Manufacturing DNA microarrays from unpurified PCR products

A Reliable, Label Free Quality Control Method for the Production of DNA Microarrays with Clinical Applications

The manufacture of a very high-quality microarray support is essential for the adoption of this assay format in clinical routine. In fact, poorly surface-bound probes can affect the diagnostic sensitivity or, in worst cases, lead to false negative results. Here we report on a reliable and easy quality control method for the evaluation of spotted probe properties in a microarray test, based on the Interferometric Reflectance Imaging Sensor (IRIS) system, a high-resolution label free technique able to evaluate the variation of the mass bound to a surface. In particular, we demonstrated that the IRIS analysis of microarray chips immediately after probe immobilization can detect the absence of probes, which recognizably causes a lack of signal when performing a test, with clinical relevance, using fluorescence detection. Moreover, the use of the IRIS technique allowed also to determine the optimal concentration of the probe, that has to be immobilized on the surface, to maximize the target recognition, thus the signal, but to avoid crowding effects. Finally, through this preliminary quality inspection it is possible to highlight differences in the immobilization chemistries. In particular, we have compared NHS ester versus click chemistry reactions using two different surface coatings, demonstrating that, in the diagnostic case used as an example (colorectal cancer) a higher probe density does not reflect a higher binding signal, probably because of a crowding effect.

A truncation variant of the cation channel P2RX5 is upregulated during T cell activation

Members of the P2X family of ligand-gated cation channels (P2RX) are expressed by various cell types including neurons, smooth- and cardiac muscle cells, and leukocytes. The channels mediate signalling in response to extracellular ATP. Seven subunit isoforms (P2RX1-P2RX7) have been identified and these can assemble as homo- and heterotrimeric molecules. In humans, P2RX5 exists as a natural deletion mutant lacking amino acids 328–349 of exon 10, which are part of transmembrane (TM) 2 and pre-TM2 regions in other organisms like rat, chicken and zebrafish. We show that P2RX5 gene expression of human T lymphocytes is upregulated during activation. P2RX5 is recruited to the cell surface. P2RX5-siRNA-transfected CD4⁺ T cells produced twofold more IL-10 than controls. Surface and intracellular P2RX5 expression was upregulated in activated antigen-specific CD4⁺ T cell clones. These data indicate a functional role of the human P2RX5 splice variant in T cell activation and immunoregulation.

A vertically stacked, polymer, microfluidic point mutation analyzer: rapid high accuracy detection of low-abundance K-ras mutations

Recognition of point mutations in the K-ras gene can be used for the clinical management of several types of cancers. Unfortunately, several assay and hardware concerns must be addressed to allow users not well trained in performing molecular analyses the opportunity to undertake these measurements. To provide for a larger user base for these types of molecular assays, a vertically stacked microfluidic analyzer with a modular architecture and process automation was developed. The analyzer employs a primary polymerase chain reaction (PCR) coupled to an allele-specific ligase detection reaction (LDR). Each functional device, including continuous flow thermal reactors for the PCR and LDR, passive micromixers, and ExoSAP-IT purification, was designed and tested. Individual devices were fabricated in polycarbonate using hot embossing and were assembled using adhesive bonding for system assembly. The system produced LDR products from a DNA sample in approximately 1h, an 80% reduction in time compared with conventional benchtop instrumentation. Purifying the post-PCR products with the ExoSAP-IT enzyme led to optimized LDR performance, minimizing false-positive signals and producing reliable results. Mutant alleles in genomic DNA were quantified to the level of 0.25 ng of mutant DNA in 50 ng of wild-type DNA for a 25-μl sample, equivalent to DNA from 42 mutant cells.

