were cytotoxic against prostate cancer cells. The efficacy of ginger was best explained by the reconversion of conjugated GPs to free forms by β-glucuronidase, which is over-expressed in the tumor tissue. This previously unrecognized two-step process suggests an instantaneous conversion of ingested free GPs into conjugated forms, followed by their subsequent absorption into systemic circulation and reconversion into free forms. This proposed model uncovers the mechanistic underpinnings of ginger's anticancer activity despite sub-therapeutic levels of free GPs in the plasma.

Pharmacotherapeutic potential of ginger and its compounds in age-related neurological disorders

Age-related neurological disorders (ANDs), including neurodegenerative diseases, are multifactorial disorders with a risk that increases with aging. ANDs are generally characterized by common neuropathological conditions of the central nervous system, such as oxidative stress, neuroinflammation, and protein misfolding. Recently, efforts have been made to overcome ANDs because of the increase in age-dependent prevalence. Ginger, the rhizome of Zingiber officinale Roscoe, is a popular food spice and has a long history of use in traditional medicine for treating various disease symptoms. The structure-activity relationships of ginger phytochemicals show that ginger can be used to treat ANDs by targeting different ligand sites. This review shows that ginger and its constituents, such as 6-gingerol, 6-shogaol, 6-paradol, zingerone, and dehydrozingerone, are effective for ameliorating the neurological symptoms and pathological conditions of ANDs through by modulating cell death or cell survival signaling molecules. From this review, we conclude that the active ingredients in ginger have therapeutic potential in ANDs.

Oral Delivery of Nanoparticles Loaded With Ginger Active Compound, 6-Shogaol, Attenuates Ulcerative Colitis and Promotes Wound Healing in a Murine Model of Ulcerative Colitis

BACKGROUND AND AIMS

Oral drug delivery is the most attractive pathway for ulcerative colitis [UC] therapy, since it has many advantages. However, this strategy has encountered many challenges, including the instability of drugs in the gastrointestinal tract [GT], low targeting of disease tissues, and severe adverse effects. Nanoparticles capable of colitis tissue-targeted delivery and site-specific drug release may offer a unique and therapeutically effective system that addresses these formidable challenges.

METHODS

We used a versatile single-step surface-functionalising technique to prepare PLGA/PLA-PEG-FA nanoparticles loaded with the ginger active compound, 6-shogaol [NPs-PEG-FA/6-shogaol]. The therapeutic efficacy of NPs-PEG-FA/6-shogaol was evaluated in the well-established mouse model of dextran sulphate sodium [DSS]-induced colitis.

RESULTS

NPs-PEG-FA exhibited very good biocompatibility both in vitro and in vivo. Subsequent cellular uptake experiments demonstrated that NPs-PEG-FA could undergo efficient receptor-mediated uptake by colon-26 cells and activated Raw 264.7 macrophage cells. In vivo, oral administration of NPs-PEG-FA/6-shogaol encapsulated in a hydrogel system [chitosan/alginate] significantly alleviated colitis symptoms and accelerated colitis wound repair in DSS-treated mice by regulating the expression levels of pro-inflammatory [TNF-α, IL-6, IL-1β, and iNOS] and anti-inflammatory [Nrf-2 and HO-1] factors.

CONCLUSIONS

Our study demonstrates a convenient, orally administered 6-shogaol drug delivery system that effectively targets colitis tissue, alleviates colitis symptoms, and accelerates colitis wound repair. This system may represent a promising therapeutic approach for treating inflammatory bowel disease [IBD].

Interindividual Variability in Metabolism of [6]-Shogaol by Gut Microbiota

[6]-Shogaol (6S), one of the major bioactive components in dry ginger, is attracting considerable attention because of its wide spectrum of biological activities, but its metabolic fate is still not fully understood. In the present study, the microbial metabolism of 6S was examined for the first time in in vitro batch fecal fermentation system and in mice. Two major microbial metabolites were detected and identified as 1-(4'-hydroxy-3'-methoxyphenyl)-decan-3-ol (M9) and 1-(4'-hydroxy-3'-methoxyphenyl)-decan-3-one (M11). Our results indicated that reductions of the double bond and the ketone group are the major metabolic pathways of 6S by the human gut microbiota. We also observed the interindividual variability in the metabolism of M11 to M9 by human gut microbiota. In addition, we demonstrated that the glucuronidated form of 6S and its metabolites could be rapidly deconjugated by human gut microbiota and in mice, which can be regarded as a reactive process taking place in the intestinal tract. To our knowledge, this is the first report involving the identification of the microbial metabolites of 6S in an in vitro fermentation system, and the first demonstration of the critical role of gut microbiota in producing the bioactive free form of 6S and its metabolites in the intestinal tract in mice.

