Circulating levels of butyrate are inversely related to portal hypertension, endotoxemia, and systemic inflammation in patients with cirrhosis

Applied physiology: gut microbiota and antimicrobial therapy

The gut microbiota plays an important role in maintaining human health and in the pathogenesis of several diseases. Antibiotics are among the most commonly prescribed drugs and have a significant impact on the structure and function of the gut microbiota. The understanding that a healthy gut microbiota prevents the development of many diseases has also led to its consideration as a potential therapeutic target. At the same time, any factor that alters the gut microbiota becomes important in this approach. Exercise and antibacterial therapy have a direct effect on the microbiota. The review reflects the current state of publications on the mechanisms of intestinal bacterial involvement in the pathogenesis of cardiovascular, metabolic, and neurodegenerative diseases. The physiological mechanisms of the influence of physical activity on the composition of the gut microbiota are considered. The mechanisms of the common interface between exercise and antibacterial therapy will be considered using the example of several socially important diseases. The aim of the study is to show the physiological relationship between the effects of exercise and antibiotics on the gut microbiota.

Quantitation of circulating short-chain fatty acids in small volume blood samples from animals and humans

BACKGROUND

The role of gut microbiota in human health has been intensively studied and more recently shifted from emphasis on composition towards function. Function is partly mediated through formed metabolites. Short-chain fatty acids (SCFAs) such as acetate, propionate, and butyrate as well as their branched analogues represent major products from gut fermentation of dietary fibre and proteins, respectively. Robust and high-throughput analysis of SCFAs in small volume blood samples have proven difficult. Major obstacles come from the ubiquitous presence of SCFAs that leads to contaminations and unstable analytical results because of the high volatility of these small molecules. Comprehensive and comparable data on the variation of SCFAs in blood samples from different blood matrices and mammal species including humans is lacking. Therefore, our aim was to develop and evaluate a stable and robust method for quantitation of 8 SCFAs and related fermentation products in small volume blood plasma samples and to investigate their variation in humans and different animal species.

RESULTS

Derivatization was a successful approach for measurement of SCFAs in biological samples but quenching of the derivatization reaction was crucial to obtain long-term stability of the derivatized analytes. In total 9 compounds (including succinic acid) were separated in 5 min. The method was linear over the range 0.6-3200 nM formic (FA), acetic (AA), 0.3-1600 nM propionic (PA), and 0.16-800 nM for butyric (BA)-, isobutyric (IBA)-, valeric (VA)-, isovaleric (IVA)-, succinic (SA) and caproic acid (CA). The precision ranged ≤12 % within days and ≤28 % between days (except for CA and VA) in three different plasma quality control (QC) samples (29 batches analyzed over 3 months). The extraction recovery was on average 94 % for the different SCFAs. Typical interquartile range (IQR) concentrations (μM) of SCFAs in human plasma samples were 168 μM (FA), 64 μM (AA), 2.2 μM (PA), 0.54 μM (BA), 0.66 μM (IBA), 0.18 μM (VA), 0.40 μM (IVA), and 0.34 μM (CA). In total, 55 samples per batch/day were successfully analyzed and in total 5380 human plasma samples measured over a 3-year timespan.

SIGNIFICANCE

The developed UHPLC-MS based method was suitable for measuring SCFAs in small blood volume samples and enabled robust quantitative data.

Alteration of Gut Microbiota Composition in the Progression of Liver Damage in Patients with Metabolic Dysfunction-Associated Steatotic Liver Disease (MASLD)

Metabolic dysfunction-associated steatotic liver disease (MASLD) is a complex disorder whose prevalence is rapidly growing in South America. The disturbances in the microbiota-gut-liver axis impact the liver damaging processes toward fibrosis. Gut microbiota status is shaped by dietary and lifestyle factors, depending on geographic location. We aimed to identify microbial signatures in a group of Chilean MASLD patients. Forty subjects were recruited, including healthy controls (HCs), overweight/obese subjects (Ow/Ob), patients with MASLD without fibrosis (MASLD/F-), and MASLD with fibrosis (MASLD/F+). Both MASLD and fibrosis were detected through elastography and/or biopsy, and fecal microbiota were analyzed through deep sequencing. Despite no differences in α- and β-diversity among all groups, a higher abundance of Bilophila and a lower presence of Defluviitaleaceae, Lachnospiraceae ND3007, and Coprobacter was found in MASLD/F- and MASLD/F+, compared to HC. Ruminococcaceae UCG-013 and Sellimonas were more abundant in MASLD/F+ than in Ow/Ob; both significantly differed between MASLD/F- and MASLD/F+, compared to HC. Significant positive correlations were observed between liver stiffness and Bifidobacterium, Prevotella, Sarcina, and Acidaminococcus abundance. Our results show that MASLD is associated with changes in bacterial taxa that are known to be involved in bile acid metabolism and SCFA production, with some of them being more specifically linked to fibrosis.

The gut-liver axis in hepatobiliary diseases

Recent advances in the analysis of intestinal bacteria have led to reports of variations in intestinal bacterial levels among hepatobiliary diseases. The mechanisms behind the changes in intestinal bacteria in various hepatobiliary diseases include the abnormal composition of intestinal bacteria, weakening of the intestinal barrier, and bacterial translocation outside the intestinal tract, along with their metabolites, but many aspects remain unresolved. Further research employing clinical studies and animal models is expected to clarify the direct relationship between intestinal bacteria and hepatobiliary diseases and to validate the utility of intestinal bacteria as a diagnostic biomarker and potential therapeutic target. This review summarizes the involvement of the microbiota in the pathogenesis of hepatobiliary diseases via the gut-liver axis.

Diagnostic and prognostic value of the gut microbiota and its metabolite butyrate in children with biliary atresia

PURPOSE

To determine the prevalent microbiological profile of biliary atresia (BA) patients at the time of its occurrence by studying their intestinal flora.

METHODS

A total of 118 gut microbiota samples from three groups of 43 BA patients, 33 disease controls (DC) with other cholestatic diseases and 42 healthy controls (HC), were analyzed by deep mining of public data. Subsequently, a total of 23 fecal samples from three groups of clinically collected patients (11 BA, 6 DC and 6 HC) were sequenced for 16S rRNA gene amplification and analyzed for serum butyrate (BU) level by liquid chromatography.

RESULTS

Taxonomic analysis revealed significant differences in the composition of the intestinal microbiota between BA patients and controls, with a reduction in diversity and a higher abundance of Proteobacteria, Streptococcus and Lactobacillus in the BA group. Database and clinical data analyses concluded that Streptococcus/Bacteroides (AUC = 0.9035, 95% CI 0.8347-0.9722, P < 0.0001) or Streptococcus/Eggerthella (AUC = 0.8333, 95% CI 0.6340-1.000, P = 0.027) was the best microbiota to differentiate between BA and DC. Serum butyrate levels were low in the BA and DC groups and differed from the HC group (P = 0.01, P = 0.04). Butyrate levels in BA were negatively correlated with jaundice clearance and cholangitis, but not statistically significant.

CONCLUSIONS

Our study reveals changes in the composition of the gut microbiota in BA, especially the butyrate-producing microbiota, and suggests the potential for using gut microbiota as a noninvasive diagnostic benefit for BA. Low levels of serum butyrate in BA may indicate a poor prognosis.

Gut microbiota alterations are associated with functional outcomes in patients of acute ischemic stroke with non-alcoholic fatty liver disease

Introduction

Patients with acute ischemic stroke (AIS) with non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD) frequently have poor prognosis. Many evidences suggested that the changes in gut microbiota may play an important role in the occurrence and development of AIS patients with NAFLD. The purpose of this study was to explore microbial characteristics in patients of AIS with NAFLD, and the correlation between gut microbiota and functional outcomes.

Methods

The patients of AIS were recruited and divided into NAFLD group and non-NAFLD group. The stool samples and clinical information were collected. 16 s rRNA sequencing was used to analyze the characteristics of gut microbiota. The patients of AIS with NAFLD were followed-up to evaluate the functional outcomes of disease. The adverse outcomes were determined by modified Rankin scale (mRS) scores at 3 months after stroke. The diagnostic performance of microbial marker in predicting adverse outcomes was assessed by recipient operating characteristic (ROC) curves.

Results

Our results showed that the composition of gut microbiota between non-NAFLD group and NAFLD group were different. The characteristic bacteria in the patients of AIS with NAFLD was that the relative abundance of Dorea, Dialister, Intestinibacter and Flavonifractor were decreased, while the relative abundance of Enorma was increased. Moreover, the characteristic microbiota was correlated with many clinical parameters, such as mRS scores, mean arterial pressure and fasting blood glucose level. In addition, ROC models based on the characteristic microbiota or the combination of characteristic microbiota with independent risk factors could distinguish functional dependence patients and functional independence patients in AIS with NAFLD (area under curve is 0.765 and 0.882 respectively).

Conclusion

These findings revealed the microbial characteristics in patients of AIS with NAFLD, and further demonstrated the predictive capability of characteristic microbiota for adverse outcomes in patients of AIS with NAFLD.