Gene expression profiles characterize inflammation stages in the acute lung injury in mice

Acute Lung Injury (ALI) carries about 50 percent mortality and is frequently associated with an infection (sepsis). Life-support treatment with mechanical ventilation rescues many patients, although superimposed infection or multiple organ failure can result in death. The outcome of a patient developing sepsis depends on two factors: the infection and the pre-existing inflammation. In this study, we described each stage of the inflammation process using a transcriptional approach and an animal model. Female C57BL6/J mice received an intravenous oleic acid injection to induce an acute lung injury (ALI). Lung expression patterns were analyzed using a 9900 cDNA mouse microarray (MUSV29K). Our gene-expression analysis revealed marked changes in the immune and inflammatory response metabolic pathways, notably lipid metabolism and transcription. The early stage (1 hour–1.5 hours) is characterized by a pro-inflammatory immune response. Later (3 hours–4 hours), the immune cells migrate into inflamed tissues through interaction with vascular endothelial cells. Finally, at late stages of lung inflammation (18 hours–24 hours), metabolism is deeply disturbed. Highly expressed pro-inflammatory cytokines activate transcription of many genes and lipid metabolism. In this study, we described a global overview of critical events occurring during lung inflammation which is essential to understand infectious pathologies such as sepsis where inflammation and infection are intertwined. Based on these data, it becomes possible to isolate the impact of a pathogen at the transcriptional level from the global gene expression modifications resulting from the infection associated with the inflammation.

Xylella fastidiosa gene expression analysis by DNA microarrays

Xylella fastidiosa genome sequencing has generated valuable data by identifying genes acting either on metabolic pathways or in associated pathogenicity and virulence. Based on available information on these genes, new strategies for studying their expression patterns, such as microarray technology, were employed. A total of 2,600 primer pairs were synthesized and then used to generate fragments using the PCR technique. The arrays were hybridized against cDNAs labeled during reverse transcription reactions and which were obtained from bacteria grown under two different conditions (liquid XDM(2) and liquid BCYE). All data were statistically analyzed to verify which genes were differentially expressed. In addition to exploring conditions for X. fastidiosa genome-wide transcriptome analysis, the present work observed the differential expression of several classes of genes (energy, protein, amino acid and nucleotide metabolism, transport, degradation of substances, toxins and hypothetical proteins, among others). The understanding of expressed genes in these two different media will be useful in comprehending the metabolic characteristics of X. fastidiosa, and in evaluating how important certain genes are for the functioning and survival of these bacteria in plants.

Ripening and genotype control stilbene accumulation in healthy grapes

In grapes, stilbene synthesis occurs in the skin, and it is induced by biotic and abiotic stresses. To date, experimental evidence of a constitutive production of resveratrols in healthy grape is scarce and not conclusive. The aim of the present work was to investigate stilbene biosynthesis in healthy grapes both at biochemical and molecular levels. By measuring the concentration of resveratrols in ripe berries of 78 Vitis vinifera varieties for 3 years, we could identify significant differences among genotypes, providing the first tentative varietal classification based on resveratrol content. Furthermore, an increasing stilbene accumulation from veraison to ripening phase was also observed. Using real-time reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction and a berry-specific cDNA array, gene expression analysis was carried out on two distinct pools of berries belonging to the high and low resveratrol producers and on three berry developmental stages. The stilbene synthase, phenylalanine ammonia-lyase, and 4-coumarate-CoA ligase expression profiles showed an increasing concentration of these transcripts from véraison to maturity and a higher accumulation in the grape of high resveratrol producers. Macroarray data analysis revealed that high resveratrol levels are also accompanied by the up-regulation of genes involved in plant defense and the concomitant underexpression of genes related to the ripening process and to indole alkaloid synthesis.

Dendrimer-Mediated Transfer Printing of DNA and RNA Microarrays

This paper describes a new method to replicate DNA and RNA microarrays. The technique, which facilitates positioning of DNA and RNA with submicron edge resolution by microcontact printing (muCP), is based on the modification of poly(dimethylsiloxane) (PDMS) stamps with dendrimers ("dendri-stamps"). The modification of PDMS stamps with generation 5 poly(propylene imine) dendrimers (G5-PPI) gives a high density of positive charge on the stamp surface that can attract negatively charged oligonucleotides in a "layer-by-layer" arrangement. DNA as well as RNA is transfer printed from the stamp to a target surface. Imine chemistry is applied to immobilize amino-modified DNA and RNA molecules to an aldehyde-terminated substrate. The labile imine bond is reduced to a stable secondary amine bond, forming a robust connection between the polynucleotide strand and the solid support. Microcontact printed oligonucleotides are distributed homogeneously within the patterned area and available for hybridization. By using a robotic spotting system, an array of hundreds of oligonucleotide spots is deposited on the surface of a flat, dendrimer-modified stamp that is subsequently used for repeated replication of the entire microarray by microcontact printing. The printed microarrays are characterized by homogeneous probe density and regular spot morphology.