Gingerenone A Attenuates Monocyte-Endothelial Adhesion via Suppression of I Kappa B Kinase Phosphorylation

During the early stages of atherosclerosis, monocytes bind and migrate into the endothelial layer, promoting inflammation within the aorta. In order to prevent the development of atherosclerosis, it is critical to inhibit such inflammation. The therapeutic effects of ginger have been investigated in several models of cardiovascular disease. However, although a number of previous studies have focused on specific compounds, the mechanisms of action responsible remain unclear. Here, we investigated five major compounds present in ginger, and observed that gingerenone A exhibited the strongest inhibitory effects against tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-α and lipopolysaccharide (LPS) induced monocyte-endothelial adhesion. Furthermore, gingerenone A significantly suppressed the expression of TNF-α and LPS-induced vascular cell adhesion molecule-1 (VCAM-1) and chemokine (C-C motif) ligand 2 (CCL2), key mediators of the interaction between monocytes, and endothelial cells. Transactivation of nuclear factor-κB (NF-κB), which is a key transcription factor of VCAM-1 and CCL2, was induced by TNF-α and LPS, and inhibited by treatment of gingerenone A. Gingerenone A also inhibited the phosphorylation of NF-κB inhibitor (IκB) α and IκB Kinase. Taken together, these results demonstrate that gingerenone A attenuates TNF-α and LPS-induced monocyte adhesion and the expression of adhesion factors in endothelial cells via the suppression of NF-κB signaling. J. Cell. Biochem. 119: 260-268, 2018. © 2017 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.

Cross-talk between 10-gingerol and its anti-cancerous potential: a recent update

Since time immortal, ginger, as an ancient herb, has been used throughout the world in foods and beverages due to its typical strong and pungent flavor. Besides its use as a spice, it also serves as an excellent source of several bioactive phenolics, including nonvolatile pungent compounds, such as gingerols, paradols, shogaols, and gingerones. Gingerols constitute key ingredients in fresh ginger, with the most abundant being 6-gingerol (6-G), 8-gingerol (8-G), and 10-gingerol (10-G). Many studies have investigated the various valuable pharmacological properties of these ingredients and experimentally verified the mechanistic aspects of their health effects; however, to date, most research on the anti-cancerous activities of gingerols have focused largely on 6-G. Thus, the present article deals with the number of recent studies that have indicated and highlighted the role of 10-G with respect to its cancer prevention attributes in particular and its anti-inflammatory, anti-oxidant, anti-microbial, and gastrointestinal tract protective potential in general. The purpose of this review is to provide an overview of all the experimentally validated health benefits of 10-G for nutraceutical applications. The various findings have warranted the further investigation of 10-G and its possible use in various cancer treatments as well as its promising role as a chemo-preventive agent.

10-Gingerol, a Phytochemical Derivative from "Tongling White Ginger", Inhibits Cervical Cancer: Insights into the Molecular Mechanism and Inhibitory Targets

With the aim of evaluating anticancerous activities of 10-gingerol (10-G) against HeLa cells, it was purified and identified from "Tongling white ginger" by HSCCC, UPLC-TOF-MS/MS, and NMR analysis, respectively. 10-G inhibited the proliferation of HeLa cells at IC50 (29.19 μM) and IC80 (50.87 μM) with altered cell morphology, increased cytotoxicity, and arrested cell cycle in the G0/G1 phase. Most cell cycle related genes and protein expression significantly decreased, followed by a slight decrease in a few without affecting cyclin B1 and cyclin E1 (protein). Both death receptors significantly up-regulated and activated apoptosis indicators (caspase family). Furthermore, significant changes in mitochondria-dependent pathway markers were observed and led to cell death. 10-G led to PI3K/AKT inhibition and AMPK activation to induce mTOR-mediated cell apoptosis in HeLa cells. These results can be an asset to exploit 10-G with other medicinal plant derivatives for future applications.

