Dietary polyunsaturated fatty acids decrease fat deposition in separable fat depots but not in the remainder carcass

Relationship between Fat Status, Stage of Gonadal Maturity and Hormonal Variation of Turdus philomelos (C.L. Brehm, 1831) Wintering in Apulia during 2018-2020

In this study, we aimed to evaluate the development of the fattening condition and the reproductive status of the song thrush from December to February. For this purpose, the chemical and fatty acid compositions of the pectoral muscle were analyzed in relation to the fattening state of the birds. Moreover, their reproductive activity was evaluated via the anatomical and pathological examination of tissues and through the assessment of sex steroid profiles. One hundred ninety-five thrushes captured by local hunters during the 2018-2019 and 2019-2020 hunting seasons in different provinces of the Apulia region in Italy were used. The first step was the measurement of bird body mass, and the amount of subcutaneous body fat was estimated visually. During post-mortem examinations, the pectoral muscle was excised and used for chemical and fatty acid analysis and a hormone assay, respectively. Moreover, ovaries and testicles were evaluated to determine the degree of maturation and thus the reproductive status of the birds. The results regarding fattening status and fatty acid profile confirmed that in January-February, thrushes change their diet, increasing their intake of oleic acid, likely to better cope with low temperatures and prepare for long-distance migration. In both male and female thrushes, the concentrations of sex hormones confirmed a phase of reproductive quiescence from December to February, which was also confirmed through histological examination of the gonads.

Sugary and salty former food products in pig diets affect energy and nutrient digestibility, feeding behaviour but not the growth performance and carcass composition

Former foodstuff products (FFPs) are promising alternative ingredients for reducing the waste of natural resources and the environmental impact of food production. This study investigates the effects of salty and sugary FFPs on growth performance, apparent total tract digestibility (ATTD), and growing-finishing pigs' empty body and carcass composition. Thirty-six Swiss Large White male castrated pigs were assigned to three growing (G) and finishing (F) diets: (1) standard diet (ST), 0% FFPs; (2) 30% conventional ingredients replaced by sugary FFPs (SU); and (3) 30% conventional ingredients replaced by salty FFPs (SA). Faecal samples from 24 selected pigs were collected to assess the ATTD of gross energy, crude fibres, and CP. The BW was measured weekly, while feed intake was determined daily. Average daily gain (ADG), average daily feed intake (ADFI), feed conversion ratio (FCR), and ATTD were calculated for both the growing and finishing periods. Pigs' body composition was determined at ≥20 and ≥98 kg using dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry. In the growing but not finishing period, the FCR was lower (P < 0.05) in ST compared to SA and SU pigs. Considering the entire growing and finishing period, neither the inclusion level nor the type of FFPs influenced (P > 0.05) ADG, ADFI, FCR, or BW at slaughter. In both the growing and finishing periods, the gross energy ATTD was higher (P < 0.05) in the SA than in the ST group, with intermediate values in the SU group. In the growing period, the CP ATTD was higher (P < 0.05) in the SA than in the SU and ST groups. In the finishing period, the crude fibre ATTD was lower (P < 0.05) in the SA and SU than in the ST group. Throughout the overall period, the average daily fat intake was higher (P < 0.05) in pigs fed an SU diet, even though both categories of FFPs had no (P > 0.05) effects on the parameters related to the pigs' body composition (e.g., average daily fat weight gain). Finally, the carcasses of the SU group had the thickest belly fat, even though the total fat content was similar among the groups. This study confirms that including FFPs has no detrimental effects on growth performance or live body/carcass composition in growing and finishing pigs.

Olive pomace oil and acid oil as alternative fat sources in growing-finishing broiler chicken diets

The aim of the present study was to investigate the effect of dietary supplementation of olive pomace oil and olive pomace acid oil, which are rich in monounsaturated fatty acids (FA) but differ in free FA content, on growth performance, digestibility and FA profile of abdominal fat and breast meat. A total of 3,048 one-day-old mixed-sex broiler chickens (Ross 308) were randomly distributed into 24 pens and 3 dietary treatments (8 replicates per treatment). Experimental diets were administered for growing (from 22 to 29 d) and finishing (from 30 to 39 d) periods, consisting of a basal diet supplemented with 6% (as-fed basis) palm oil (PO), olive pomace oil (O), or olive pomace acid oil (OA). Animals fed O achieved the lowest feed conversion ratio (P < 0.01), together with the highest AME value (P = 0.003), but no differences were observed between OA and PO. Regarding FA digestibility, O and OA showed higher values than PO for all FA in both apparent ileal digestibility (AID) and apparent total tract digestibility. Comparing the AID between O and OA, no differences were observed for total FA, monounsaturated FA, or polyunsaturated FA, but animals fed OA showed lower AID values for saturated FA than those fed O (P < 0.001). The FA profile of abdominal fat and breast meat reflected that of the diet, with higher monounsaturated FA and lower saturated FA in animals fed O and OA compared to those fed PO. In sum, the inclusion of both olive pomace oil and acid oil in growing-finishing broiler chicken diets led to great performance parameters and high FA digestibility values, together with an enrichment with monounsaturated FA in abdominal fat and breast meat compared to the use of palm oil. However, a better AID of saturated FA and feed conversion ratio is achieved with O compared to OA.

Effects of Dietary Thraustochytrid schizochytrium sp. and Other Omega-3 Sources on Growth Performance, Carcass Characteristics, and Meat Quality of Broilers

Simple Summary

Thraustochytrid schizochytrium is one of the promising microalgae for omega-3 production. We evaluated the possibility of schizochytrium as omega-3 source comparing with other omega-3 sources that have been used before. The main results were the increased levels of DHA in the thigh meat of broilers fed SP, while EPA and DHA were on the rise in the meat of broilers fed SO, and ALA was increased in the meat of broilers fed FO. The ω-6/ω-3 ratio of the thigh meat improved in all treatments, approaching the guideline levels without adverse effects on the productive performance, carcass traits, and thigh meat quality. Hence, our results suggest that salmon oil, flaxseed oil, and schizochytrium could be used as omega-3 fatty acids sources to improve the omega-3 level and ω-6/ω-3 balance in broiler thigh meat and to allow consumers to easily enhance their intake of these vital nutrients for health benefits.