Gut microbiota in obesity and related complications: Unveiling the complex interplay

In recent years, the obesity epidemic has escalated into a serious public health catastrophe that is only getting worse. However, research into the pathophysiological pathways behind the obesity development and the illnesses that it is associated with is ongoing. In the last decades, it is now clear that the gut microbiota plays a significant role in the genesis and progression of obesity and obesity-related illnesses, particularly changes in its metabolites and composition as obesity progresses. Here, we provide a summary of the processes by which variations in gut metabolite levels and the composition of gut microbiota affect obesity and associated disorders. The bacteria residing in the gut release several chemicals that influence the appetite control, metabolism, and other systems. Since it can either encourage or restrict the deposition of fat in several different ways, the gut microbiota's role in obesity is debatable. Additionally, we go over potential therapeutic approaches that could be utilized to alter gut microbiota composition and focus on the important metabolic pathways associated with obesity and metabolic disorders linked to obesity.

Modulation of GABA by sodium butyrate ameliorates hypothalamic inflammation in experimental model of PCOS

Polycystic ovarian syndrome (PCOS) is a known endocrine disorder that has affected many women of childbearing age, and is accompanied by various neurodegenerative conditions. Hence, this study investigates the impact of butyrate in reversing hypothalamic-related disorder, possibly through γ aminobutyric acid (GABA) in a rat model of PCOS. Eight-week-old female Wistar rats were allotted into four groups (n = 5), which include control, butyrate, letrozole, and letrozole + butyrate groups. PCOS was induced by administering 1 mg/kg of letrozole (oral gavage) for 21 days. After confirmation of PCOS, 200 mg/kg of butyrate (oral gavage) was administered for 6 weeks. Rats with PCOS were characterized by elevated levels of plasma insulin and testosterone. Increases in plasma and hypothalamic triglyceride levels, inflammatory biomarker (SDF-1), apoptotic marker (caspase-6), and decreased plasma GnRH were observed. Additionally, a decrease in hypothalamic GABA was revealed. Nevertheless, the administration of butyrate attenuated these alterations. The present study suggests that butyrate ameliorates hypothalamic inflammation in an experimental model of PCOS, a beneficial effect that is accompanied by enhanced GABA production.

Pediatric intensive care unit treatment alters the diversity and composition of the gut microbiota and antimicrobial resistance gene expression in critically ill children

Introduction

Common critical illnesses are a growing economic burden on healthcare worldwide. However, therapies targeting the gut microbiota for critical illnesses have not been developed on a large scale. This study aimed to investigate the changes in the characteristics of the gut microbiota in critically ill children after short-term pediatric intensive care unit (PICU) treatments.

Methods

Anal swab samples were prospectively collected from March 2021 to March 2022 from children admitted to the PICU of Xinhua Hospital who received broad-spectrum antibiotics on days 1 (the D1 group) and 7 (the D7 group) of the PICU treatment. The structural and functional characteristics of the gut microbiota of critically ill children were explored using metagenomic next-generation sequencing (mNGS) technology, and a comparative analysis of samples from D1 and D7 was conducted.

Results

After 7 days of PICU admission, a significant decrease was noted in the richness of the gut microbiota in critically ill children, while the bacterial diversity and the community structure between groups remained stable to some extent. The relative abundance of Bacilli and Lactobacillales was significantly higher, and that of Campylobacter hominis was significantly lower in the D7 group than in the D1 group. The random forest model revealed that Prevotella coporis and Enterobacter cloacae were bacterial biomarkers between groups. LEfSe revealed that two Gene Ontology entries, GO:0071555 (cell wall organization) and GO:005508 (transmembrane transport), changed significantly after the short-term treatment in the PICU. In addition, 30 KEGG pathways were mainly related to the activity of enzymes and proteins during the processes of metabolism, DNA catabolism and repair, and substance transport. Finally, 31 antimicrobial resistance genes had significantly different levels between the D7 and D1 groups. The top 10 up-regulated genes were Erm(A), ErmX, LptD, eptB, SAT-4, tetO, adeJ, adeF, APH(3')-IIIa, and tetM.

Conclusion

The composition, gene function, and resistance genes of gut microbiota of critically ill children can change significantly after short PICU treatments. Our findings provide a substantial basis for a better understanding of the structure and function of gut microbiota and their role in critical illnesses.

Differential effects of plant-based flours on metabolic homeostasis and the gut microbiota in high-fat fed rats

BACKGROUND

The gut microbiome is a salient contributor to the development of obesity, and diet is the greatest modifier of the gut microbiome, which highlights the need to better understand how specific diets alter the gut microbiota to impact metabolic disease. Increased dietary fiber intake shifts the gut microbiome and improves energy and glucose homeostasis. Dietary fibers are found in various plant-based flours which vary in fiber composition. However, the comparative efficacy of specific plant-based flours to improve energy homeostasis and the mechanism by which this occurs is not well characterized.

METHODS

In experiment 1, obese rats were fed a high fat diet (HFD) supplemented with four different plant-based flours for 12 weeks. Barley flour (BF), oat bran (OB), wheat bran (WB), and Hi-maize amylose (HMA) were incorporated into the HFD at 5% or 10% total fiber content and were compared to a HFD control. For experiment 2, lean, chow-fed rats were switched to HFD supplemented with 10% WB or BF to determine the preventative efficacy of flour supplementation.

RESULTS

In experiment 1, 10% BF and 10% WB reduced body weight and adiposity gain and increased cecal butyrate. Gut microbiota analysis of WB and BF treated rats revealed increases in relative abundance of SCFA-producing bacteria. 10% WB and BF were also efficacious in preventing HFD-induced obesity; 10% WB and BF decreased body weight and adiposity, improved glucose tolerance, and reduced inflammatory markers and lipogenic enzyme expression in liver and adipose tissue. These effects were accompanied by alterations in the gut microbiota including increased relative abundance of Lactobacillus and LachnospiraceaeUCG001, along with increased portal taurodeoxycholic acid (TDCA) in 10% WB and BF rats compared to HFD rats.

CONCLUSIONS

Therapeutic and preventative supplementation with 10%, but not 5%, WB or BF improves metabolic homeostasis, which is possibly due to gut microbiome-induced alterations. Specifically, these effects are proposed to be due to increased concentrations of intestinal butyrate and circulating TDCA.

Gut microbiota and microbiota-derived metabolites in cardiovascular diseases

ABSTRACT

Cardiovascular diseases, including heart failure, coronary artery disease, atherosclerosis, aneurysm, thrombosis, and hypertension, are a great economic burden and threat to human health and are the major cause of death worldwide. Recently, researchers have begun to appreciate the role of microbial ecosystems within the human body in contributing to metabolic and cardiovascular disorders. Accumulating evidence has demonstrated that the gut microbiota is closely associated with the occurrence and development of cardiovascular diseases. The gut microbiota functions as an endocrine organ that secretes bioactive metabolites that participate in the maintenance of cardiovascular homeostasis, and their dysfunction can directly influence the progression of cardiovascular disease. This review summarizes the current literature demonstrating the role of the gut microbiota in the development of cardiovascular diseases. We also highlight the mechanism by which well-documented gut microbiota-derived metabolites, especially trimethylamine N-oxide, short-chain fatty acids, and phenylacetylglutamine, promote or inhibit the pathogenesis of cardiovascular diseases. We also discuss the therapeutic potential of altering the gut microbiota and microbiota-derived metabolites to improve or prevent cardiovascular diseases.

The Effects of Hepatogomax Enteral Formula on Systemic Inflammation, Caecum Short-Chain Fatty Acid Levels, and Liver Histopathology in Thioacetamide-Induced Rats

Liver damage characterized by fibrosis and necrosis can worsen the condition of liver disease. Liver disease is associated with impaired immune response and may affect short-chain fatty acid (SCFA) gut metabolites. Hepatogomax enteral formula was developed, which contains brain-chain amino acids (BCAAs) and middle-chain triglycerides (MCTs), which could repair liver tissue damage, improve the inflammatory status, and modulate SCFA in liver damage. The study aimed to determine the effect of hepatogomax on liver tissue repair, inflammation (TNF-α and IL-6), and SCFA levels in thioacetamide (TAA)-induced rats. The induction of TAA causes liver steatosis, increasing TNF-α and IL-6, and decreasing SCFA levels. Hepatogomax at a dose of 14.6 g/200 gBW significantly reduces TNF-α and IL-6 levels and increases SCFA levels (p < 0.05). The number of steatosis between groups P2 and P3 was lower as compared to a group of negative control [K2] (p < 0.05). Hepatogomax, in a dose-dependent manner, may repair liver tissue and improve inflammatory response and SCFA levels in TAA-induced rats.