Preparation of carbodiimide-terminated dithiolane self-assembly monolayers as a new DNA-immobilization method

A carbodiimide derivative having a dithiolane part at its terminus was designed and synthesized for use to construct carbodiimide-coated self-assembly monolayers (SAMs) on a gold surface with 6-mercaptohexanol (6MH). When treated with poly(dT), poly(dA), or poly(dA)poly(dT), only poly(dT) was immobilized on the surface of the SAMs through a specific reaction of the free imino moiety of thymine (T) with the carbodiimide moiety. The carbodiimide-covered SAM treated with probe DNA was tested in hybridization with sample DNA. Its hybridization efficiency was estimated by ferrocenylnaphthalene diimide (FND), described previously and the result revealed that the carbodiimide-covered SAM electrode can immobilize a DNA probe through the thymine moiety not involved in base pairing. The resulting electrode was capable of hybridizing with the target DNA, as proven by an increased current response of FND.

Genetic characterization of Mycobacterium tuberculosis clinical isolates with deletions in the plcA–plcB–plcC locus

SETTING

The basis for Mycobacterium tuberculosis virulence is not completely understood. Analysis of the genomic structure of clinical isolates will give information that can be related to biological activities involved in virulence.

OBJECTIVE

To determine the extension of the deletion in the plcA-plcB-plcC locus of selected M. tuberculosis isolates, as well as other changes in the chromosome.

DESIGN

In the present work we characterized a group of M. tuberculosis isolates devoid of the plcA-plcB-plcC locus by PCR, sequencing and microarrays.

RESULTS

PCR amplification of this region demonstrated a complete lack of plcA and plcB ORF's in all of the isolates. The plcC gene was completely deleted in one of the strains (DR-689) and the other three isolates still conserved part of this ORF. The loss of lateral DNA sequences ranged from 3723 to 7646bp. An IS6110 element was present in all tested strains cases, and some isolates presented the insertion of ORF's coding for proteins homologous to the ESAT-6 and QILSS families. Genomic DNA of all the strains was extracted and analyzed with an in-house microarray system to observe loss of other genes possibly implicated in attenuated virulence. Two of the strains presented novel deletions; the rest of the isolates showed deletions already reported for other M. tuberculosis strains. DR-689, a Beijing type M. tuberculosis strain isolated in Canada, showed an IS6110 RFLP and a genomic deletion pattern similar to a San Francisco family of strains, although completely unrelated epidemiologically.

CONCLUSION

Genomic changes in M. tuberculosis seem to occur in a controlled manner and they are possibly related to changes in its pathogenic properties.

Use of DNA microarray technology and gene expression profiles to investigate the pathogenesis, cell biology, antifungal susceptibility and diagnosis of Candida albicans

The use of DNA microarrays is becoming the method of choice for assaying gene expression, particularly as costs and complexity are being reduced as the technology becomes more widespread and better standardized. A DNA array is nothing but a collection of probes fixed on a solid support. The probes can be PCR products of ORFs or short intragenic oligonucleotides deposited or synthesized in situ by photolithographic methods. To date, sequencing projects for fungal genomes have yielded 10 complete genomes and 21 whole shotgun sequences, including Candida albicans strain SC5314. Sequencing of the C. albicans genome has led to the construction of whole-genome DNA microarrays for in vitro transcription profiling by several universities and companies. The use of microarray or DNA chip techniques for Candida research has started recently but the number of studies using this technology is increasing rapidly, in order to address important remaining questions about pathogenesis, cell biology, antifungal susceptibility, and diagnosis.