Abstract

Background: Looking for alternative omega-3 sources in broiler nutrition, microalgae began to get attention. We suspected that schizochytrium might play a similar role as other omega-3 sources that have been used before. Methods: 20 g/kg schizochytrium powder (SP), salmon oil (SO), and flaxseed oil (FO) in each of the three treatment groups were supplemented in the basal diet (CON), and productive performance, carcass traits, and thigh meat quality of broilers were evaluated. Results: There was a significantly higher weight gain in the SP treatment compared to the other groups, but no difference was found in feed intake and feed conversion ratio. Thiobarbituric acid reactive substance values increased during storage in all the treatments but were significantly lower for SP than for SO and FO after 7 days of storage. Among the ω-3 fatty acids (FAs), α-linolenic acid increased the most in the FO treatment, eicosapentaenoic acid increased the most in the SO treatment, and docosahexaenoic acid increased the most in the SP treatment in thigh meat, reflecting the FA composition of the lipid source diets. Conclusions: We suggested that all the dietary ω-3 FA sources could improve the FA composition of chicken meat and our results indicated the possibility to supplement broiler diets with 2% level of SP, SO, and FO as ω-3 FA sources to produce meat with a good nutritional quality for consumer’s health benefits.

Effects of Replacing Yellow Corn with Olive Cake Meal on Growth Performance, Plasma Lipid Profile, and Muscle Fatty Acid Content in Broilers

Simple Summary

Yellow corn is a grain frequently utilized in broiler diets. Moreover, the new era of the corn-ethanol industry for biofuel production has increased the divergence of energy applications of corn. These uses have considerably increased corn prices over the past few years. Using byproducts may be one of solutions to this problem. Olive cake meal (OCM) is a byproduct obtained from olive oil factories after olive oil is extracted. It has a high nutritional value, especially in regard to metabolizable energy. OCM has been used successfully in livestock and poultry feeding as an alternative to energy sources such as corn, without any adverse effects on performance. Hence, the current study investigated the effects of replacing yellow corn with OCM on the growth, nutrient utilization, selected blood parameters, and muscle fatty acid profile of broilers. Four hundred and eighty one-day-old male broiler chickens (Ross 308) were divided into four experimental groups (a control group, and groups with 5%, 10%, and 20% of corn replaced with OCM). The results revealed that replacing 10% of corn with OCM in the diet improved growth performance and reduced abdominal fat and liver malondialdehyde (MDA) and increased high density lipoprotein (HDL).

Abstract

The current study focused exclusively on evaluating the effects of replacing corn with olive cake meal (OCM) in the diet of broilers on their growth performance, abdominal fat, selected plasma parameters, and muscle fatty acid (FA) content. A total of 480 one-day-old male broiler chickens (Ross 308) were divided into four treatment groups with 12 replicates/treatment. The control group was fed the base diet, whereas the second to fourth groups were fed diets of corn with 5%, 10%, and 20% contents of OCM, respectively. Broilers fed with the 5% and 10% OCM diets showed better body weight (p = 0.04) and feed conversion ratio than the 20% OCM group (p < 0.048). Both nitrogen retention and ether extract digestibility were not improved by replaced corn with OCM. Replacing corn with OCM led to a decreased abdominal fat percentage (p = 0.023) compared with the control group. Birds in the OCM groups showed the lowest total cholesterol values (p = 0.038). The breast muscle (musculus pectoralis superficialis) content of oleic and linoleic, linolenic, and arachidonic acids was significantly high in birds fed with OCM diets. However, their palmitic acid level was significantly decreased. Vitamin E was increased by increasing the OCM level. Thus, we concluded that replacing corn with OCM, especially at a 10% level, is more effective than other replacement levels in improving growth performance, plasma lipid profile, and muscle FA content, as well as in causing a reduction in abdominal fat in broilers.

Effect of Temperature and Selection for Growth on Intracellular Lipid Accumulation and Adipogenic Gene Expression in Turkey Pectoralis Major Muscle Satellite Cells

As multipotential stem cells, satellite cells (SCs) have the potential to express adipogenic genes resulting in lipid synthesis with thermal stress. The present study determined the effect of temperature on intracellular lipid synthesis and adipogenic gene expression in SCs isolated from the pectoralis major (p. major) muscle of 7-day-old fast-growing modern commercial (NC) turkeys compared to SCs from unselected slower-growing turkeys [Randombred Control Line 2 (RBC2)]. Since proliferating and differentiating SCs have different responses to thermal stress, three incubation strategies were used: (1) SCs proliferated at the control temperature of 38°C and differentiated at 43° or 33°C; (2) SCs proliferated at 43° or 33°C and differentiated at 38°C; or (3) SCs both proliferated and differentiated at 43°, 38°, or 33°C. During proliferation, lipid accumulation increased at 43°C and decreased at 33°C with the NC line showing greater variation than the RBC2 line. During proliferation at 43°C, peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor-γ (PPARγ) and neuropeptide-Y (NPY) expression was reduced to a greater extent in the NC line than the RBC2 line. At 33°C, expression of PPARγ, NPY, and CCAAT/enhancer-binding protein-β (C/EBPβ) was upregulated, but only in the RBC2 line. During differentiation, both lines showed greater changes in lipid accumulation and in C/EBPβ and NPY expression if the thermal challenge was initiated during proliferation. These data suggest that adipogenic gene expression is more responsive to thermal challenge in proliferating SCs than in differentiating SCs, and that growth-selection has increased temperature sensitivity of SCs, which may significantly affect breast muscle structure and composition.