Non-alcoholic fatty liver disease: pathophysiological concepts and treatment options

The prevalence of non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD) is continually increasing due to the global obesity epidemic. NAFLD comprises a systemic metabolic disease accompanied frequently by insulin resistance and hepatic and systemic inflammation. Whereas simple hepatic steatosis is the most common disease manifestation, a more progressive disease course characterized by liver fibrosis and inflammation (i.e. non-alcoholic steatohepatitis) is present in 10-20% of affected individuals. NAFLD furthermore progresses in a substantial number of patients towards liver cirrhosis and hepatocellular carcinoma. Whereas this disease now affects almost 25% of the world's population and is mainly observed in obesity and type 2 diabetes, NAFLD also affects lean individuals. Pathophysiology involves lipotoxicity, hepatic immune disturbances accompanied by hepatic insulin resistance, a gut dysbiosis, and commonly hepatic and systemic insulin resistance defining this disorder a prototypic systemic metabolic disorder. Not surprisingly many affected patients have other disease manifestations, and indeed cardiovascular disease, chronic kidney disease, and extrahepatic malignancies are all contributing substantially to patient outcome. Weight loss and lifestyle change reflect the cornerstone of treatment, and several medical treatment options are currently under investigation. The most promising treatment strategies include glucagon-like peptide 1 receptor antagonists, sodium-glucose transporter 2 inhibitors, Fibroblast Growth Factor analogues, Farnesoid X receptor agonists, and peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor agonists. Here, we review epidemiology, pathophysiology, and therapeutic options for NAFLD.

Integrative analysis of the gut microbiota and faecal and serum short-chain fatty acids and tryptophan metabolites in patients with cirrhosis and hepatic encephalopathy

OBJECTIVE

The purpose of this study was to describe the changes in the gut microbiome of patients with cirrhosis and hepatic encephalopathy (HE), as well as quantify the variations in short-chain fatty acid (SCFA) and tryptophan metabolite levels in serum and faeces.

METHODS

Fresh faeces and serum were collected from 20 healthy volunteers (NC group), 30 cirrhosis patients (Cir group), and 30 HE patients (HE group). Then, 16S rRNA sequencing and metabolite measurements were performed using the faeces. Gas chromatography‒mass spectrometry and ultrahigh-performance liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry were used to measure SCFA and tryptophan levels, respectively. The results were analysed by SIMCA16.0.2 software. Differences in species were identified using MetaStat and t tests. The correlations among the levels of gut microbes and metabolites and clinical parameters were determined using Spearman correlation analysis.

RESULTS

Patients with cirrhosis and HE had lower microbial species richness and diversity in faeces than healthy volunteers; these patients also had altered β-diversity. Serum valeric acid levels were significantly higher in the HE group than in the Cir group. Serum SCFA levels did not differ between the Cir and NC groups. Serum melatonin and 5-HTOL levels were significantly higher in the HE group than in the Cir group. The Cir and NC groups had significant differences in the levels of eight serum tryptophan metabolites. Furthermore, the levels of faecal SCFAs did not differ between the HE and Cir groups. Faecal IAA-Ala levels were significantly lower in the HE group than in the Cir group. There were significant differences in the levels of 6 faecal SCFAs and 7 faecal tryptophan metabolites between the Cir and NC groups. Certain gut microbes were associated with serum and faecal metabolites, and some metabolites were associated with certain clinical parameters.

CONCLUSION

Reduced microbial species richness and diversity were observed in patients with HE and cirrhosis. In both serum and faeces, the levels of different SCFAs and tryptophan metabolites showed varying patterns of change. In HE patients, the levels of some serum tryptophan metabolites, and not SCFAs, were correlated with liver function and systemic inflammation. Systemic inflammation in patients with cirrhosis was correlated with faecal acetic acid levels. In summary, this study identified metabolites important for HE and cirrhosis.

Gut-liver axis: barriers and functional circuits

The gut and the liver are characterized by mutual interactions between both organs, the microbiome, diet and other environmental factors. The sum of these interactions is conceptualized as the gut-liver axis. In this Review we discuss the gut-liver axis, concentrating on the barriers formed by the enterohepatic tissues to restrict gut-derived microorganisms, microbial stimuli and dietary constituents. In addition, we discuss the establishment of barriers in the gut and liver during development and their cooperative function in the adult host. We detail the interplay between microbial and dietary metabolites, the intestinal epithelium, vascular endothelium, the immune system and the various host soluble factors, and how this interplay establishes a homeostatic balance in the healthy gut and liver. Finally, we highlight how this balance is disrupted in diseases of the gut and liver, outline the existing therapeutics and describe the cutting-edge discoveries that could lead to the development of novel treatment approaches.

Prevalence of Small Intestinal Bacterial Overgrowth Syndrome in Patients with Non-Alcoholic Fatty Liver Disease/Non-Alcoholic Steatohepatitis: A Cross-Sectional Study

INTRODUCTION

Non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD) is a multifactorial, wide-spectrum liver disorder. Small intestinal bacterial overgrowth (SIBO) is characterized by an increase in the number and/or type of colonic bacteria in the upper gastrointestinal tract. SIBO, through energy salvage and induction of inflammation, may be a pathophysiological factor for NAFLD development and progression.

AIM/METHODS

Consecutive patients with histological, biochemical, or radiological diagnosis of any stage of NAFLD (non-alcoholic fatty liver [NAFL], non-alcoholic steatohepatitis [NASH], cirrhosis) underwent upper gastrointestinal endoscopy. Duodenal fluid (2cc) was aspirated from the 3rd-4th part of duodenum into sterile containers. SIBO was defined as ≥103 aerobic colony-forming units (CFU)/mL of duodenal aspirate and/or the presence of colonic-type bacteria. Patients without any liver disease undergoing gastroscopy due to gastroesophageal reflux disease (GERD) comprised the healthy control (HC) group. Concentrations (pg/mL) of tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNFα), interleukin (IL)-1β, and IL-6 were also measured in the duodenal fluid. The primary endpoint was to evaluate the prevalence of SIBO in NAFLD patients, while the comparison of SIBO prevalence among NAFLD patients and healthy controls was a secondary endpoint.

RESULTS

We enrolled 125 patients (51 NAFL, 27 NASH, 17 cirrhosis, and 30 HC) aged 54 ± 11.9 years and with a weight of 88.3 ± 19.6 kg (NAFLD vs. HC 90.7 ± 19.1 vs. 80.8 ± 19.6 kg, p = 0.02). Overall, SIBO was diagnosed in 23/125 (18.4%) patients, with Gram-negative bacteria being the predominant species (19/23; 82.6%). SIBO prevalence was higher in the NAFLD cohort compared to HC (22/95; 23.2% vs. 1/30; 3.3%, p = 0.014). Patients with NASH had higher SIBO prevalence (6/27; 22.2%) compared to NAFL individuals (8/51; 15.7%), but this difference did not reach statistical significance (p = 0.11). Patients with NASH-associated cirrhosis had a higher SIBO prevalence compared to patients with NAFL (8/17; 47.1% vs. 8/51; 15.7%, p = 0.02), while SIBO prevalence between patients with NASH-associated cirrhosis and NASH was not statistically different (8/17; 47.1% vs. 6/27; 22.2%, p = 0.11). Mean concentration of TNF-α, IL-1β, and IL-6 did not differ among the different groups.

CONCLUSION

The prevalence of SIBO is significantly higher in a cohort of patients with NAFLD compared to healthy controls. Moreover, SIBO is more prevalent in patients with NASH-associated cirrhosis compared to patients with NAFL.

Recent Advances in Understanding of Pathogenesis of Alcohol-Associated Liver Disease

Alcohol-associated liver disease (ALD) is one of the major diseases arising from chronic alcohol consumption and is one of the most common causes of liver-related morbidity and mortality. ALD includes asymptomatic liver steatosis, fibrosis, cirrhosis, and alcohol-associated hepatitis and its complications. The progression of ALD involves complex cell-cell and organ-organ interactions. We focus on the impact of alcohol on dysregulation of homeostatic mechanisms and regulation of injury and repair in the liver. In particular, we discuss recent advances in understanding the disruption of balance between programmed cell death and prosurvival pathways, such as autophagy and membrane trafficking, in the pathogenesis of ALD. We also summarize current understanding of innate immune responses, liver sinusoidal endothelial cell dysfunction and hepatic stellate cell activation, and gut-liver and adipose-liver cross talk in response to ethanol. In addition,we describe the current potential therapeutic targets and clinical trials aimed at alleviating hepatocyte injury, reducing inflammatory responses, and targeting gut microbiota, for the treatment of ALD.

Growth of late preterm infants fed nutrient-enriched formula to 120 days corrected age-A randomized controlled trial

Objectives

We aimed to compare the effects of nutrient-enriched formula with standard term formula on rate of body weight gain of late preterm infants appropriately grown for gestational age.

Study design

A multi-center, randomized, controlled trial. Late preterm infants (34-37 weeks' gestation), with weight appropriate for gestational age (AGA), were randomized to nutrient enriched formula (NEF) with increased calories (22 kcal/30 ml) from protein, added bovine milk fat globule membrane, vitamin D and butyrate or standard term formula 20 kcal/30 ml (STF). Breastfed term infants were enrolled as an observational reference group (BFR). Primary outcome was rate of body weight gain from enrollment to 120 days corrected age (d/CA). Planned sample size was 100 infants per group. Secondary outcomes included body composition, weight, head circumference and length gain, and medically confirmed adverse events to 365 d/CA.