Ginger Extract-Loaded Solid Dispersion System with Enhanced Oral Absorption and Antihypothermic Action

The aim of this study is to enhance the antihypothermic action of ginger extract (GE) employing a solid dispersion (SD) approach. The prepared SD of GE (GE/SD) was characterized in terms of physicochemical and pharmacokinetic properties. The antihypothermic action of GE samples was evaluated in a rat model of hypothermia. GE/SD exhibited improved dissolution behavior of the major active ingredients in GE, 6-gingerol (6G) and 8-gingerol (8G), with levels of dissolution 12- and 31-fold higher than that of GE, respectively. Even after storage under accelerated conditions, limited degradations of 6G and 8G were observed in GE/SD, although 6G and 8G were slightly degraded in GE. After oral administration of GE (300 mg/kg) and GE/SD (100 mg of GE/kg), the relative bioavailabilities of 6G and 8G in GE/SD were 5.0- and 5.8-fold higher than those in GE, respectively. Orally administered GE/SD (30 mg of GE/kg) inhibited ethanol-evoked hypothermia because of improved oral absorption of 6G and 8G. From these observations, the SD approach might be efficacious for enhancing the nutraceutical potentials of GE.

Ginger augmented chemotherapy: A novel multitarget nontoxic approach for cancer management

Cancer, referred to as the 'disease of civilization', continues to haunt humanity due to its dreadful manifestations and limited success of therapeutic interventions such as chemotherapy in curing the disease. Although effective, chemotherapy has repeatedly demonstrated inadequacy in disease management due to its debilitating side effects arising from its deleterious nonspecific effects on normal healthy cells. In addition, development of chemoresistance due to mono-targeting often results in cessation of chemotherapy. This urgently demands development and implementation of multitargeted alternative therapies with mild or no side effects. One extremely promising strategy that yet remains untapped in the clinic is augmenting chemotherapy with dietary phytochemicals or extracts. Ginger, depository of numerous bioactive molecules, not only targets cancer cells but can also mitigate chemotherapy-associated side effects. Consequently, combination therapy involving ginger extract and chemotherapeutic agents may offer the advantage of being efficacious with reduced toxicity. Here we discuss the remarkable and often overlooked potential of ginger extract to manage cancer, the possibility of developing ginger-based combinational therapies, and the major roadblocks along with strategies to overcome them in clinical translation of such inventions. We are optimistic that clinical implementation of such combination regimens would be a much sought after modality in cancer management.

Gingerol and Its Role in Chronic Diseases

Since antiquity, ginger or Zingiber officinale, has been used by humans for medicinal purposes and as spice condiments to enhance flavor in cooking. Ginger contains many phenolic compounds such as gingerol, shogaol and paradol that exhibit antioxidant, anti-tumor and anti-inflammatory properties. The role of ginger and its constituents in ameliorating diseases has been the focus of study in the past two decades by many researchers who provide strong scientific evidence of its health benefit. This review discusses research findings and works devoted to gingerols, the major pungent constituent of ginger, in modulating and targeting signaling pathways with subsequent changes that ameliorate, reverse or prevent chronic diseases in human studies and animal models. The physical, chemical and biological properties of gingerols are also described. The use of ginger and especially gingerols as medicinal food derivative appears to be safe in treating or preventing chronic diseases which will benefit the common population, clinicians, patients, researchers, students and industrialists.

Identification of a Dual Inhibitor of Janus Kinase 2 (JAK2) and p70 Ribosomal S6 Kinase1 (S6K1) Pathways

Bioactive phytochemicals can suppress the growth of malignant cells, and investigation of the mechanisms responsible can assist in the identification of novel therapeutic strategies for cancer therapy. Ginger has been reported to exhibit potent anti-cancer effects, although previous reports have often focused on a narrow range of specific compounds. Through a direct comparison of various ginger compounds, we determined that gingerenone A selectively kills cancer cells while exhibiting minimal toxicity toward normal cells. Kinase array screening revealed JAK2 and S6K1 as the molecular targets primarily responsible for gingerenone A-induced cancer cell death. The effect of gingerenone A was strongly associated with relative phosphorylation levels of JAK2 and S6K1, and administration of gingerenone A significantly suppressed tumor growth in vivo. More importantly, the combined inhibition of JAK2 and S6K1 by commercial inhibitors selectively induced apoptosis in cancer cells, whereas treatment with either agent alone did not. These findings provide rationale for dual targeting of JAK2 and S6K1 in cancer for a combinatorial therapeutic approach.