Enrichment of Broiler Chickens' Meat with Dietary Linseed Oil and Lysine Mixtures: Influence on Nutritional Value, Carcass Characteristics and Oxidative Stress Biomarkers

This study aimed to evaluate the effect of four combinations of dietary linseed oil and lysine mixtures on performance, fatty and amino acid profiles, oxidative stress biomarkers, cell energy and meat quality parameters of broiler chickens. One hundred and sixty broiler chicks were allocated into four groups. Birds of groups 1–4 were fed diets containing optimum lysine and 2% of linseed oil, optimum lysine and 4% of linseed oil, high lysine and 2% of linseed oil, and high lysine and 4% of linseed oil, respectively, for a period of 35 days. High linseed oil or lysine levels did not affect the performance of the tested birds, but the high level of dietary linseed oil decreased the concentrations of muscles’ saturated fatty acids (SFA). The highest values of ω-3 polyunsaturated fatty (ω-3 PUFA) and arachidonic acids with lowest levels of monounsaturated fatty (MUFA) were detected in the muscles of birds fed diets containing high linseed oils and/or lysine levels. High linseed oil or lysine levels provided the best essential amino acid profile and improved antioxidant components as well as cell energy, and tenderness and redness of the meat. Conclusively, high dietary lysine and linseed oil combinations improved the nutritional value, antioxidant status and cell energy of broiler chickens’ meat.

A PBPK model to study the transfer of α-hexabromocyclododecane (α-HBCDD) to tissues of fast- and slow-growing broilers

A physiologically based pharmacokinetic (PBPK) model was developed to investigate the production-specific factors involved in the transfer of α-hexabromocyclododecane (α-HBCDD) to broiler meat. The model describes growth and lipid deposition in tissues of fast- (FG) and slow- (SG) growing broilers from hatching to slaughter and simulates the exposure through the ingestion of contaminated feed or expanded polystyrene insulation material. Growth parameters were obtained from the literature while parameters relative to uptake, distribution, and elimination of α-HBCDD were adjusted using results of a previous experiment involving broilers exposed through feed throughout the rearing period or allowed to depurate before slaughter. The model was used to compare the two main edible tissues, breast and leg meat, as well as skin, and to investigate the variability within strain. Between strains and within strain, α-HBCDD assimilation efficiency (AE) is higher when the animals are slaughtered young or heavy. However, increasing slaughter age will lower α-HBCDD concentration in tissues, due to dilution. Based on fresh weight, the concentration of α-HBCDD in breast muscles and skin tends to be lower in SG than in FG broilers (-30 to +10%), while it is 10% to 80% higher in leg muscles. Compared to breast muscles, consuming leg muscles would elicit an exposure 9 and 16 times higher in FG and SG broilers, respectively. The consumption of skin together with muscles would multiply the exposure by up to 36 times compared to breast muscle alone. In case of acute exposure, the α-HBCDD concentration in tissues increased sharply, all the more since the animals are lighter in weight, and then decreased rapidly. In FG broilers, dilution through growth contributed for up to 37%, 28% and 97% to the decontamination of breast muscles, leg muscles and skin, respectively, depending on the duration of depuration before slaughter.

Omega-3 and Omega-6 Fatty Acids in Poultry Nutrition: Effect on Production Performance and Health

Omega-3 (ω-3) and omega-6 (ω-6) fatty acids are important components of cell membranes. They are essential for health and normal physiological functioning of humans. Not all fatty acids can be produced endogenously owing to the absence of certain desaturases; however, they are required in a ratio that is not naturally achieved by the standard diet of industrialized nations. Poultry products have become the primary source of long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids (LC-PUFA), with one of the most effective solutions being to increase the accretion of PUFAs in chicken products via the adjustment of fatty acids in poultry diets. Several studies have reported the favorable effects of ω-3 PUFA on bone strength, bone mineral content and density, and semen quality. However, other studies concluded negative effects of LC-PUFA on meat quality and palatability, and acceptability by consumers. The present review discussed the practical application of ω-3 and ω-6 fatty acids in poultry diets, and studied the critical effects of these fatty acids on productive performance, blood biochemistry, immunity, carcass traits, bone traits, egg and meat quality, and semen quality in poultry. Future studies are required to determine how poultry products can be produced with higher contents of PUFAs and favorable fatty acid composition, at low cost and without negative effects on palatability and quality.

Supplementary outcomes of betaine on economic and productive performance, some biochemical parameters, and lipoprotein lipase gene expression in finishing male broilers

Egypt's population is growing with the biggest hurdle facing the Government is to secure animal protein. Broilers provide quality protein of reasonable price. This study was conducted to investigate the outcomes of dietary organic betaine (betafin S4) on productive, epigenetic make up of lipoprotein lipase gene (LPL) promoter, some blood biochemical, and economic parameters in male broilers at finishing period. Eighty one commercial Arbor Acre Plus males, 21 days old, were randomly allocated to three groups, with three replicates each in battery cages under thermo-neutral environment till 42 days. The examined groups received yellow corn-soy basal diet, supplemented with 0 (G1), 1.5 (G2) and 3.0 g (G3) betaine/kg diet, respectively. The mRNA expression levels of LPL gene were analyzed by real-time quantitative PCR. Methylation pattern on LPL gene promoter was determined by bisulfite sequencing. Doses of betaine statistically (P ≤ .05) improved tested performance parameters; while carcass yield % and abdominal fat deposition did not achieve significant changes. The expression of LPL mRNA showed an inverse relationship with betaine dose, which illustrated as a trend toward increase in G2 and decrease in G3. Regarding serum biochemistry, both treated groups when compared to control group revealed a significant improvement (P ≤ .01) in albumin level, simultaneously, a significant increase (P ≤ .05) was recorded in uric acid and triglyceride levels, additionally, strong positive (P ≤ .01) correlation between betaine dose and previously mentioned parameters was reported. Betaine is recommended in finishing male broilers as production costs were reduced by 3.97%-4.37% per kg, respectively. In conclusion, incorporation of 0.15-0.30% organic betaine to male broilers diets during finishing period improves the growth performances.