Results

The trial was terminated early due to recruitment challenges and sample size was substantially reduced. 40 infants were randomized to NEF (n = 22) and STF (n = 18). 39 infants were enrolled in the BFR group. At 120 d/CA there was no evidence of a difference in weight gain between randomized groups (mean difference 1.77 g/day, 95% CI, -1.63 to 5.18, P = 0.31). Secondary outcomes showed a significant reduction in risk of infectious illness in the NEF group at 120 d/CA [relative risk 0.37 (95% CI, 0.16-0.85), P = 0.02].

Conclusion

We saw no difference in rate of body weight gain between AGA late preterm infants fed NEF compared to STF. Results should be interpreted with caution due to small sample size.

Clinical Trial Registration

The Australia New Zealand Clinical Trials Registry (ACTRN 12618000092291). "mailto:maria.makrides@sahmri.com" maria.makrides@sahmri.com.

Targeting nonalcoholic fatty liver disease via gut microbiome-centered therapies

Humans possess abundant amounts of microorganisms, including bacteria, fungi, viruses, and archaea, in their gut. Patients with nonalcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD) exhibit alterations in their gut microbiome and an impaired gut barrier function. Preclinical studies emphasize the significance of the gut microbiome in the pathogenesis of NAFLD. In this overview, we explore how adjusting the gut microbiome could serve as an innovative therapeutic strategy for NAFLD. We provide a summary of current information on untargeted techniques such as probiotics and fecal microbiota transplantation, as well as targeted microbiome-focused therapies including engineered bacteria, prebiotics, postbiotics, and phages for the treatment of NAFLD.

Metabolomic exploration of the effects of habituation to livestock trailer and extended transportation in goats

Goats raised for meat production are often transported long distances. Twelve-month-old male Spanish goats were used to determine the effects of habituation to trailers on plasma metabolomic profiles when transported for extended periods. In a split-plot design, 168 goats were separated into two treatment (TRT; whole plot) groups and maintained on two different paddocks. Concentrate supplement was fed to one group inside two livestock trailers (habituated group, H), while the other group received the same quantity of concentrate, but not inside the trailers (non-habituated, NH). Goats were subjected to a 10-h transportation stress in 4 replicates (n = 21 goats/replicate/TRT) after 4 weeks of habituation period. Blood samples were collected prior to loading, 20 min after loading (0 h), and at 2, 4, 6, 8, and 10 h of transportation (Time; subplot). A targeted quantitative metabolomics approach was employed to analyze the samples. The data were analyzed using R software and MIXED procedures in SAS. Several amino acids (alanine, serine, glycine, histidine, glutamate, trans-hydroxyproline, asparagine, threonine, methylhistidine, ornithine, proline, leucine, tryptophan) were higher (p < 0.05) in the H group compared to the NH group. Six long-chain acylcarnitines were higher (p < 0.05), while free (C0) and short-chain (C3, C5) carnitines were lower (p < 0.05) in the NH goats compared to the H goats. In general, amino acid concentrations decreased and long-chain acylcarnitine (>C10) levels increased with transportation time (p < 0.05). Butyric acid, α-ketoglutaric acid, and α-aminoadipic acid concentrations were lower (p < 0.05) and β-hydroxybutyric acid concentrations were higher in the NH goats compared to the H goats. Plasma glucose, non-esterified fatty acid (NEFA) and urea nitrogen concentrations were significantly influenced by Time (p < 0.01). Plasma NEFA concentrations were significantly lower (p < 0.01) in the H group than the NH group. Habituation to trailers can be beneficial in enhancing stress coping abilities in goats due to higher concentrations of metabolites such as butyrate and certain amino acids that support antioxidant activities and immune function. Plasma long-chain acylcarnitines may be good indicators of stress during long-distance transportation in goats.

Host-microbiome interactions: Gut-Liver axis and its connection with other organs

An understanding of connections between gut microbiome and liver has provided important insights into the pathophysiology of liver diseases. Since gut microbial dysbiosis increases gut permeability, the metabolites biosynthesized by them can reach the liver through portal circulation and affect hepatic immunity and inflammation. The immune cells activated by these metabolites can also reach liver through lymphatic circulation. Liver influences immunity and metabolism in multiple organs in the body, including gut. It releases bile acids and other metabolites into biliary tract from where they enter the systemic circulation. In this review, the bidirectional communication between the gut and the liver and the molecular cross talk between the host and the microbiome has been discussed. This review also provides details into the intricate level of communication and the role of microbiome in Gut-Liver-Brain, Gut-Liver-Kidney, Gut-Liver-Lung, and Gut-Liver-Heart axes. These observations indicate a complex network of interactions between host organs influenced by gut microbiome.

Role of gut microbe-derived metabolites in cardiometabolic diseases: Systems based approach

BACKGROUND

The gut microbiome influences host physiology and cardiometabolic diseases by interacting directly with intestinal cells or by producing molecules that enter the host circulation. Given the large number of microbial species present in the gut and the numerous factors that influence gut bacterial composition, it has been challenging to understand the underlying biological mechanisms that modulate risk of cardiometabolic disease.

SCOPE OF THE REVIEW

Here we discuss a systems-based approach that involves simultaneously examining individuals in populations for gut microbiome composition, molecular traits using "omics" technologies, such as circulating metabolites quantified by mass spectrometry, and clinical traits. We summarize findings from landmark studies using this approach and discuss future applications.

MAJOR CONCLUSIONS

Population-based integrative approaches have identified a large number of microbe-derived or microbe-modified metabolites that are associated with cardiometabolic traits. The knowledge gained from these studies provide new opportunities for understanding the mechanisms involved in gut microbiome-host interactions and may have potentially important implications for developing novel therapeutic approaches.

Bibliometric-analysis visualization and review of non-invasive methods for monitoring and managing the portal hypertension

Background

Portal hypertension monitoring is important throughout the natural course of cirrhosis. Hepatic venous pressure gradient (HVPG), regarded as the golden standard, is limited by invasiveness and technical difficulties. Portal hypertension is increasingly being assessed non-invasively, and hematological indices, imaging data, and statistical or computational models are studied to surrogate HVPG. This paper discusses the existing non-invasive methods based on measurement principles and reviews the methodological developments in the last 20 years.

Methods

First, we used VOSviewer to learn the architecture of this field. The publications about the non-invasive assessment of portal hypertension were retrieved from the Web of Science Core Collection (WoSCC). VOSviewer 1.6.17.0 was used to analyze and visualize these publications, including the annual trend, the study hotspots, the significant articles, authors, journals, and organizations in this field. Next, according to the cluster analysis result of the keywords, we further retrieved and classified the related studies to discuss.

Results

A total of 1,088 articles or review articles about our topic were retrieved from WoSCC. From 2000 to 2022, the number of publications is generally growing. “World Journal of Gastroenterology” published the most articles (n = 43), while “Journal of Hepatology” had the highest citations. “Liver fibrosis” published in 2005 was the most influential manuscript. Among the 20,558 cited references of 1,088 retrieved manuscripts, the most cited was a study on liver stiffness measurement from 2007. The highest-yielding country was the United States, followed by China and Italy. “Berzigotti, Annalisa” was the most prolific author and had the most cooperation partners. Four study directions emerged from the keyword clustering: (1) the evaluation based on fibrosis; (2) the evaluation based on hemodynamic factors; (3) the evaluation through elastography; and (4) the evaluation of variceal bleeding.

Conclusion

The non-invasive assessment of portal hypertension is mainly based on two principles: fibrosis and hemodynamics. Liver fibrosis is the major initiator of cirrhotic PH, while hemodynamic factors reflect secondary alteration of splanchnic blood flow. Blood tests, US (including DUS and CEUS), CT, and magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) support the non-invasive assessment of PH by providing both hemodynamic and fibrotic information. Elastography, mainly USE, is the most important method of PH monitoring.

Metabolomics profiles in acute-on-chronic liver failure: Unveiling pathogenesis and predicting progression

Acute-on-chronic liver failure (ACLF) usually develops based on acute decompensation (AD) of cirrhosis and is characterized by intense systemic inflammation, multiple organ failure, and high short-term mortality. Validated biomarkers for the diagnosis and prognosis of ACLF remain to be clarified. Metabolomics is an emerging method used to measure low-molecular-weight metabolites and is currently frequently implemented to understand pathophysiological processes involved in disease progression, as well as to search for new diagnostic or prognostic biomarkers of various disorders. The characterization of metabolites in ACLF has recently been described via metabolomics. The role of metabolites in the pathogenesis of ACLF deserves further investigation and improvement and could be the basis for the development of new diagnostic and therapeutic strategies. In this review, we focused on the contributions of metabolomics on uncovering metabolic profiles in patients with ACLF, the key metabolic pathways that are involved in the progression of ACLF, and the potential metabolite-associated therapeutic targets for ACLF.