Synergistic interactions among flavonoids and acetogenins in Graviola (Annona muricata) leaves confer protection against prostate cancer

Phytochemical complexity of plant extracts may offer health-promoting benefits including chemotherapeutic and chemopreventive effects. Isolation of 'most-active fraction' or single constituents from whole extracts may not only compromise the therapeutic efficacy but also render toxicity, thus emphasizing the importance of preserving the natural composition of whole extracts. The leaves of Annona muricata, commonly known as Graviola, are known to be rich in flavonoids, isoquinoline alkaloids and annonaceous acetogenins. Here, we demonstrate phytochemical synergy among the constituents of Graviola leaf extract (GLE) compared to its flavonoid-enriched (FEF) and acetogenin-enriched (AEF) fractions. Comparative quantitation of flavonoids revealed enrichment of rutin (~7-fold) and quercetin-3-glucoside (Q-3-G, ~3-fold) in FEF compared to GLE. In vivo pharmacokinetics and in vitro absorption kinetics of flavonoids revealed enhanced bioavailability of rutin in FEF compared to GLE. However, GLE was more effective in inhibiting in vitro prostate cancer proliferation, viability and clonogenic capacity compared to FEF. Oral administration of 100mg/kg bw GLE showed ~1.2-fold higher tumor growth-inhibitory efficacy than FEF in human prostate tumor xenografts although the concentration of rutin and Q-3-G was more in FEF. Contrarily, AEF, despite its superior in vitro and in vivo efficacy, resulted in death of the mice due to toxicity. Our data indicate that despite lower absorption and bioavailability of rutin, maximum efficacy was achieved in the case of GLE, which also comprises of other phytochemical groups including acetogenins that make up its natural complex environment. Hence, our study emphasizes on evaluating the nature of interactions among Graviola leaf phytochemcials for developing favorable dose regimen for prostate cancer management to achieve optimal therapeutic benefits.

Modulation of cytochrome P450 metabolism and transport across intestinal epithelial barrier by ginger biophenolics

Natural and complementary therapies in conjunction with mainstream cancer care are steadily gaining popularity. Ginger extract (GE) confers significant health-promoting benefits owing to complex additive and/or synergistic interactions between its bioactive constituents. Recently, we showed that preservation of natural "milieu" confers superior anticancer activity on GE over its constituent phytochemicals, 6-gingerol (6G), 8-gingerol (8 G), 10-gingerol (10 G) and 6-shogaol (6S), through enterohepatic recirculation. Here we further evaluate and compare the effects of GE and its major bioactive constituents on cytochrome P450 (CYP) enzyme activity in human liver microsomes by monitoring metabolites of CYP-specific substrates using LC/MS/MS detection methods. Our data demonstrate that individual gingerols are potent inhibitors of CYP isozymes, whereas GE exhibits a much higher half-maximal inhibition value, indicating no possible herb-drug interactions. However, GE's inhibition of CYP1A2 and CYP2C8 reflects additive interactions among the constituents. In addition, studies performed to evaluate transporter-mediated intestinal efflux using Caco-2 cells revealed that GE and its phenolics are not substrates of P-glycoprotein (Pgp). Intriguingly, however, 10 G and 6S were not detected in the receiver compartment, indicating possible biotransformation across the Caco-2 monolayer. These data strengthen the notion that an interplay of complex interactions among ginger phytochemicals when fed as whole extract dictates its bioactivity highlighting the importance of consuming whole foods over single agents. Our study substantiates the need for an in-depth analysis of hepatic biotransformation events and distribution profiles of GE and its active phenolics for the design of safe regimens.

Influence of side chain structure changes on antioxidant potency of the [6]-gingerol related compounds

[6]-Gingerol and [6]-shogaol are the major pungent components in ginger with a variety of biological activities including antioxidant activity. To explore their structure determinants for antioxidant activity, we synthesized eight compounds differentiated by their side chains which are characteristic of the C1-C2 double bond, the C4-C5 double bond or the 5-OH, and the six- or twelve-carbon unbranched alkyl chain. Our results show that their antioxidant activity depends significantly on the side chain structure, the reaction mediums and substrates. Noticeably, existence of the 5-OH decreases their formal hydrogen-transfer and electron-donating abilities, but increases their DNA damage- and lipid peroxidation-protecting abilities. Additionally, despite significantly reducing their DNA strand breakage-inhibiting activity, extension of the chain length from six to twelve carbons enhances their anti-haemolysis activity.