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Blüm P, Kayser S. Chimeric Antigen Receptor (CAR) T-Cell Therapy in Hematologic Malignancies: Clinical Implications and Limitations. Cancers (Basel) 2024; 16:1599. [PMID: 38672680 PMCID: PMC11049267 DOI: 10.3390/cancers16081599] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/15/2024] [Revised: 04/16/2024] [Accepted: 04/17/2024] [Indexed: 04/28/2024] Open
Abstract
Chimeric antigen receptor (CAR) T-cell therapy has become a powerful treatment option in B-cell and plasma cell malignancies, and many patients have benefited from its use. To date, six CAR T-cell products have been approved by the FDA and EMA, and many more are being developed and investigated in clinical trials. The whole field of adoptive cell transfer has experienced an unbelievable development process, and we are now at the edge of a new era of immune therapies that will have its impact beyond hematologic malignancies. Areas of interest are, e.g., solid oncology, autoimmune diseases, infectious diseases, and others. Although much has been achieved so far, there is still a huge effort needed to overcome significant challenges and difficulties. We are witnessing a rapid expansion of knowledge, induced by new biomedical technologies and CAR designs. The era of CAR T-cell therapy has just begun, and new products will widen the therapeutic landscape in the future. This review provides a comprehensive overview of the clinical applications of CAR T-cells, focusing on the approved products and emphasizing their benefits but also indicating limitations and challenges.
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Affiliation(s)
- Philipp Blüm
- Institute of Transfusion Medicine and Immunology, Medical Faculty Mannheim, Heidelberg University, German Red Cross Blood Service Baden-Württemberg-Hessen, 68167 Mannheim, Germany;
| | - Sabine Kayser
- Institute of Transfusion Medicine and Immunology, Medical Faculty Mannheim, Heidelberg University, German Red Cross Blood Service Baden-Württemberg-Hessen, 68167 Mannheim, Germany;
- NCT Trial Center, National Center of Tumor Diseases, Heidelberg University Hospital and German Cancer Research Center (DKFZ), 69120 Heidelberg, Germany
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2
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Chu J, He S, Deng Y, Zhang J, Peng Y, Hughes T, Yi L, Kwon CH, Wang QE, Devine SM, He X, Bai XF, Hofmeister CC, Yu J. Genetic modification of T cells redirected toward CS1 enhances eradication of myeloma cells. Clin Cancer Res 2014; 20:3989-4000. [PMID: 24677374 DOI: 10.1158/1078-0432.ccr-13-2510] [Citation(s) in RCA: 92] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/22/2023]
Abstract
PURPOSE Our goal is to test whether CS1 could be targeted by chimeric antigen receptor (CAR) T cells to treat multiple myeloma (MM). EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN We generated a retroviral construct of a CS1-specific CAR and engineered primary human T cells expressing the CAR. We then tested the capacity of CS1-CAR T cells to eradicate human MM tumor cells in vitro, ex vivo, and in vivo using orthotopic MM xenograft mouse models. RESULTS In vitro, compared with mock-transduced T cells, upon recognizing CS1-positive MM cells, CS1-CAR-transduced T cells secreted more IFN-γ as well as interleukin (IL)-2, expressed higher levels of the activation marker CD69, showed higher capacity for degranulation, and displayed enhanced cytotoxicity. Ectopically forced expression of CS1 in MM cells with low CS1 expression enhanced recognition and killing by CAR T cells. Ex vivo, CS1-CAR T cells also showed similarly enhanced activities when responding to primary MM cells. More importantly, in orthotopic MM xenograft mouse models, adoptive transfer of human primary T cells expressing CS1-CAR efficiently suppressed the growth of human MM.1S and IM9 myeloma cells and significantly prolonged mouse survival. CONCLUSIONS CS1 is a promising antigen that can be targeted by CAR-expressing T cells for treatment of MM.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jianhong Chu