The central and biodynamic role of gut microbiota in critically ill patients

Gut microbiota plays an essential role in health and disease. It is constantly evolving and in permanent communication with its host. The gut microbiota is increasingly seen as an organ, and its failure, reflected by dysbiosis, is seen as an organ failure associated with poor outcomes. Critically ill patients may have an altered gut microbiota, namely dysbiosis, with a severe reduction in “health-promoting” commensal intestinal bacteria (such as Firmicutes or Bacteroidetes) and an increase in potentially pathogenic bacteria (e.g. Proteobacteria). Many factors that occur in critically ill patients favour dysbiosis, such as medications or changes in nutrition patterns. Dysbiosis leads to several important effects, including changes in gut integrity and in the production of metabolites such as short-chain fatty acids and trimethylamine N-oxide. There is increasing evidence that gut microbiota and its alteration interact with other organs, highlighting the concept of the gut–organ axis. Thus, dysbiosis will affect other organs and could have an impact on the progression of critical diseases. Current knowledge is only a small part of what remains to be discovered. The precise role and contribution of the gut microbiota and its interactions with various organs is an intense and challenging research area that offers exciting opportunities for disease prevention, management and therapy, particularly in critical care where multi-organ failure is often the focus. This narrative review provides an overview of the normal composition of the gut microbiota, its functions, the mechanisms leading to dysbiosis, its consequences in an intensive care setting, and highlights the concept of the gut–organ axis.

A potential link between plasma short‑chain fatty acids, TNF‑α level and disease progression in non‑alcoholic fatty liver disease: A retrospective study

The onset and progression of non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD) remains unclear, but short-chain fatty acids (SCFAs) in circulation may participate in its pathogenesis by acting as inflammation inhibitors. The aim of this retrospective study was to investigate plasma concentrations of general SCFAs in healthy individuals and in patients with distinct stages of NAFLD. Three main SCFAs (including acetate, propionate and butyrate) were analyzed by gas chromatography. The plasma TNF-α concentration was measured by ELISA. One-way ANOVA, Spearman's correlation and Pearson's correlation analysis were performed to estimate the associations between SCFAs, TNF-α and disease progression. Multiple linear stepwise regression was computed to explore the predictor variables of TNF-α in circulation. A total of 71 patients with NAFLD [including 27 patients with NAFL, 20 patients with non-alcoholic steatohepatitis (NASH) and 24 patients with NAFLD-related cirrhosis (NAFLD-cirrhosis)] and 9 healthy control (HC) subjects were enrolled for analysis. Although not statistically significant, plasma SCFAs were elevated in patients with NAFL compared with HC subjects, whereas the vast majority of SCFAs were statistically reduced in patients with NASH or NAFLD-cirrhosis compared with patients with NAFL. Plasma SCFAs had no significant differences in NASH or NAFLD-cirrhosis patients compared with HC subjects. In addition, significant negative correlations were observed between TNF-α and SCFAs. The progression of NAFLD (β=0.849; P<0.001) and the decline of the total three SCFA concentrations (β=-0.189; P<0.001) were recognized as independent risk variables related to the elevated peripheral TNF-α in the multiple linear stepwise regression model. Plasma SCFA concentrations may alter with the development of NAFLD and may have a potential link to TNF-α and the progression of NAFLD, which may serve a protective role toward disease advancement. Further mechanistic studies, such as analysis of gastrointestinal microecology, signaling pathways and functions involved in TNF-α, need to be performed. Also, therapeutic supplementation of SCFAs for NASH and NAFLD-cirrhosis needs further research and verification.

Microbial short-chain fatty acids: a strategy to tune adoptive T cell therapy

The gut microbiota and its metabolites have been shown to play a pivotal role in the regulation of metabolic, endocrine and immune functions. Though the exact mechanism of action remains to be fully elucidated, available knowledge supports the ability of microbiota-fermented short-chain fatty acids (SCFAs), such as acetate, propionate, and butyrate, to influence epigenetic and metabolic cascades controlling gene expression, chemotaxis, differentiation, proliferation, and apoptosis in several non-immune and immune cell subsets. While used as preferred metabolic substrates and sources of energy by colonic gut epithelial cells, most recent evidence indicates that these metabolites regulate immune functions, and in particular fine-tune T cell effector, regulatory and memory phenotypes, with direct in vivo consequences on the efficacy of chemotherapy, radiotherapy and immunotherapy. Most recent data also support the use of these metabolites over the course of T cell manufacturing, paving the way for refined adoptive T cell therapy engineering. Here, we review the most recent advances in the field, highlighting in vitro and in vivo evidence for the ability of SCFAs to shape T cell phenotypes and functions.

Prediction of the Mechanism of Sodium Butyrate against Radiation-Induced Lung Injury in Non-Small Cell Lung Cancer Based on Network Pharmacology and Molecular Dynamic Simulations and Molecular Dynamic Simulations

Background

Radiation-induced lung injury (RILI) is a severe side effect of radiotherapy for non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC) ,and one of the major hindrances to improve the efficacy of radiotherapy. Previous studies have confirmed that sodium butyrate (NaB) has potential of anti-radiation toxicity. However, the mechanism of the protective effect of NaB against RILI has not yet been clarified. This study aimed to explore the underlying protective mechanisms of NaB against RILI in NSCLC through network pharmacology, molecular docking, molecular dynamic simulations and in vivo experiments.

Methods

The predictive target genes of NaB were obtained from the PharmMapper database and the literature review. The involved genes of RILI and NSCLC were predicted using OMIM and GeneCards database. The intersectional genes of drug and disease were identified using the Venny tool and uploaded to the Cytoscape software to identify 5 core target genes of NaB associated with RILI. The correlations between the 5 core target genes and EGFR, PD-L1, immune infiltrates, chemokines and chemokine receptors were analyzed using TIMER 2.0, TIMER and TISIDB databases. We constructed the mechanism maps of the 3 key signaling pathways using the KEGG database based on the results of GO and KEGG analyses from Metascape database. The 5 core target genes and drug were docked using the AutoDock Vina tool and visualized using PyMOL software. GROMACS software was used to perform 100 ns molecular dynamics simulation. Irradiation-induced lung injury model in mice were established to assess the therapeutic effects of NaB.

Results

A total of 51 intersectional genes involved in NaB against RILI in NSCLC were identified. The 5 core target genes were AKT1, TP53, NOTCH1, SIRT1, and PTEN. The expressions of the 5 core target genes were significantly associated with EGFR, PD-L1, immune infiltrates, chemokines and chemokine receptors, respectively. The results from GO analysis of the 51 intersectional genes revealed that the biological processes were focused on the regulation of smooth muscle cell proliferation, oxidative stress and cell death, while the three key KEGG pathways were enriched in PI3K-Akt signal pathway, p53 signal pathway, and FOXO signal pathway. The docking of NaB with the 5 core target genes showed affinity and stability, especially AKT1. In vivo experiments showed that NaB treatment significantly protected mice from RILI, with reduced lung histological damage. In addition, NaB treatment significantly inhibited the PI3K/Akt signaling pathway.

Conclusions

NaB may protect patients from RILI in NSCLC through multiple target genes including AKT1, TP53, NOTCH1, SIRT1 and PTEN, with multiple signaling pathways involving, including PI3K-Akt pathway, p53 pathway, and FOXO pathways. Our findings effectively provide a feasible theoretical basis to further elucidate the mechanism of NaB in the treatment of RILI.

Sodium butyrate reverses lipopolysaccharide-induced mitochondrial dysfunction in lymphoblasts

Butyrate is a short-chain fatty acid that is produced by commensal microbes within the intestinal microbiome through fermentation of dietary fibre. Microbial-derived butyrate has been shown to promote immunologic and metabolic homeostasis, in part through its beneficial effects on mitochondrial function, and thus has been proposed as a possible anti-inflammatory therapy. We tested the hypothesis that butyrate could mitigate the decrease in mitochondrial respiration in immune cells under septic conditions as a preliminary step towards better understanding the potential for butyrate as a novel therapy in sepsis. Mitochondrial respiration and content (measured as citrate synthase activity) were compared within four Epstein-Barr virus-transformed lymphoblast (LB) cell lines exposed to either control media or lipopolysaccharide (LPS) 100 ng/ml. Both co-incubation of LBs with LPS + butyrate and treatment with butyrate after LPS stimulation reversed the decrease in mitochondrial respiration observed in LBs exposed to LPS without butyrate. Neither LPS nor butyrate led to significant changes in citrate synthase activity. The preliminary findings support further investigation of a potential mitochondrial-based mechanism through which butyrate may help to mitigate the immuno-inflammatory response in sepsis.