Analysis of interleukin-1β-modulated mRNA gene transcription in human gingival keratinocytes by epithelia-specific cDNA microarrays

BACKGROUND/OBJECTIVES

Proinflammatory cytokines such as interleukin-1beta are known to be synthesized in oral gingivitis and periodontitis and lead to the activation of the transcription factor nuclear factor-kappaB (NF-kappaB). Although numerous effects of interleukin-1beta on mesenchymal cells are known, e.g. up-regulation of intercellular adhesion molecule-1 in endothelial cells, little is known of the effects of interleukin-1beta on oral keratinocytes. The purpose of the present study was to seek interleukin-1beta-mediated alterations in mRNA gene transcription and a putative activation of NF-kappaB in oral gingival keratinocytes.

METHODS

As an in vitro model for gingivitis and periodontitis, immortalized human gingival keratinocytes (IHGK) were stimulated with the proinflammatory cytokine interleukin-1beta. An epithelia-specific cDNA microarray was used to analyze mRNA expression profiles from IHGK cells treated with 200 units interleukin-1beta/ml for 3, 6, 9, 12, and 24 h. Indirect immunofluorescence was carried out to detect NF-kappaB in IHGK following interleukin-1beta treatment.

RESULTS

Detailed analysis revealed distinct patterns of time-dependent changes, including genes induced or repressed early (3-6 h) or late (12-24 h) after interleukin-1beta treatment. Differentially expressed genes were involved in (i) cell stress, (ii) DNA repair, (iii) cell cycle and proliferation, (iv) anti-pathogen response, (v) extracellular matrix turnover, and (vi) angiogenesis. A large number of genes were responsive to NF-kappaB and induction was concomitant with nuclear translocation of the p65 RelA subunit of NF-kappaB. Interestingly, many of these genes contain multiple NF-kappaB binding sites in their promoters.

CONCLUSION

Analysis of altered gene expression allows identification of gene networks associated with inflammatory responses. In addition to a number of well-known genes involved in gingivitis and periodontitis, we identified novel candidates that might be associated with the onset and maintenance of an inflammatory disease.

Surface Modification for DNA and Protein Microarrays

Microarrays of biomolecules are emerging as powerful tools for genomics, proteomics, and clinical assays, since they make it possible to screen biologically important binding events in a parallel and high throughput fashion. Because the microarrays are fabricated on a solid support, coating of the surface and immobilization strategy of the biomolecules are major issues for successful microarray fabrication. This review deals with both DNA microarrays and protein microarrays, and focuses on the various modification approaches for the two-dimensional surface materials and three-dimensional ones. In addition, the immobilization strategies including adsorption, covalent attachment, physical entrapment, and affinity attachment of the biomolecules are summarized, and advantage and limitation of representative efforts are discussed.

Piezoelectric ink jet processing of materials for medicaland biological applications

Many advanced medical and biological devices require microscale patterning of cells, proteins, and other biological materials. This article describes the use of piezoelectric ink jet processing in the fabrication of biosensors, cell-based assays, and other microscale medical devices. A microelectromechanical system-based piezoelectric transducer was used to develop uniform fluid flow through nozzles and to prepare well-defined microscale patterns of proteins, monofunctional acrylate ester, sinapinic acid, deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA), and DNA scaffolds on relevant substrates. Our results demonstrate that piezoelectric ink jet deposition is a powerful non-contact, non-destructive additive process for developing biosensors, cell culture systems, and other devices for medical and biological applications.

Characterization of DNA hybridization kinetics in a microfluidic flow channel

In this investigation we report on the influence of volumetric flow rate, flow velocity, complementary DNA concentration, height of a microfluidic flow channel and time on DNA hybridization kinetics. A syringe pump was used to drive Cy3-labeled target DNA through a polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS) microfluidic flow channel to hybridize with immobilized DNA from the West Nile Virus. We demonstrate that a reduction of channel height, while keeping a fixed volumetric flow rate or a fixed flow velocity, enhances mass transport of target DNA to the capture probes. Compared to a passive hybridization, the DNA hybridization in the microfluidic flow channel generates higher fluorescence intensities for lower concentration of target DNA during the same fixed period of time. Within a fixed 2 min time period the fastest DNA hybridization at a 50 pM concentration of target DNA is achieved with a continuous flow of target DNA at the highest flow rate and the lowest channel height.