Factors affecting adipose tissue development in chickens: A review

The intense genetic selection for rapid growth in broilers has resulted in an increase in voluntary feed intake and growth rate, accompanied by increased fat deposition in adipose tissue depots throughout the body. Adipose tissue expansion is a result of the formation of adipocytes (several processes collectively referred to as adipogenesis) and cellular accumulation of triacylglycerols inside lipid droplets. In mammals, different anatomical depots are metabolically distinct. The molecular and cellular mechanisms underlying adipose tissue development have been characterized in mammalian models, whereas information in avian species is scarce. The purpose of this review is to describe factors regulating adipogenesis in chickens, with an emphasis on dietary factors and the broiler. Results from many studies have demonstrated effects of dietary nutrient composition on adipose tissue development and lipid metabolism. Transcription factors, such as peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor γ, CCAAT/enhancer-binding proteins α and β, and sterol regulatory element binding proteins orchestrate a series of cellular events that lead to an increase in activity of fatty acid transport proteins and enzymes that are responsible for triacylglycerol synthesis. Understanding the mechanisms underlying adipose tissue development may provide a practical strategy to affect body composition of the commercial broiler while providing insights on diets that maximize conversion into muscle rather than fat and affect depot-dependent deposition of lipids. Because of the propensity to overeat and become obese, the broiler chicken also represents an attractive biomedical model for eating disorders and obesity in humans.

Effect of Locally Manufactured Niger Seed Oil on Lipid Profile Compared to Imported Palm and Sunflower Oils on Rat Models

Background

Different types of dietary lipids have been shown to affect lipid metabolism and lipid profile differently.

Objective

This study aims to assess the effect of local niger seed oil on serum lipid profile compared to palm oil and sunflower oil in rats.

Methods

The effect of the 15% plant oils on serum lipid profile, body weight gain percentage, and feed efficiency ratio was assessed after 8 weeks of experimental period.

Results and Conclusion

The 15% niger seed oil showed decrease and increase in the level of lipid profile as compared to rats fed with 15% palm oil and sunflower oil (except Triacylglycerol), respectively. The 15% niger seed oil showed significant decrease and increase in body weight gain percentage as compared to the 15% palm oil and 15% sunflower oil, respectively. The feed efficiency ratio was significantly higher and lower in the 15% niger seed oil compared to rats fed with 15% sunflower oil and control group and the palm oil fed rats, respectively. The current study concluded that consumption of locally manufactured niger seed oil decreased the blood lipid profiles, body weight gain percentage, and feed efficiency ratio as compared to palm oil. Utilization of oils containing more unsaturated fatty acids like niger seed oil is recommended to reduce the risk of developing cardiovascular disease.

The composition of dietary fat alters the transcriptional profile of pathways associated with lipid metabolism in the liver and adipose tissue in the pig

The objective was to investigate the of effect chemical composition of dietary fat on transcription of genes involved in lipid metabolism in adipose tissue and the liver via transcriptional profiling in growing pigs. A total of 48 Genetiporc 6.0 × Genetiporc F25 (PIC, Inc., Hendersonville, TN) barrows (initial BW of 44.1 ± 1.2 kg) were randomly allotted to 1 of 6 dietary treatments. Each experimental diet included 95% of a corn-soybean meal basal diet and 5% cornstarch (control; CNTR), animal-vegetable blend (AV), coconut oil (COCO), corn oil (COIL), fish oil (FO), or tallow (TAL). Pigs were sacrificed on d 10 (final BW of 51.2 ± 1.7 kg) to collect tissues. Expression normalization across samples was performed by calculating a delta cycle threshold (ΔCt) value using . Delta delta cycle threshold (ΔΔCt) values were expressed relative to the CNTR treatment. In adipose tissue, adding dietary fat, regardless of the source, decreased the mRNA abundance of compared with the CNTR ( = 0.014). Pigs fed a COIL-based diet tended to have greater adipose tissue expression of ( = 0.071) than pigs fed the other dietary fat sources tested. Abundance of mRNA was greater in adipose tissue of barrows a fed COIL-based diet than barrows fed CNTR or FO-based diets ( = 0.047). In the liver, adding dietary fat, regardless of source, increased the mRNA abundance of , , , , , and ( ≤ 0.020) and tended to increase the abundance of ( = 0.071) and ( = 0.086) compared with the CNTR. Pigs fed a TAL-based diet had greater hepatic transcription of than pigs fed CNTR-, COCO-, or FO-based diets ( = 0.013). Hepatic transcription of tended to be greater in pigs fed COCO than in pigs fed other dietary fat sources ( = 0.074). Dietary omega-3 fatty acid content tended to negatively correlate with mRNA abundance of ( = 0.065) in adipose tissue and ( = 0.063) in the liver. Dietary fat SFA content was negatively correlated with in the liver ( ≤ 0.039). Dietary fat MUFA content tended to be positively correlated with , , and mRNA abundance in the liver ( ≤ 0.100). To conclude, the intake of omega-3 fatty acids suppressed the mRNA abundance of genes involved in lipolysis in both adipose tissue and the liver. Dietary SFA are greater inhibitors of lipogenesis in adipose tissue than omega-6 fatty acids. Intake of medium-chain fatty acids alters hepatic lipid metabolism differently than intake of long-chain fatty acids.

Improvements in the conception rate, milk composition and embryo quality of rabbit does after dietary enrichment with n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids

This work attempts to confirm the effect of an enriched diet with n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA) trying to mitigate the reproductive performances issues such as low conception rate of primiparous rabbits. A total of 127 does were fed ad libitum throughout their two first cycles with two diets with different fat sources: mixed fat in the control and salmon oil in the enriched one, with 3.19 g/100 g (n=63 does) and 28.77 g/100 g (n=64 does) of n-3 of the total fatty acid, respectively. Feed intake was similar between groups (P>0.05). Plasma progesterone concentration was higher in the enriched females than in control ones at 7 (30.9±2.18 v. 23.9±2.30 ng/ml, respectively; P=0.029) and 14 (38.7±2.18 v. 28.2±2.30 ng/ml, respectively; P=0.001) days of first gestation. Considering both cycles, reproductive parameters of mothers (fertility, duration of gestation and prolificacy) and litter parameters (weight at parturition and weaning, mortality and average daily gain (ADG) of kits during lactation) were similar in both groups. However, individual measurements of neonates of enriched group improved 5.87%, 7.10% and 18.01% (P0.05), but embryo apoptosis rate was higher in control group than in enriched one (31.1±4.56% v. 17.1±3.87%, respectively; P<0.05). In conclusion, dietary PUFA enrichment from the rearing and throughout two productive cycles improved plasma progesterone during pregnancy, fertility, milk fatty acid profile and neonates development of primiparous supporting the beneficial effect of n-3 PUFA supplementation in rabbit does.