- Division of Hematology, Department of Internal Medicine, College of Medicine, The Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio 43210, USA.,The Ohio State University Comprehensive Cancer Center, Columbus, Ohio 43210, USA
| | - Shun He
- The Ohio State University Comprehensive Cancer Center, Columbus, Ohio 43210, USA
| | - Youcai Deng
- The Ohio State University Comprehensive Cancer Center, Columbus, Ohio 43210, USA.,Institute of Materia Medica, College of Pharmacy, Third Military Medical University, Chongqing 400038, China
| | - Jianying Zhang
- Center for Biostatistics, The Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio 43210, USA
| | - Yong Peng
- The Ohio State University Comprehensive Cancer Center, Columbus, Ohio 43210, USA
| | - Tiffany Hughes
- The Ohio State University Comprehensive Cancer Center, Columbus, Ohio 43210, USA
| | - Ling Yi
- The Ohio State University Comprehensive Cancer Center, Columbus, Ohio 43210, USA
| | - Chang-Hyuk Kwon
- Dardinger Neuro-oncology Center, Department of Neurological Surgery, The Ohio State University, Columbus, OH 43210, USA
| | - Qi-En Wang
- The Ohio State University Comprehensive Cancer Center, Columbus, Ohio 43210, USA
| | - Steven M Devine
- Division of Hematology, Department of Internal Medicine, College of Medicine, The Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio 43210, USA.,The Ohio State University Comprehensive Cancer Center, Columbus, Ohio 43210, USA.,Blood and Marrow Transplantation Program, The James Cancer Hospital, The Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio 43210, USA
| | - Xiaoming He
- The Ohio State University Comprehensive Cancer Center, Columbus, Ohio 43210, USA.,Department of Biomedical Engineering, The Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio 43210, USA
| | - Xue-Feng Bai
- The Ohio State University Comprehensive Cancer Center, Columbus, Ohio 43210, USA.,Department of Pathology, The Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio 43210, USA
| | - Craig C Hofmeister
- Division of Hematology, Department of Internal Medicine, College of Medicine, The Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio 43210, USA.,The Ohio State University Comprehensive Cancer Center, Columbus, Ohio 43210, USA
| | - Jianhua Yu
- Division of Hematology, Department of Internal Medicine, College of Medicine, The Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio 43210, USA.,The Ohio State University Comprehensive Cancer Center, Columbus, Ohio 43210, USA.,Blood and Marrow Transplantation Program, The James Cancer Hospital, The Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio 43210, USA
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3
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Rager A, Porter DL. Cellular therapy following allogeneic stem-cell transplantation. Ther Adv Hematol 2013; 2:409-28. [PMID: 23556106 DOI: 10.1177/2040620711412416] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Allogeneic hematopoietic stem-cell transplantation (HSCT) is the most effective approach for many patients with hematologic malignancies. Unfortunately, relapse remains the most common cause of death after allogeneic HSCT, and the prognosis of relapsed disease is poor for most patients. Induction of a graft-versus-leukemia (GVL), or graft-versus-tumor, effect through the use of donor leukocyte infusion (DLI), or donor lymphocyte infusion, has been remarkably successful for relapsed chronic myelogenous leukemia. Unfortunately, response to DLI in other hematologic malignancies is much less common and depends on many factors including histology, pace and extent of relapse, and time from HSCT to relapse. Furthermore, graft-versus-host disease (GVHD) is common after DLI and often limits successful immunotherapy. Ultimately, manipulations to minimize GVHD while preserving or enhancing GVL are necessary to improve outcomes for relapse after allogeneic HSCT.