Proof of concept for microarray-based detection of DNA-binding oncogenes in cell extracts

The function of DNA-binding proteins is controlled not just by their abundance, but mainly at the level of their activity in terms of their interactions with DNA and protein targets. Moreover, the affinity of such transcription factors to their target sequences is often controlled by co-factors and/or modifications that are not easily assessed from biological samples. Here, we describe a scalable method for monitoring protein–DNA interactions on a microarray surface. This approach was designed to determine the DNA-binding activity of proteins in crude cell extracts, complementing conventional expression profiling arrays. Enzymatic labeling of DNA enables direct normalization of the protein binding to the microarray, allowing the estimation of relative binding affinities. Using DNA sequences covering a range of affinities, we show that the new microarray-based method yields binding strength estimates similar to low-throughput gel mobility-shift assays. The microarray is also of high sensitivity, as it allows the detection of a rare DNA-binding protein from breast cancer cells, the human tumor suppressor AP-2. This approach thus mediates precise and robust assessment of the activity of DNA-binding proteins and takes present DNA-binding assays to a high throughput level.

Expression profiling methods used in drug abuse research

A variety of analytical methodologies to investigate gene expression patterns in cells or tissues have been developed. For screening purposes, a large number of target mRNAs have to be interrogated simultaneously. These requirements have been met more or less comprehensively by Differential Display (DD) RT-PCR, Suppression Subtractive Hybridization (SSH), Serial Analysis of Gene Expression (SAGE), and DNA chips. The ultimate goal to cover any gene transcript potentially expressed by a given cell is on the way to be achieved by microbead arrays and by Affymetrix gene chips. Once targets of interest are identified, techniques employing low degrees of multiplexing, such as RNAse protection assays or some bead-based techniques (Luminex) eventually provide extremely fast results on the diagnostic level. With the aid of powerful computer programs, expression profiling technologies have opened intriguing new insights into the complex world of gene regulation. These new techniques have also been applied in drug abuse research recently and some examples of such approaches are described.

Human papillomavirus type 16 E6 promotes retinoblastoma protein phosphorylation and cell cycle progression

We show that E6 proteins from benign human papillomavirus type 1 (HPV1) and oncogenic HPV16 have the ability to alter the regulation of the G(1)/S transition of the cell cycle in primary human fibroblasts. Overexpression of both viral proteins induces cellular proliferation, retinoblastoma (pRb) phosphorylation, and accumulation of products of genes that are negatively regulated by pRb, such as p16(INK4a), CDC2, E2F-1, and cyclin A. Hyperphosphorylated forms of pRb are present in E6-expressing cells even in the presence of ectopic levels of p16(INK4a). The E6 proteins strongly increased the cyclin A/cyclin-dependent kinase 2 (CDK2) activity, which is involved in pRb phosphorylation. In addition, mRNA and protein levels of the CDK2 inhibitor p21(WAF1/CIP1) were strongly down-regulated in cells expressing E6 proteins. The down-regulation of the p21(WAF1/CIP1) gene appears to be independent of p53 inactivation, since HPV1 E6 and an HPV16 E6 mutant unable to target p53 were fully competent in decreasing p21(WAF1/CIP1) levels. E6 from HPV1 and HPV16 also enabled cells to overcome the G(1) arrest imposed by oncogenic ras. Immunofluorescence staining of cells coexpressing ras and E6 from either HPV16 or HPV1 revealed that antiproliferative (p16(INK4a)) and proliferative (Ki67) markers were coexpressed in the same cells. Together, these data underline a novel activity of E6 that is not mediated by inactivation of p53.