Promises of microbiome-based therapies

Humans harbour large quantities of microbes, including bacteria, fungi, viruses and archaea, in the gut. Patients with liver disease exhibit changes in the intestinal microbiota and gut barrier dysfunction. Preclinical models demonstrate the importance of the gut microbiota in the pathogenesis of various liver diseases. In this review, we discuss how manipulation of the gut microbiota can be used as a novel treatment approach for liver disease. We summarise current data on untargeted approaches, including probiotics and faecal microbiota transplantation, and precision microbiome-centered therapies, including engineered bacteria, postbiotics and phages, for the treatment of liver diseases.

The Apparent Asymmetrical Relationship Between Small Bowel Bacterial Overgrowth, Endotoxemia, and Liver Steatosis and Fibrosis in Cirrhotic and Non-Cirrhotic Patients: A Single-Center Pilot Study

Introduction

Gut microbiota are a complex ecosystem harboring our intestine. They maintain human body equilibrium, while their derangement, namely, “dysbiosis“, has been associated with several gastrointestinal diseases, such as liver steatosis (NAFLD) and liver cirrhosis. Small intestinal bacterial overgrowth (SIBO) is an example of dysbiosis of the upper gastrointestinal (GI) tract.

Aim

The aim of this study is to evaluate the relationship between SIBO and levels of endotoxemia and grade of liver steatosis (LS) and liver fibrosis (LF) in hepatologic patients.

Materials and Methods

Consecutive outpatients referred to our hepatology clinic were tested for SIBO by the lactulose breath test (LBT) and peripheral blood levels of endotoxemia; LS grading and LF were assessed by abdominal ultrasound and transient elastography, respectively.

Results

Fifty-two consecutive patients (17 with alcohol abuse (4.5 ± 0.8 alcohol units per day), 4 with HCV and 2 with HBV infection, 24 of metabolic origin, 2 of autoimmune origin, and 3 with cholangiopathies; mean age 54.7 ± 8.3 years, 31 F, BMI 24.1 ± 1.1 Kg/m²) and 14 healthy volunteers (HV) (mean age 50.1 ± 4.3 years, 9 F, BMI 23.3 ± 1.1 Kg/m²) were enrolled. SIBO prevalence was significantly higher in cirrhotic (LC) vs. non-cirrhotic (LNC) patients and vs. HV (all, p < 0.05), with a significant positive trend according to Child-Pugh status (all, p < 0.05). SIBO prevalence was not correlated with LS stages (all, p = NS). Consensually, endotoxin levels were significantly higher in LC vs. LNC and vs. HV (all, p < 0.05) and significantly correlated with LF in patients with LC, according to Child-Pugh status (all, p < 0.05).

Conclusion

This study shows that SIBO prevalence and relative endotoxin blood levels seem to be significantly associated with the grade of LF vs. LS in LC. SIBO is also present under pre-cirrhotic conditions, but its prevalence seems to correlate with liver disease irreversible derangement.

Butyrate Ameliorates Mitochondrial Respiratory Capacity of The Motor-Neuron-like Cell Line NSC34-G93A, a Cellular Model for ALS

Mitochondrial defects in motor neurons are pathological hallmarks of ALS, a neuromuscular disease with no effective treatment. Studies have shown that butyrate, a natural gut-bacteria product, alleviates the disease progression of ALS mice overexpressing a human ALS-associated mutation, hSOD1^G93A. In the current study, we examined the potential molecular mechanisms underlying the effect of butyrate on mitochondrial function in cultured motor-neuron-like NSC34 with overexpression of hSOD1^G93A (NSC34-G93A). The live cell confocal imaging study demonstrated that 1mM butyrate in the culture medium improved the mitochondrial network with reduced fragmentation in NSC34-G93A cells. Seahorse analysis revealed that NSC34-G93A cells treated with butyrate showed an increase of ~5-fold in mitochondrial Spare Respiratory Capacity with elevated Maximal Respiration. The time-dependent changes in the mRNA level of PGC1α, a master regulator of mitochondrial biogenesis, revealed a burst induction with an early increase (~5-fold) at 4 h, a peak at 24 h (~19-fold), and maintenance at 48 h (8-fold) post-treatment. In line with the transcriptional induction of PGC1α, both the mRNA and protein levels of the key molecules (MTCO1, MTCO2, and COX4) related to the mitochondrial electron transport chain were increased following the butyrate treatment. Our data indicate that activation of the PGC1α signaling axis could be one of the molecular mechanisms underlying the beneficial effects of butyrate treatment in improving mitochondrial bioenergetics in NSC34-G93A cells.

Metabolite-based dietary supplementation in human type 1 diabetes is associated with microbiota and immune modulation

BACKGROUND

Short-chain fatty acids (SCFAs) produced by the gut microbiota have beneficial anti-inflammatory and gut homeostasis effects and prevent type 1 diabetes (T1D) in mice. Reduced SCFA production indicates a loss of beneficial bacteria, commonly associated with chronic autoimmune and inflammatory diseases, including T1D and type 2 diabetes. Here, we addressed whether a metabolite-based dietary supplement has an impact on humans with T1D. We conducted a single-arm pilot-and-feasibility trial with high-amylose maize-resistant starch modified with acetate and butyrate (HAMSAB) to assess safety, while monitoring changes in the gut microbiota in alignment with modulation of the immune system status.

RESULTS

HAMSAB supplement was administered for 6 weeks with follow-up at 12 weeks in adults with long-standing T1D. Increased concentrations of SCFA acetate, propionate, and butyrate in stools and plasma were in concert with a shift in the composition and function of the gut microbiota. While glucose control and insulin requirements did not change, subjects with the highest SCFA concentrations exhibited the best glycemic control. Bifidobacterium longum, Bifidobacterium adolescentis, and vitamin B7 production correlated with lower HbA1c and basal insulin requirements. Circulating B and T cells developed a more regulatory phenotype post-intervention.

CONCLUSION

Changes in gut microbiota composition, function, and immune profile following 6 weeks of HAMSAB supplementation were associated with increased SCFAs in stools and plasma. The persistence of these effects suggests that targeting dietary SCFAs may be a mechanism to alter immune profiles, promote immune tolerance, and improve glycemic control for the treatment of T1D.

TRIAL REGISTRATION

ACTRN12618001391268. Registered 20 August 2018, https://www.anzctr.org.au/Trial/Registration/TrialReview.aspx?id=375792 Video Abstract.

Understanding the Role of the Gut Microbiome and Microbial Metabolites in Non-Alcoholic Fatty Liver Disease: Current Evidence and Perspectives

Non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD) is the most common chronic liver disease worldwide. NAFLD begins as a relatively benign hepatic steatosis which can evolve to non-alcoholic steatohepatitis (NASH); the risk of cirrhosis and hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) increases when fibrosis is present. NAFLD represents a complex process implicating numerous factors—genetic, metabolic, and dietary—intertwined in a multi-hit etiopathogenetic model. Recent data have highlighted the role of gut dysbiosis, which may render the bowel more permeable, leading to increased free fatty acid absorption, bacterial migration, and a parallel release of toxic bacterial products, lipopolysaccharide (LPS), and proinflammatory cytokines that initiate and sustain inflammation. Although gut dysbiosis is present in each disease stage, there is currently no single microbial signature to distinguish or predict which patients will evolve from NAFLD to NASH and HCC. Using 16S rRNA sequencing, the majority of patients with NAFLD/NASH exhibit increased numbers of Bacteroidetes and differences in the presence of Firmicutes, resulting in a decreased F/B ratio in most studies. They also present an increased proportion of species belonging to Clostridium, Anaerobacter, Streptococcus, Escherichia, and Lactobacillus, whereas Oscillibacter, Flavonifaractor, Odoribacter, and Alistipes spp. are less prominent. In comparison to healthy controls, patients with NASH show a higher abundance of Proteobacteria, Enterobacteriaceae, and Escherichia spp., while Faecalibacterium prausnitzii and Akkermansia muciniphila are diminished. Children with NAFLD/NASH have a decreased proportion of Oscillospira spp. accompanied by an elevated proportion of Dorea, Blautia, Prevotella copri, and Ruminococcus spp. Gut microbiota composition may vary between population groups and different stages of NAFLD, making any conclusive or causative claims about gut microbiota profiles in NAFLD patients challenging. Moreover, various metabolites may be involved in the pathogenesis of NAFLD, such as short-chain fatty acids, lipopolysaccharide, bile acids, choline and trimethylamine-N-oxide, and ammonia. In this review, we summarize the role of the gut microbiome and metabolites in NAFLD pathogenesis, and we discuss potential preventive and therapeutic interventions related to the gut microbiome, such as the administration of probiotics, prebiotics, synbiotics, antibiotics, and bacteriophages, as well as the contribution of bariatric surgery and fecal microbiota transplantation in the therapeutic armamentarium against NAFLD. Larger and longer-term prospective studies, including well-defined cohorts as well as a multi-omics approach, are required to better identify the associations between the gut microbiome, microbial metabolites, and NAFLD occurrence and progression.