Dietary Conjugated Linoleic Acid Supplementation Leads to Downregulation of PPAR Transcription in Broiler Chickens and Reduction of Adipocyte Cellularity

Conjugated linoleic acids (CLA) act as an important ligand for nuclear receptors in adipogenesis and fat deposition in mammals and avian species. This study aimed to determine whether similar effects are plausible on avian abdominal fat adipocyte size, as well as abdominal adipogenic transcriptional level. CLA was supplemented at different levels, namely, (i) basal diet without CLA (5% palm oil) (CON), (ii) basal diet with 2.5% CLA and 2.5% palm oil (LCLA), and (iii) basal diet with 5% CLA (HCLA).The content of cis-9, trans-11 CLA was between 1.69- and 2.3-fold greater (P < 0.05) than that of trans-10, cis-12 CLA in the abdominal fat of the LCLA and HCLA group. The adipogenic capacity of the abdominal fat depot in LCLA and HCLA fed chicken is associated with a decreased proportion of adipose cells and monounsaturated fatty acids (MUFA). The transcriptional level of adipocyte protein (aP2) and peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor gamma (PPARγ) was downregulated by 1.08- to 2.5-fold in CLA supplemented diets, respectively. It was speculated that feeding CLA to broiler chickens reduced adipocyte size and downregulated PPARγ and aP2 that control adipocyte cellularity. Elevation of CLA isomers into their adipose tissue provides a potential CLA-rich source for human consumption.

Effect of dietary coenzyme Q10 supplementation on the growth rate, carcass characters and cost effectiveness of broiler fed with three energy levels

The objective of this experiment was to study the effect of dietary supplementation of Coenzyme Q10 on broiler growth rate, carcass characteristics and cost of production. A biological trial was carried out with 270 broiler chicks fed with coenzyme Q10 at 0, 20 and 40 mg/kg of diet at each of the three energy levels. At the end of 42 days growth period the birds were sacrificed and the samples were analysed. Feed intake was comparable in all the energy and CoQ10 combinations, but higher body weight gain and better feed efficiency with less feed cost per kilogram weight gain was observed in high energy group supplemented with 20 mg of CoQ10/kg diet. The dressing percentages, weight of giblet, liver, spleen, abdominal fat, intestinal length were not significantly altered by CoQ10 supplementation. The heart weight, gizzard weight and ascites heart weight (AHI) were significantly decreased due to CoQ10 supplementation. Hence, birds fed with high energy diet supplemented with 20 mg CoQ10 per kg of diet had higher production performance.

Nutritional factors affecting abdominal fat deposition in poultry: a review

The major goals of the poultry industry are to increase the carcass yield and to reduce carcass fatness, mainly the abdominal fat pad. The increase in poultry meat consumption has guided the selection process toward fast-growing broilers with a reduced feed conversion ratio. Intensive selection has led to great improvements in economic traits such as body weight gain, feed efficiency, and breast yield to meet the demands of consumers, but modern commercial chickens exhibit excessive fat accumulation in the abdomen area. However, dietary composition and feeding strategies may offer practical and efficient solutions for reducing body fat deposition in modern poultry strains. Thus, the regulation of lipid metabolism to reduce the abdominal fat content based on dietary composition and feeding strategy, as well as elucidating their effects on the key enzymes associated with lipid metabolism, could facilitate the production of lean meat and help to understand the fat-lowering effects of diet and different feeding strategies.

Growth performance, meat quality traits, and genetic mapping of quantitative trait loci in 3 generations of Japanese quail populations (Coturnix japonica)

The current research was conducted to compare growth, carcass traits, pH, intramuscular collagen (IMC) properties, and genetic bases of IMC and carcasses (breast-muscle weight) of different lines and generations of adult males and females of Japanese quail (Coturnix japonica). Forty-four quails (generation F0), 22 Pharaoh (F-33) meat-type males and 22 Standard (S-22) laying-type females, were crossed to produce the F1 hybrids generation. The F2 generation was created by mating one F1 male with one F1 female, full siblings. The birds, randomly chosen from F0 (22 males and 22 females), F1 (22 males and 22 females), and F2 (84 males and 152 females) were raised to 20 wk of age in collective cages. Quails were fed ad libitum commercial diets. At slaughter, all birds were individually weighed (after a fasting period of 12 h) and dressing yield (without giblets) was calculated. The carcasses were then dissected. Genomic DNA was extracted from all of the blood, and 30 microsatellite markers located on 2 quail chromosomes were genotyped. The F -: 33 quails had higher in vivo and postmortem performances and a higher abdominal fat percentage than those of the egg line. Meat from S -: 22 quails had a slower collagen maturation (hydroxylysylpyridinoline crosslink/collagen) and a higher ultimate pH. The F1 and F2 generations showed an evident sexual dimorphism, and an additional effect could be due to hybrid heterosis evident in F2. Meat from quails of F1 and F2 generations had a lower IMC amount with a higher degree of collagen maturation compared with parental lines. Two statistically significant QTL have been detected on quail chromosome 2 (CJA02): a QTL with an additive effect (0.50) for IMC in the marker bracket GUJ0037 and GUJ0093; a second QTL with additive (1.32) and dominant (1.91) effects for breast-muscle weight in the marker bracket GUJ0084 and GUJ0073. To our knowledge, this is the first report of a QTL associated with breast-muscle weight and IMC in quail and poultry species, respectively.

The role of total fats, saturated/unsaturated fatty acids and cholesterol content in chicken meat as cardiovascular risk factors

Background

The objective of the study was to present information about the chemical composition, the fatty acids profile, and cholesterol content of chicken meat in order to investigate the impact of chicken meat consumption on cardiovascular risk in the general population.