Identification of novel AP-1 target genes in fibroblasts regulated during cutaneous wound healing

Mesenchymal-epithelial interactions are increasingly considered to be of vital importance for epithelial homeostasis and regeneration. In skin, the transcription factor AP-1 was shown to be critically involved in the communication between keratinocytes and dermal fibroblasts. After skin injury, the release of IL-1 from keratinocytes induces the activity of the AP-1 subunits c-Jun and JunB in fibroblasts leading to a global change in gene expression. To identify AP-1 target genes in fibroblasts, which are involved in the process of cutaneous repair, we performed gene expression profiling of wild-type, c-jun- and junB-deficient fibroblasts in response to IL-1, mimicking the initial phase of wound healing. Using a 15K cDNA collection, over 1000 genes were found to be Jun-dependent and additional 300 clones showed IL-1 responsiveness. Combinatorial evaluation allowed for the dissection of the specific contribution of either AP-1 subunit to gene regulation. Besides previously identified genes that are involved in cutaneous repair, we have identified novel genes regulated during wound healing in vivo and showed their expression by fibroblasts on wound sections. The identification of novel Jun target genes should provide a basis for understanding the molecular mechanisms underlying mesenchymal-epithelial interactions and the critical contribution of AP-1 to tissue homeostasis and repair.

A General Survey of Thymocyte Differentiation by Transcriptional Analysis of Knockout Mouse Models

The thymus is the primary site of T cell lymphopoiesis. To undergo proper differentiation, developing T cells follow a well-ordered genetic program that strictly depends on the heterogeneous and highly specialized thymic microenvironment. In this study, we used microarray technology to extensively describe transcriptional events regulating alphabeta T cell fate. To get an integrated view of these processes, both whole thymi from genetically engineered mice together with purified thymocytes were analyzed. Using mice exhibiting various transcriptional perturbations and developmental blockades, we performed a transcriptional microdissection of the organ. Multiple signatures covering both cortical and medullary stroma as well as various thymocyte maturation intermediates were clearly defined. Beyond the definition of histological and functional signatures (proliferation, rearrangement), we provide the first evidence that such an approach may also highlight the complex cross-talk events that occur between maturing T cells and stroma. Our data constitute a useful integrated resource describing the main gene networks set up during thymocyte development and a first step toward a more systematic transcriptional analysis of genetically modified mice.

Cross-species hybridisation of human and bovine orthologous genes on high density cDNA microarrays

BACKGROUND

Cross-species gene-expression comparison is a powerful tool for the discovery of evolutionarily conserved mechanisms and pathways of expression control. The usefulness of cDNA microarrays in this context is that broad areas of homology are compared and hybridization probes are sufficiently large that small inter-species differences in nucleotide sequence would not affect the analytical results. This comparative genomics approach would allow a common set of genes within a specific developmental, metabolic, or disease-related gene pathway to be evaluated in experimental models of human diseases. The objective of this study was to investigate the feasibility and reproducibility of cross-species analysis employing a human cDNA microarray as probe.

RESULTS

As a proof of principle, total RNA derived from human and bovine fetal brains was used as a source of labelled targets for hybridisation onto a human cDNA microarray composed of 349 characterised genes. Each gene was spotted 20 times representing 6,980 data points thus enabling highly reproducible spot quantification. Employing high stringency hybridisation and washing conditions, followed by data analysis, revealed slight differences in the expression levels and reproducibility of the signals between the two species. We also assigned each of the genes into three expression level categories- i.e. high, medium and low. The correlation co-efficient of cross hybridisation between the orthologous genes was 0.94. Verification of the array data by semi-quantitative RT-PCR using common primer sequences enabled co-amplification of both human and bovine transcripts. Finally, we were able to assign gene names to previously uncharacterised bovine ESTs.

CONCLUSIONS

Results of our study demonstrate the harnessing and utilisation power of comparative genomics and prove the feasibility of using human microarrays to facilitate the identification of co-expressed orthologous genes in common tissues derived from different species.

Microarray-based method for genotyping of functional single nucleotide polymorphisms using dual-color fluorescence hybridization

Screening disease-related single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) markers in the whole genome has great potential in complex disease genetics and pharmacogenetics researches. It has led to a requirement for high-throughput genotyping platforms that can maximize the efficient screening functional SNPs with respect to accuracy, speed and cost. In this study, we attempted to develop a microarray-based method for scoring a number of genomic DNA in parallel for one or more molecular markers on a glass slide. Two SNP markers localized to the methylenetetrahydrofolate reductase gene (MTHFR) were selected as the investigated targets. Amplified PCR products from nine genomic DNA specimens were spotted and immobilized onto a poly-l-lysine coated glass slide to fabricate a microarray, then interrogated by hybridization with dual-color probes to determine the SNP genotype of each sample. The results indicated that the microarray-based method could determine the genotype of 677 and 1298 MTHFR polymorphisms. Sequencing was performed to validate these results. Our experiments successfully demonstrate that PCR products subjected to dual-color hybridization on a microarray could be applied as a useful and a high-throughput tool to analyze molecular markers.