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4
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Khaleghi S, Rahbarizadeh F, Ahmadvand D, Rasaee MJ, Pognonec P. A caspase 8-based suicide switch induces apoptosis in nanobody-directed chimeric receptor expressing T cells. Int J Hematol 2012; 95:434-44. [PMID: 22407872 DOI: 10.1007/s12185-012-1037-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/18/2011] [Revised: 02/16/2012] [Accepted: 02/22/2012] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
In accordance with the two-step hypothesis of T cell activation and the observation that stimulation through the T cell receptor (TCR) alone may lead to anergy, we focused on the introduction of co-stimulatory signaling to this type of receptors to achieve optimal activation. Enhanced mRNA and cell surface receptor expression via the co-stimulatory gene fragment (OX40) was confirmed by RT-PCR and flow cytometry. Inclusion of the OX40 co-stimulatory signaling region in series with the TCR led to enhanced antigen-induced IL-2 production after stimulation by MUC1-expressing cancer cell lines as compared to the chimeric receptor without OX40. Moreover, with the aim of maintaining high efficiency, while providing a means of controlling any possible unwanted proliferation in vivo, a regulation system was used. This controls the dimerization of a membrane-bound caspase 8 protein. Toward that goal, pFKC8 and CAR constructs were co-transfected into Jurkat cells, and the level of apoptosis was measured. 24 h after addition of the dimerizer, a 91% decrease in transfected cells was observed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sepideh Khaleghi
- Department of Medical Biotechnology, School of Medical Sciences, Tarbiat Modares University, PO Box: 14115-331 Tehran, Iran
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5
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The clinical effects of DC-CIK cells combined with chemotherapy in the treatment of advanced NSCLC. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2012. [DOI: 10.1007/s10330-011-0929-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/14/2022]
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6
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Porter DL, Hexner EO, Cooley S, Miller JS. Cellular adoptive immunotherapy after autologous and allogeneic hematopoietic stem cell transplantation. Cancer Treat Res 2009; 144:497-537. [PMID: 19779876 DOI: 10.1007/978-0-387-78580-6_20] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/28/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- David L Porter
- Division of Hematology-Oncology, University of Pennsylvania Medical Center, 16 Penn Tower, 3400 Spruce St, Philadelphia, PA, USA.
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7
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Sofra V, Mansour S, Liu M, Gao B, Primpidou E, Wang P, Li S. Antigen-loaded ER microsomes from APC induce potent immune responses against viral infection. Eur J Immunol 2008; 39:85-95. [DOI: 10.1002/eji.200838443] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
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9
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Houtenbos I, Santegoets S, Westers TM, Waisfisz Q, Kipriyanov S, Denkers F, Scheper RJ, de Gruijl TD, Ossenkoppele GJ, van de Loosdrecht AA. The novel bispecific diabody CD40CD28 strengthens leukaemic dendritic cell-induced T-cell reactivity. Br J Haematol 2008; 142:273-83. [DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-2141.2008.06990.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
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10
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Paulos CM, Kaiser A, Wrzesinski C, Hinrichs CS, Cassard L, Boni A, Muranski P, Sanchez-Perez L, Palmer DC, Yu Z, Antony PA, Gattinoni L, Rosenberg SA, Restifo NP. Toll-like receptors in tumor immunotherapy. Clin Cancer Res 2007; 13:5280-9. [PMID: 17875756 PMCID: PMC2131730 DOI: 10.1158/1078-0432.ccr-07-1378] [Citation(s) in RCA: 94] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
Lymphodepletion with chemotherapeutic agents or total body irradiation (TBI) before adoptive transfer of tumor-specific T cells is a critical advancement in the treatment of patients with melanoma. More than 50% of patients that are refractory to other treatments experience an objective or curative response with this approach. Emerging data indicate that the key mechanisms underlying how TBI augments the functions of adoptively transferred T cells include (a) the depletion of regulatory T cells (T(reg)) and myeloid-derived suppressor cells that limit the function and proliferation of adoptively transferred cells; (b) the removal of immune cells that act as "sinks" for homeostatic cytokines, whose levels increase after lymphodepletion; and (c) the activation of the innate immune system via Toll-like receptor 4 signaling, which is engaged by microbial lipopolysaccharide that translocated across the radiation-injured gut. Here, we review these mechanisms and focus on the effect of Toll-like receptor agonists in adoptive immunotherapy. We also discuss alternate regimens to chemotherapy or TBI, which might be used to safely treat patients with advanced disease and promote tumor regression.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chrystal M Paulos
- National Cancer Institute, NIH, Mark O. Hatfield Clinical Research Center, Bethesda, Maryland 20892-1502, USA.