Methods

A total of 48 6-wk-old broiler chickens broilers from two farms in June to November of 2012, and February of 2013, were used in this trial. Total lipid content was determined by extraction of fat by petrol ether (Soxhlet) after acid hydrolysis of samples. Fatty acids were determined by capillary gas chromatography. Cholesterol determination was performed by using HPLC/PDA system.

Results

The results indicate that the total free cholesterol content in raw breast and drumstick of chickens was in the range of 37,41–79,9 mg/100 g and 48,35-99,5 mg/100 g, respectively. The main fatty acids identified in all cuts were C18:1c9, C18:2n6, C16:0, C18:0, and C16:1. Decreasing the dietary n-6/n-3 clearly decreased the content in breast and drumstick muscle of C18:2n6, C18:3n3, and C20: 3n6, but increased that of C16:0, C18:0, and C20:2. Also, the major saturated fatty acid (SFA) (C16:0 and C18:0) was significantly differ among the four treatments.

Conclusion

Our study shows that dietary fat and fatty acid composition influence the concentrations of total cholesterol content, total fat content, and fatty acid composition in broiler muscle. This information will aid in determining the burden of chicken meat as a cardiovascular risk factors disease and act as a planning tool for public-health Programmes.

Nutritional evaluation of dried larvae and pupae meal of the housefly (Musca domestica) using chemical- and broiler-based biological assays

The nutritional composition of common housefly (Musca domestica) larvae and pupae meal is reported in terms of proximate analysis, amino acid profile, fatty acid composition, apparent metabolisable energy and total tract digestibility (TTD) of nutrients. Proximate analysis and TTD of meal showed larvae and pupae meal to contain, on a DM basis, a gross energy value of 20.10 MJ/kg and 20.42 MJ/kg, respectively, and an apparent metabolisable energy value of 14.23 MJ/kg and 15.15 MJ/kg, respectively. Crude protein content was 60.38% and 76.23%, with TTDs of 69% and 79%, respectively, with similarly high values reported for individual amino acids. Amino acid analysis revealed a favourable amino acid composition with high lysine concentrations but marginally low methionine concentrations. Arginine : lysine ratios of larvae and pupae meal were 0.67 and 0.91, respectively, and isoleucine : leucine ratios were 0.68 and 0.64, respectively. Crude fat contents were 14.08% and 14.39%, with TTDs of 94% and 98%, respectively, and crude fibre contents were 8.59% and 15.71%, with TTDs of 62% and 58%. Housefly larvae meal had crude protein TTD of 69%, whereas that of pupae meal was 79%. Both larvae and pupae meal had high amino acid TTDs. The TTD values of the crude fat and crude fibre were determined at 94% and 62%, respectively, for the housefly larvae, and at 98% and 58%, respectively, for the housefly pupae. M. domestica larvae meal can therefore be regarded as a good-quality protein source suitable for animal feeding.

Performance and Fatty Acid Composition of Adipose Tissue, Breast and Thigh in Broilers Fed Flaxseed: A Review

Interest on the enrichment of poultry meat with n-3 fatty acids has increased given its important role in human health. Flaxseed is the main sources of n-3 fatty acids, and contains between 45 to 71% of total fatty acids of the oil as α-linolenic acid. This paper reviews the plausibility of n-3 enrichment. Its focus is on the processing of flaxseed and begins by summarizing the benefits of supplementation on broiler performance. The literature on altering the FA deposition in different tissues is then reviewed, and the factors that affect the incorporation of n-3 PUFA into edible tissues of poultry are investigated. Flaxseed supplementation caused a reduction in the abdominal fat pad, and the main fatty acid deposited in the tissue is LNA. The use of fold-change analysis allowed interpreting and determining the variation of results within experiments that do not report data in similar units of measure. The fold change analysis identified three categories of desaturation response to feeding flaxseed to broilers, resulting in different values for EPA and DHA in both breast and thigh tissues: high, medium and low fold-changes. The use of flaxseed oil, whole or ground flaxseed 14 to 21 day before slaughter is recommended to poultry producers as feeding strategies to optimize n-3 enrichment, without compromising animal performance. Enriched DHA deposition could be accomplished feeding whole flaxseed.

Effects of the free fatty acid content in yellow grease on performance, carcass characteristics, and serum lipids in broilers

This study was conducted to investigate whether the free fatty acid (FFA) content of yellow grease would influence the performance and carcass characteristics of broiler chicks. A total of 432 one-day-old, male Arbor Acres broilers were randomly allotted to 1 of 4 treatments, with each treatment being applied to 6 pens of 18 chicks. The dietary treatments were based on corn and soybean meal and were supplemented with either soybean oil (2.86% FFA) or yellow grease with a low (2.74%), medium (12.59%), or high (19.05%) FFA content. The fat sources were supplemented at 1.5% of the diet during the starter phase (0 to 21 d) and at 3.0% of the diet during the grower phase (22 to 42 d). From d 0 to 42, the BW gains of chicks fed diets containing soybean oil and yellow grease with 2.74% FFA were similar. As the FFA level in the yellow grease increased, the BW gain of chicks decreased (P < 0.01). The reduction in BW gain appeared to be mediated by a reduction in feed intake. The dressing percentage and the percentage of breast muscle in the carcass were significantly (P < 0.01) lower for broilers fed any yellow grease diet compared with birds fed soybean oil. In contrast, abdominal fat was significantly increased in diets containing yellow grease. These results demonstrate that the performance of birds fed yellow grease with a low content of FFA was essentially equal to that of birds fed soybean oil. However, because yellow grease samples containing FFA levels greater than 2.74% negatively affected bird performance, producers should exercise caution with regard to feeding broilers yellow grease with an elevated FFA content. In 42-d-old broilers, serum total cholesterol and low-density lipoprotein cholesterol levels were elevated in birds fed yellow grease, regardless of the dietary level. In contrast, serum high-density lipoprotein cholesterol and triglyceride levels were unaffected by dietary treatment. Although dietary FFA may influence triglyceride-rich lipoprotein metabolism in broilers, an explanation for the observed effects remains elusive.