Negative subtraction hybridization: an efficient method to isolate large numbers of condition-specific cDNAs

Background

The construction of cDNA libraries is a useful tool to understand gene expression in organisms under different conditions, but random sequencing of unbiased cDNA collections is laborious and can give rise to redundant EST collections.

We aimed to isolate cDNAs of messages induced by switching Aspergillus nidulans from growth on glucose to growth on selected polysaccharides. Approximately 4,700 contigs from 12,320 ESTs were already available from a cDNA library representing transcripts isolated from glucose-grown A. nidulans during asexual development. Our goals were to expand the cDNA collection without repeated sequencing of previously identified ESTs and to find as many transcripts as possible that are specifically induced in complex polysaccharide metabolism.

Results

We have devised a Negative Subtraction Hybridization (NSH) method and tested it in A. nidulans. NSH entails screening a plasmid library made from cDNAs prepared from cells grown under a selected physiological condition with labeled cDNA probes prepared from another physiological condition. Plasmids with inserts that failed to hybridize to cDNA probes through two rounds of screening (i.e. negatives) indicate that they are transcripts present at low concentration in the labeled probe pool. Thus, these transcripts will be predominantly condition-specific, along with some rare transcripts.

In a screen for transcripts induced by switching the carbon source from glucose to 12 selected polysaccharides, 3,532 negatives were isolated from approximately 100,000 surveyed colonies using this method. Negative clones were end-sequenced and assembled into 2,039 contigs, of which 1,722 were not present in the previously characterized glucose-grown cDNA library. Single-channel microarray hybridization experiments confirmed that the majority of the negatives represented genes that were differentially induced by a switch from growth in glucose to one or more of the polysaccharides.

Conclusions

The Negative Subtraction Hybridization method described here has several practical benefits. This method can be used to screen any existing cDNA library, including full-length and pooled libraries, and does not rely on PCR or sequence information. In addition, NSH is a cost-effective method for the isolation of novel, full-length cDNAs for differentially expressed transcripts or enrichment of rare transcripts.

Analysis of nutrient-dependent transcript variations in Neurospora crassa

Nutrient-dependent variations in transcript levels of the filamentous fungus Neurospora crassa were studied on a microarray containing some 4700 cDNAs. Cells were grown in minimal and acetate medium. The isolated RNA was analyzed in comparison to the results obtained upon the hybridization of samples prepared from the RNA of cells grown in full medium. Altogether, 160 cDNA clones exhibited significant variations, falling into five distinct subgroups of very similar transcription profiles. This is indicative of the occurrence of a high degree of co-regulation of genes in N. crassa. Especially the regulation of the expression of proteins involved in metabolic pathways was found to be strongly regulated at the RNA level.

DNA microarrays--techniques and applications in microbial systems

Genome projects produce a huge amount of sequence information. As a result, the focus of genomics research is turning toward deduction of functional information about newly discovered genes. Thus structural genomics paves the way for a new discipline called functional genomics by providing the information required for microarray manufacture. Microarray technology is the result of automation and miniaturization in the detection of differential gene expression. By using this technology one can make a parallel analysis of RNA abundance and DNA homology for thousands of genes in a single experiment. Over the past several years, this unique technology has been used to explore hundreds transcriptional patterns and genome differences for a variety of microbial species. Applications of microarrays extend beyond the boundaries of basic biology into diagnostics, environmental monitoring, pharmacology, toxicology and biotechnology. We describe comprehensive nature of DNA microarray technology with emphasis on fabrication of DNA microarrays and application of this technology in biological environment with primary accent on microbial systems.