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11
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Loren AW, Porter DL. Donor leukocyte infusions for the treatment of relapsed acute leukemia after allogeneic stem cell transplantation. Bone Marrow Transplant 2007; 41:483-93. [PMID: 18026156 DOI: 10.1038/sj.bmt.1705898] [Citation(s) in RCA: 79] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
Allogeneic stem cell transplantation (SCT) offers the only hope for cure for many adults with acute leukemia. Unfortunately, many patients relapse and die of their disease even after transplantation. Although in some cases, allogeneic SCT is effective because the intensive conditioning therapy eradicates all malignant cells, it has long been recognized that the adoptive transfer of donor immunity plays a critically important role in the induction and maintenance of remission. Recognition of the graft-versus-leukemia (GVL) effect of allogeneic SCT has prompted attempts at remission re-induction by adoptive immunotherapy with donor lymphocyte infusions (DLIs) in patients with relapsed disease after allogeneic SCT. In some cases, DLI-induced remissions are sustained and patients cured when no other treatment modality was effective. This review discusses the rationale, biology, complications and future applications of DLI in acute leukemia patients after allogeneic SCT.
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Affiliation(s)
- A W Loren
- Bone Marrow and Stem Cell Transplant Program, University of Pennsylvania Abramson Cancer Center, Philadelphia, PA 19104, USA.
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12
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Brentjens RJ, Santos E, Nikhamin Y, Yeh R, Matsushita M, La Perle K, Quintás-Cardama A, Larson SM, Sadelain M. Genetically targeted T cells eradicate systemic acute lymphoblastic leukemia xenografts. Clin Cancer Res 2007; 13:5426-35. [PMID: 17855649 DOI: 10.1158/1078-0432.ccr-07-0674] [Citation(s) in RCA: 338] [Impact Index Per Article: 19.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
PURPOSE Human T cells targeted to the B cell-specific CD19 antigen through retroviral-mediated transfer of a chimeric antigen receptor (CAR), termed 19z1, have shown significant but partial in vivo antitumor efficacy in a severe combined immunodeficient (SCID)-Beige systemic human acute lymphoblastic leukemia (NALM-6) tumor model. Here, we investigate the etiologies of treatment failure in this model and design approaches to enhance the efficacy of this adoptive strategy. EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN A panel of modified CD19-targeted CARs designed to deliver combined activating and costimulatory signals to the T cell was generated and tested in vitro to identify an optimal second-generation CAR. Antitumor efficacy of T cells expressing this optimal costimulatory CAR, 19-28z, was analyzed in mice bearing systemic costimulatory ligand-deficient NALM-6 tumors. RESULTS Expression of the 19-28z CAR, containing the signaling domain of the CD28 receptor, enhanced systemic T-cell antitumor activity when compared with 19z1 in treated mice. A treatment schedule of 4 weekly T-cell injections, designed to prolong in vivo T-cell function, further improved long-term survival. Bioluminescent imaging of tumor in treated mice failed to identify a conserved site of tumor relapse, consistent with successful homing by tumor-specific T cells to systemic sites of tumor involvement. CONCLUSIONS Both in vivo costimulation and repeated administration enhance eradication of systemic tumor by genetically targeted T cells. The finding that modifications in CAR design as well as T-cell dosing allowed for the complete eradication of systemic disease affects the design of clinical trials using this treatment strategy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Renier J Brentjens
- Department of Medicine, Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center, New York, New York 10021, USA.