Dietary strategies to improve nutritional value, oxidative stability, and sensory properties of poultry products

Consumers demand both safer and more nutritious food products exempt of non-natural origin preservatives or other food additives. In this frame, products with lower fat content and/or a higher ratio in unsaturated fatty acids, especially n-3 fatty acids, are desired because these lipids can help prevent the development of cardiovascular and inflammatory pathologies. The intake of meat products is of interest because they are an excellent source of vitamins and minerals. In addition, the shelf-life of meat products can be extended by the presence of natural antioxidants coming from different sources such as plant extracts. Therefore, different strategies have been studied to improve the nutritional value, oxidative stability, and sensory characteristics of meat products and eggs through different mineral and natural dietary supplements. In comparison to other strategies, dietary supplements present the advantage that first the living animals may efficiently distribute the compounds throughout the tissues and second, the dietary supplementation is safer because the resulting enriched meat products and eggs ensure tolerable amounts in humans. Poultry meats and eggs are widely consumed and their fatty acid profile and tocopherol content can be easily modified through different dietary strategies thus being excellent models to improve their nutritional value and oxidative stability.

Effects of diet, age and gender on the polyunsaturated fatty acid composition of broiler anatomical compartments

1. The objective of this study was to investigate the effect of dietary fatty acid (FA) composition, age, and gender on the FA composition of different broiler anatomical compartments. Four dietary fat sources (palm fat, P; soybean oil, S; linseed oil, L; fish oil, F) were added to a wheat-soybean meal based diet at 30 g/kg in addition to 50 g/kg palm fat. Diets were fed separately to female and male birds from d 1 to either d 21 or d 42 of age. 2. The total FA content (mg/100 g tissue) and the FA composition (g/100 g FAME) was determined in 7 anatomical compartments (skinless thigh muscle, skinless breast muscle, liver, heart, brain, abdominal fat pad, and remainders plus carcase trimmings named Rest compartment). The FA profiles differed greatly among compartments and were strongly affected by diet. 3. The S diet resulted in a 2-3-fold increase of the proportion of C18:2n-6 and C20:4n-6 in all compartments compared to the other diets, except for brain. 4. The response in the proportion of C18:3n-3 following feeding the L diet was much greater, with 4-20-fold increases compared to the other diets, except again for brain. 5. In all compartments except brain, the L diet resulted in approximately a 2-fold increase in the proportion of C22:6n-3 compared to the P and S diets and smaller, but also significant, increases for C20:5n-3 and C22:5n-3. 6. The proportions of C20:5n-3, C22:5n-3 and C22:6n-3 were much higher on the F diet in all compartments, except for brain, compared to the P and S diets. The F diet resulted in higher proportions of C22:6n-3 than the proportions of C20:5n-3 and C22:5n-3 in breast and thigh meat, and liver, in contrast to the other diets. 7. Brain was less responsive than other tissues to changes in the dietary FA composition. The proportion of C22:6n-3 in brain was similar on the L and F diets. 8. The effect of gender on the FA composition of different anatomical compartments was marginal. The long-chain n-3 and n-6 PUFA in breast, liver, and brain decreased with age.

Sunflower oil supplementation alters meat quality but not performance of growing partridges (Alectoris chukar)

This study was conducted to evaluate the effects of sunflower oil supplementation (0%, 3%, 6% and 9%) to partridge chicks (Alectoris chukar) on growth performance, nutrient digestibility and carcass characteristics. Feed consumption and live weight gain were responsive to dietary sunflower oil inclusion during the starter period, but not during the grower period. Increasing sunflower oil level linearly increased crude protein and fat digestibilities. Except for abdominal fat, weights of inedible parts and edible organs remained unchanged by the diets. The treatments linearly decreased weight and efficiency of carcass and weights of wings and breast and did not alter weights of thighs and neck. Breast meat saturated fatty acids decreased linearly by 17.9% and unsaturated fatty acids increased linearly by 10.6%, as sunflower oil level increased in the diets. Monounsaturated fatty acids decreased linearly by 27.3%, whereas polyunsaturated fatty acids increased linearly by 51%. Overall, n-3 (0.78% vs. 0.59%) and n-6 (42.6% vs. 29.8%) were greater in breast meat in treatment groups than in control group. In conclusion, sunflower addition into diets has minimal effects on performance of growing partridges, but significantly alters meat fatty acid composition.

Dietary polyunsaturated fat reduces skin fat as well as abdominal fat in broiler chickens

The aim of this study was to determine the effect of different dietary fatty acid profiles on the main fat depots of broiler chickens: skin including s.c. fat (SK) and abdominal fat pad (AF). One hundred forty-four female broiler chickens were fed a low-fat diet (B; 0.5% of added fat) or diets supplemented with 10% of tallow (T), sunflower oil rich in oleic acid (SOO), sunflower oil rich in linoleic acid (SOL), linseed oil rich in linolenic acid (LO), or a mix of fats (M: 55% of T + 35% of LO + 10% SOL) that contained one-third each of saturated fatty acids, monounsaturated fatty acids, and polyunsaturated fatty acids. The animals were housed in 36 cages and were randomly distributed into 6 dietary treatments with 6 replicates each. Experimental diets were evaluated for apparent total fatty acid availability and AME. On d 42, birds were slaughtered to determine the weight of AF and SK and fatty acid profile. Regarding the diets containing 10% added fat, the highest saturated diet (T) resulted in the lowest values of apparent total fatty acid availability and percentage of AME. Animals fed the most polyunsaturated diet (LO) had a lower SK deposition than those fed the saturated diet, on both an absolute (LO: 145 vs. T: 159 and M: 168 g; P < 0.001) and a relative basis (LO: 6.94 vs. T: 7.39 and M: 7.52 g/100 g of BW; P < 0.001). Furthermore, the lowest AF depot was observed in the LO diet (LO: 26.3 g vs. T: 37.6 and M: 39.9 g; P < 0.001). The added fat treatments caused significant but similar changes in fatty acid profile of both studied tissues. In conclusion, feeding broiler chickens polyunsaturated fatty acids, in comparison to dietary saturated fatty acids, reduced the amount of both AF and SK by approximately 30 and 9%, respectively.