Deletion of intestinal SIRT1 exacerbated muscle wasting in cirrhotic mice by decreasing the intestinal concentration of short-chain fatty acids and inflammation

Systemic sirtuin 1 (SIRT1) activation alleviates muscle wasting and improves muscle function by downregulation of myotropic and proteolytic markers. In this study, we evaluated the effects of the intestinal Sirt1 deletion on the dysregulated gutmuscle axis in cirrhotic mice. Cirrhosis-related muscle wasting was induced by common bile duct ligated (BDL) in either wild-type (WT) or intestine-specific Sirt1-deleted (Sirt1IEC-KO) mice, including WT-BDL, WT-sham, Sirt1IEC-KO-BDL and Sirt1IEC-KO-sham mice. Compared with WT-BDL mice, Sirt1IEC-KO-BDL mice showed worsened low lean mass, exacerbated muscle wasting, increased expression of myotropic markers, increased muscular protein degradation, and decreased expression of myogenic markers through aggravation of intestinal inflammation (as evidenced by increased fecal calprotectin/lipocalin-2 levels, increased intestinal macrophage infiltration, and increased intestinal TNFα/IL-6 levels), decrease in abundance of short-chain fatty acid (SCFA)-producing bacteria, decrease in levels of intestinal SCFAs (with anti-inflammatory effects), and downregulation of SCFA receptor GPR43. In biliary cirrhotic mice, a decrease in the abundance of SCFA-producing bacteria and an increase in the levels of intestinal/muscular inflammatory markers are involved in the pathogenesis of dysregulated gut-muscle axis-related muscle wasting, and intestinal deletion of Sirt1 exacerbated these changes.

The Effects of Butyrate on Induced Metabolic-Associated Fatty Liver Disease in Precision-Cut Liver Slices

Metabolic-associated fatty liver disease (MAFLD) starts with hepatic triglyceride accumulation (steatosis) and can progress to more severe stages such as non-alcoholic steatohepatitis (NASH) and even cirrhosis. Butyrate, and butyrate-producing bacteria, have been suggested to reduce liver steatosis directly and systemically by increasing liver β-oxidation. This study aimed to examine the influence of butyrate directly on the liver in an ex vivo induced MAFLD model. To maintain essential intercellular interactions, precision-cut liver slices (PCLSs) were used. These PCLSs were prepared from male C57BL/6J mice and cultured in varying concentrations of fructose, insulin, palmitic acid and oleic acid, to mimic metabolic syndrome. Dose-dependent triglyceride accumulation was measured after 24 and 48 h of incubation with the different medium compositions. PCLSs viability, as indicated by ATP content, was not affected by medium composition or the butyrate concentration used. Under induced steatotic conditions, butyrate did not prevent triglyceride accumulation. Moreover, it lowered the expression of genes encoding for fatty acid oxidation and only increased C4 related carnitines, which indicate butyrate oxidation. Nevertheless, butyrate lowered the fibrotic response of PCLSs, as shown by reduced gene expression of fibronectin, alpha-smooth muscle actin and osteopontin, and protein levels of type I collagen. These results suggest that in the liver, butyrate alone does not increase lipid β-oxidation directly but might aid in the prevention of MAFLD progression to NASH and cirrhosis.

Gut-liver axis in cirrhosis: Are hemodynamic changes a missing link?

Recent evidence suggests that the condition of the gut and its microbiota greatly influence the course of liver disease, especially cirrhosis. This introduces the concept of the gut–liver axis, which can be imagined as a chain connected by several links. Gut dysbiosis, small intestinal bacterial overgrowth, and intestinal barrier alteration lead to bacterial translocation, resulting in systemic inflammation. Systemic inflammation further causes vasodilation, arterial hypotension, and hyperdynamic circulation, leading to the aggravation of portal hypertension, which contributes to the development of complications of cirrhosis, resulting in a poorer prognosis. The majority of the data underlying this model were obtained initially from animal experiments, and most of these correlations were further reproduced in studies including patients with cirrhosis. However, despite the published data on the relationship of the disorders of the gut microbiota with the complications of cirrhosis and the proposed pathogenetic role of hemodynamic disorders in their development, the direct relations between gut dysbiosis and hemodynamic changes in this disease are poorly studied. They remain a missing link in the gut–liver axis and a challenge for future research.

Significance of gut microbiota in alcoholic and non-alcoholic fatty liver diseases

Liver-gut communication is vital in fatty liver diseases, and gut microbes are the key regulators in maintaining liver homeostasis. Chronic alcohol abuse and persistent overnutrition create dysbiosis in gut ecology, which can contribute to fatty liver disease. In this review, we discuss the gut microbial compositional changes that occur in alcoholic and nonalcoholic fatty liver diseases and how this gut microbial dysbiosis and its metabolic products are involved in fatty liver disease pathophysiology. We also summarize the new approaches related to gut microbes that might help in the diagnosis and treatment of fatty liver disease.

Targeting Gut–Liver Axis for Treatment of Liver Fibrosis and Portal Hypertension

Antifibrotic therapies for the treatment of liver fibrosis represent an unconquered area of drug development. The significant involvement of the gut microbiota as a driving force in a multitude of liver disease, be it pathogenesis or fibrotic progression, suggest that targeting the gut–liver axis, relevant signaling pathways, and/or manipulation of the gut’s commensal microbial composition and its metabolites may offer opportunities for biomarker discovery, novel therapies and personalized medicine development. Here, we review potential links between bacterial translocation and deficits of host-microbiome compartmentalization and liver fibrosis that occur in settings of advanced chronic liver disease. We discuss established and emerging therapeutic strategies, translated from our current knowledge of the gut–liver axis, targeted at restoring intestinal eubiosis, ameliorating hepatic fibrosis and rising portal hypertension that characterize and define the course of decompensated cirrhosis.

Potential Benefits of Probiotics and Prebiotics for Coronary Heart Disease and Stroke

Among cardiovascular diseases (CVDs), a major cause of morbidity and mortality worldwide, coronary heart disease and stroke are the most well-known and extensively studied. The onset and progression of CVD is associated with multiple risk factors, among which, gut microbiota has received much attention in the past two decades. Gut microbiota, the microbial community colonizing in the gut, plays a prominent role in human health. In particular, gut dysbiosis is directly related to many acute or chronic dysfunctions of the cardiovascular system (CVS) in the host. Earlier studies have demonstrated that the pathogenesis of CVD is strongly linked to intestinal microbiota imbalance and inflammatory responses. Probiotics and prebiotics conferring various health benefits on the host are emerging as promising therapeutic interventions for many diseases. These two types of food supplements have the potential to alleviate the risks of CVD through improving the levels of several cardiovascular markers, such as total and low-density lipoprotein (LDL) cholesterol, high sensitivity C-reactive protein (hs-CRP), and certain cytokines involved in the inflammatory response. In this review, we focus mainly on the preventive effects of probiotics and prebiotics on CVD via rebalancing the structural and functional changes in gut microbiota and maintaining immune homeostasis.

Centrally administered butyrate improves gut barrier function, visceral sensation and septic lethality in rats

Short chain fatty acids readily crosses the gut-blood and blood-brain barrier and acts centrally to influence neuronal signaling. We hypothesized that butyrate, a short-chain fatty acid produced by bacterial fermentation, in the central nervous system may play a role in the regulation of intestinal functions. Colonic permeability and visceral sensation was evaluated in rats. Septic lethality was evaluated in a sepsis model induced by subcutaneous administration of both lipopolysaccharide and colchicine. Intracisternal butyrate dose-dependently improved colonic hyperpermeability and visceral nociception. In contrast, subcutaneous injection of butyrate failed to change it. Intracisternal orexin 1 receptor antagonist or surgical vagotomy blocked the central butyrate-induced improvement of colonic hyperpermeability. The improvement of intestinal hyperpermeability by central butyrate or intracisternal orexin-A was blocked by cannabinoid 1 or 2 receptor antagonist. Intracisternal butyrate significantly improved survival period in septic rats. These results suggest that butyrate acts in the central nervous system to improve gut permeability and visceral nociception through cannabinoid signaling. Endogenous orexin in the brain may mediate the reduction of intestinal hyperpermeability by central butyrate through the vagus nerve. We would suggest that improvement of leaky gut by central butyrate may induce visceral antinociception and protection from septic lethality.

The Athlete and Gut Microbiome: Short-chain Fatty Acids as Potential Ergogenic Aids for Exercise and Training

Short-chain fatty acids (SCFAs) are metabolites produced in the gut via microbial fermentation of dietary fibers referred to as microbiota-accessible carbohydrates (MACs). Acetate, propionate, and butyrate have been observed to regulate host dietary nutrient metabolism, energy balance, and local and systemic immune functions. In vitro and in vivo experiments have shown links between the presence of bacteria-derived SCFAs and host health through the blunting of inflammatory processes, as well as purported protection from the development of illness associated with respiratory infections. This bank of evidence suggests that SCFAs could be beneficial to enhance the athlete's immunity, as well as act to improve exercise recovery via anti-inflammatory activity and to provide additional energy substrates for exercise performance. However, the mechanistic basis and applied evidence for these relationships in humans have yet to be fully established. In this narrative review, we explore the existing knowledge of SCFA synthesis and the functional importance of the gut microbiome composition to induce SCFA production. Further, changes in gut microbiota associated with exercise and various dietary MACs are described. Finally, we provide suggestions for future research and practical applications, including how these metabolites could be manipulated through dietary fiber intake to optimize immunity and energy metabolism.