Influence of amount and type of dietary fat on deposition, adipocyte count and iodine number of abdominal fat in broiler chickens

This study described the relation between the type and amount of dietary fat on the deposition of abdominal fat by broiler chickens. It was hypothesized that at higher fat intakes, the well-known lowering effect of polyunsaturated fatty acids on the deposition of abdominal fat would be diminished. Experimental diets were formulated to contain three levels of added fat (3%, 6% and 9%). Each level had different proportions of the saturated fatty acids (SFA) and unsaturated fatty acids (UFA) by installing the ratios of 1:1, 1:2, 1:3, 1:4 and 1:5 with the use of tallow and soybean oil. Arbor Acres chicks, aged 7 days, were fed one of the 15 experimental diets until they were aged 42 days. Feed and water were provided ad libitum. There was no systematic effect of the dietary fat type and the amount on the weight gain and the feed intake. The lowest SFA:UFA ratio of 1:5 produced the lowest feed conversion rates, irrespective of the amount of the fat in the diet. The abdominal fat deposition was similar in the birds fed on diets containing either 3% or 6% added fat, but deposition was lower than in those fed 9% fat. A decrease in the SFA:UFA ratio of the diet was associated with a dose-dependent decrease in abdominal fat, irrespective of the amount of fat in the diet. This observation leads to the rejection of the hypothesis stated above. A decrease in the dietary SFA:UFA from 1:1 to 1:4 caused a decrease in the number of the fat cells per surface unit of breast meat. It is concluded that an increased intake of soybean oil at the expense of tallow reduced the abdominal fat deposition and the number of fat cells in the breast meat of broiler chickens.

Fatty Acid Content in Chicken Thigh and Breast as Affected by Dietary Polyunsaturation Level

One hundred ninety-two female broiler chickens were randomly distributed into 16 experimental treatments as a result of the combination of 4 levels of dietary polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA) (15, 34, 45, and 61 g/kg) and 4 levels of supplementation with alphatocopheryl acetate (alpha-TA) (0, 100, 200, and 400 mg/kg), to determine the modification of the amount and type of fatty acids (FA) deposited in raw and cooked chicken tissues. At 44 d, quantified FA of thighs and breasts were not affected by dietary supplementation with alpha-TA. Total FA content of breast was less than 15% of the total FA content of thigh. However, increasing the PUFA content of the diet by 46 g, from 15 to 61 g/kg, decreased total FA of thigh 17%, but did not affect FA content in breast meat. Monounsaturated fatty acid (MUFA) and saturated fatty acid (SFA) content of thigh (y) decreased linearly as the inclusion of dietary PUFA (x) increased (MUFA: y = 89.34 - 0.92x, R2 = 0.70; SFA: y = 53.81 - 0.43x, R2 = 0.57), whereas the relationship between PUFA content of feed (x) and thighs (y) was exponential (y = 92.03 92.03e(-00155x), R2 = 0.75). A similar response was observed in breast, with less variation and more incorporation of PUFA than thigh. Cooking of thigh meat led to a reduction in total FA content that affected SFA, MUFA, and PUFA in a similar proportion.

Role of fatty acids in adipocyte growth and development1,2

Fat is typically added to diets as a source of energy. The alternative aspects considered here are the use of specific fats to alter the fatty acid profile of adipose tissue toward creation of value-added products and the potential for individual fatty acids to alter gene expression and control adipose tissue development. Emphasis is placed on the omega-3 fatty acids, such as those found in fish oil, and on CLA. The most common association of fatty acids with adipose tissue is related to their storage as triglycerides in mature adipocytes and the consequences of excess accumulation in obesity. Fatty acids and their derivatives also can have hormone-like effects and have been be shown to regulate gene expression in preadipocytes, which ultimately effects their proliferation and differentiation. Long-chain, saturated, and polyunsaturated fatty acids have been shown to regulate transcription factors, such as CCAAT/enhancer binding protein, peroxisome proliferator activated receptor, and other adipose-specific genes, very early in adipocyte development. These effects have the potential to affect fat cell number at maturity. Specifically, there is evidence that the fatty acids in fish oil, such as docosahexaenoic and eicosopentaenoic acids, and fatty acids in the CLA series, decrease preadipocyte proliferation in cell lines and reduce adiposity in rodents. There is little direct evidence of the ability of fatty acids to manipulate adipocyte development in non-rodent species. The genetic, nutritional, and pharmacological manipulation of adipose tissue in meat animals has long been of interest to animal scientists. An understanding of the ability of fatty acids to regulate factors such as adipocyte size and number, particularly in meat animals, would be of great interest. The evidence for regulatory roles of fatty acids in development from rodent and in vitro studies and their potential application to meat animals are reviewed.

Polyunsaturated fatty acids reduce insulin and very low density lipoprotein levels in broiler chickens

An experiment was conducted to study the effect of different dietary fatty acid profiles on plasma levels of insulin, very low density lipoproteins (VLDL), cholesterol, and glucose. Diets with four types of fat (tallow, olive, sunflower, and linseed oils) at an inclusion level of 10% and a basal diet without additional fat were administered to female broiler chickens. Serum insulin, cholesterol, and plasma VLDL were affected by the different treatments; however, glucose concentrations were similar among treatments. In the fasted state, broilers fed diets with sunflower or linseed oil presented lower levels of insulin and cholesterol with respect to those fed tallow or olive oil (P < 0.05). VLDL in the fasted state was reduced in broilers fed sunflower and linseed oils (P < 0.05) with respect to those fed tallow, olive oil, or the basal diet. Plasma levels of VLDL were only significantly correlated with abdominal fat in birds fed the basal diet, in the fed and in the fasted state, and in those fed linseed oil in the fed state (P < 0.05). Results of this experiment suggest that higher insulin levels in broilers fed diets rich in saturated fatty acids could be related to higher fat deposition. Fat deposition in birds fed high fat diets was not correlated with circulating VLDL, which suggested direct dietary fat deposition, except for birds fed linseed oil diets. Although birds fed linseed oil diets presented lower levels of VLDL than those fed tallow, olive oil, or the basal diet, the higher correlation with abdominal fat suggests that in these birds, fat deposition is more dependent on hepatic VLDL secretion, despite the high dietary fat level.