The association between serum microbial DNA composition and symptoms of depression and anxiety in mood disorders

There is increasing evidence supporting the association between gut microbiome composition and mood disorders; however, studies on the circulating microbiome are scarce. This study aimed to analyze the association of the serum microbial DNA composition with depressive and anxiety symptoms in patients with mood disorders. The sera of 69 patients with mood disorders, aged from 19 to 60, were analyzed. Bacterial DNA was isolated from extracellular membrane vesicles and, subsequently, amplified and quantified with specific primers for the V3-V4 hypervariable region of the 16S rDNA gene. Sequence reads were clustered into Operational Taxonomic Units and classified using the SILVA database. There were no significant associations between alpha diversity measures and the total Hamilton depression rating scale (HAM-D) or Beck anxiety inventory (BAI) scores. Only the weighted UniFrac distance was associated with the total HAM-D score (F = 1.57, p = 0.045). The Bacteroidaceae family and Bacteroides genus were negatively associated with the total HAM-D score (β =  - 0.016, p < 0.001, q = 0.08 and β =  - 0.016, p < 0.001, q = 0.15, respectively). The Desulfovibrionaceae family and Clostridiales Family XIII were positively associated with the total BAI score (β = 1.8 × 10-3, p < 0.001, q = 0.04 and β = 1.3 × 10-3, p < 0.001, q = 0.24, respectively). Further studies with larger sample sizes and longitudinal designs are warranted.

Plasma metabolomic profiles as affected by diet and stress in Spanish goats

The effects of high-condensed tannin (CT) diet combined with preslaughter stress have not been studied at the metabolome level in goats. This study was conducted to determine the effects of feeding sericea lespedeza (SL; Lespedeza cuneata), a high-CT legume, and transportation stress on plasma metabolome in goats. Uncastrated male Spanish goats (age = 8 months; BW = 26.0 ± 0.48 kg) were either fed ground 'Serala' SL hay (SER), bermudagrass (Cynodon dactylon) hay (BG), or bermudagrass hay-dewormed goats (BG-DW; Control) at 75% of intake, with a corn-based supplementation (25%) for 8 weeks (n = 12/Diet). At the end of the trial, goats were subjected to one of two stress treatments (ST): transported for 90 min to impose stress (TS) or held in pens (NTS) before slaughtering, in two replicates. Live and carcass weights, and blood samples were collected at 0, 30, 60 and 90 min of transportation or holding time (Time). The data were analyzed using MIXED procedures in SAS and metabolomics data were analyzed using the R software. When measured after ST, SER group had the lowest body weight (P < 0.05) among the three diet groups. Carcass weights were high in the BG-DW, low in SER, and intermediate in BG group. Plasma creatine concentrations decreased over Time (P < 0.01) in the TS goats in all diet groups. Meat crude protein percentages were higher (P < 0.05) in SER (22.5 ± 0.22) and BG-DW (22.3 ± 0.22) groups compared to the BG group (21.6 ± 0.22). At the metabolome level, SER group had the lowest (P < 0.05) glycine, alanine, threonine, taurine, trans-hydroxyproline, methionine, and histidine concentrations and highest (P < 0.01) lysine and citrulline concentrations among the Diet groups. Butyric acid, concentration was higher (P < 0.05) in the SER group compared to BG group. Eight medium- and long-chained acylcarnitines were higher (P < 0.05) in the BG-DW group than SER or BG groups. In general, amino acid levels decreased and acylcarnitine increased with Time (P < 0.05) in all groups. Sericea diet can be beneficial in enhancing stress coping abilities in goats due to elevated butyrate, lysine, and citrulline levels; however, SER resulted in lower energy level in goats compared to BG or BG-DW groups. Fatty acid metabolism is the main energy pathway in all groups during prolonged stress. Inclusion of certain varieties of SL in the diet must be carefully controlled to prevent possible negative effect.

Maternal microbiome in preeclampsia pathophysiology and implications on offspring health

Preeclampsia is a devastating hypertensive pregnancy disorder that currently affects 2%–8% of pregnancies worldwide. It is associated with maternal and fetal mortality and morbidity and adverse health outcomes both in mom and offspring beyond pregnancy. The pathophysiology is not completely understood, and there are no approved therapies to specifically treat for the disease, with only few therapies approved to manage symptoms. Recent advances suggest that aberrations in the composition of the microbiome may play a role in the pathogenesis of various diseases including preeclampsia. The maternal and uteroplacental environments greatly influence the long‐term health outcomes of the offspring through developmental programming mechanisms. The current review summarizes recent developments on the role of the microbiome in adverse pregnancy outcomes with a focus on preeclampsia. It also discusses the potential role of the maternal microbiome in fetal programming; explores gut‐targeted therapeutics advancement and their implications in the treatment of preeclampsia.

Implications of SCFAs on the Parameters of the Lipid and Hepatic Profile in Pregnant Women

Short-chain fatty acids (SCFAs) are the product of the anaerobic intestinal bacterial fermentation of dietary fiber and resistant starch. An abnormal intestinal microbiota may cause a reduction in the production of SCFAs, which stimulate the development of intestinal epithelial cells, nourish enterocytes, influence their maturation and proper differentiation, reduce the pH, and are an additional source of energy for the host. There have been reports of the special role of SCFAs in the regulation of glucose and lipid metabolism during pregnancy.

AIM

The aim of the study was to analyze the correlation of SCFAs with lipid and hepatic metabolism during pregnancy in relation to the body weight of pregnant women.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

This study was conducted in pregnant women divided into two groups: Obese (OW-overweight and obese women; n = 48) and lean (CG-control group; n = 48) individuals. The biochemical plasma parameters of lipid metabolism (TG, CH, LDL, HDL), inflammation (CRP), and liver function (ALT, AST, GGT) were determined in all of the subjects. SCFA analysis was performed in the stool samples to measure acetic acid (C 2:0), propionic acid (C 3:0), isobutyric acid (C 4:0 i), butyric acid (C 4:0 n), isovaleric acid (C 5:0 i) valeric acid (C 5:0 n), isocaproic acid (C 6:0 i), caproic acid (C 6:0 n), and heptanoic acid (C 7:0).

RESULTS

Statistically significant differences in the concentrations of C 3:0 and C 6:0 n were found between women in the OW group compared to the CG group. The other SCFAs tested did not differ significantly depending on BMI. The C 2:0, C 3:0, and C 4:0 n ratios showed differences in both OW and CG groups. In the OW group, no relationship was observed between the concentrations of the SCFAs tested and CRP, ALT, AST. A surprising positive relationship between C 5:0 n and all fractions of the tested lipids and branched C 5:0 with CHL, HDL, and LDL was demonstrated. In the OW group, HDL showed a positive correlation with C 3:0. However, lower GGT concentrations were accompanied by higher C 4:0 and C 5:0 values, and this tendency was statistically significant.

CONCLUSIONS

The results of our research show that some SCFAs are associated with hepatic lipid metabolism and CRP concentrations, which may vary with gestational weight. Obesity in pregnancy reduces the amount of SCFAs in the stool, and a decrease in the level of butyrate reduces liver function.

Butyrate-containing structured lipids act on HDAC4, HDAC6, DNA damage and telomerase activity during promotion of experimental hepatocarcinogenesis

Hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) presents with a high treatment resistance and poor prognosis. Early diagnosis and preventive approaches such as chemoprevention are essential for the HCC control. Therefore, we evaluated the chemopreventive effects of butyrate-containing structured lipids (STLs) administered during the promotion stage of hepatocarcinogenesis in rats submitted to the 'resistant hepatocyte' (RH) model. Administration of butyrate-containing STLs inhibited the incidence and mean number of visible hepatic nodules per rat and reduced the number and area of glutathione S-transferase placental form-positive (GST-P+) preneoplastic focal lesions in the livers. This was accompanied by the induction of apoptosis and an increased level of hepatic butyric acid. Treatment with butyrate-containing STLs resulted in increased histone H3 lysine 9 (H3K9) acetylation, reduction of total histone deacetylase (HDAC) activity, and lower levels of HDAC4 and HDAC6 proteins. The chemopreventive effect of butyrate-containing STLs was also associated with the increased nuclear compartmentalization of p53 protein and reduced expression of the Bcl-2 protein. In addition, rats treated with butyrate-containing STLs showed decreased DNA damage and telomerase activity in the livers. These results demonstrate that the suppressive activity of butyrate-containing STLs is associated with inhibition of elevated during hepatocarcinogenesis chromatin-modifying proteins HDAC4 and HDAC6, subcellular redistribution of the p53 protein, and decreased DNA damage and telomerase activity.