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13
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Marin V, Kakuda H, Dander E, Imai C, Campana D, Biondi A, D'Amico G. Enhancement of the anti-leukemic activity of cytokine induced killer cells with an anti-CD19 chimeric receptor delivering a 4-1BB-ζ activating signal. Exp Hematol 2007; 35:1388-97. [PMID: 17656004 DOI: 10.1016/j.exphem.2007.05.018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/21/2006] [Revised: 05/24/2007] [Accepted: 05/31/2007] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE There is growing interest in the use of cytokine-induced killer (CIK) cells in cancer therapy. In this study, we sought to maximize the antileukemic activity of anti-CD19 receptor-modified CIK cells against B-lineage acute lymphoblastic leukemia (ALL). MATERIALS AND METHODS CIK cells were transduced with retroviral vectors carrying different types of anti-CD19 chimeric receptors: anti-CD19-zeta, anti-CD19-DAP10, anti-CD19-4-1BB-zeta, and anti-CD19-CD28-zeta. A truncated form of the receptor was used as a control. Transduced CIK cells were then analyzed for their cytotoxic activity against ALL cells and for their capability to proliferate and to release cytokines after ALL encounter. RESULTS CIK cells were efficiently transduced with all the anti-CD19 retroviral vectors. Anti-CD19 receptor expression conferred powerful killing activity against ALL cells. However, there were clear advantages when receptors containing the co-stimulatory molecules 4-1BB or CD28 were transduced. Such cells had significantly more potent cytotoxicity than cells expressing the anti-CD19-zeta or anti-CD19-DAP10. Moreover, the presence of 4-1BB or CD28 in the receptor increased the production of interleukin (IL)-2, tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-alpha, TNF-beta, IL-5, IL-6, and IL-8 elicited by coculture with ALL cells. Notably, anti-CD19-4-1BB-zeta CIK cells secreted particularly low levels of interleukin-10 and proliferated strongly after contact with ALL cells. CONCLUSIONS Anti-CD19 chimeric receptors delivering primary and costimulatory signals render CIK cells powerfully cytotoxic against ALL cells and induce secretion of immunostimulatory cytokines and proliferation. These results support the testing of genetically modified CIK cells in clinical trials.
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Affiliation(s)
- Virna Marin
- Centro Ricerca M. Tettamanti, Clinica Pediatrica Università Milano-Bicocca, Ospedale San Gerardo, Monza, Italy
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14
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Neurauter AA, Bonyhadi M, Lien E, Nøkleby L, Ruud E, Camacho S, Aarvak T. Cell isolation and expansion using Dynabeads. ADVANCES IN BIOCHEMICAL ENGINEERING/BIOTECHNOLOGY 2007; 106:41-73. [PMID: 17680228 DOI: 10.1007/10_2007_072] [Citation(s) in RCA: 47] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
This chapter describes the use of Dynabeads for cell isolation and expansion. Dynabeads are uniform polystyrene spherical beads that have been made magnetisable and superparamagnetic, meaning they are only magnetic in a magnetic field. Due to this property, the beads can easily be resuspended when the magnetic field is removed. The invention of Dynabeads made, by Professor John Ugelstad, has revolutionized the separation of many biological materials. For example, the attachment of target-specific antibodies to the surface of the beads allows capture and isolation of intact cells directly from a complex suspension such as blood. This is all accomplished under the influence of a simple magnetic field without the need for column separation techniques or centrifugation. In general, magnetic beads coated with specific antibodies can be used either for isolation or depletion of various cell types. Positive or negative cell isolation can be performed depending on the nature of the starting sample, the cell surface markers and the downstream application in question. Positive cell isolation is the method of choice for unprocessed samples, such as whole blood, and for downstream molecular applications. Positive cell isolation can also be used for any downstream application after detachment and removal of the beads. Negative cell isolation is the method of choice when it is critical that cells of interest remain untouched, i.e., no antibodies have been bound to any cell surface markers on the cells of interest. Some cell populations can only be defined by multiple cell surface markers. Such populations of cells can be isolated by the combination of negative and positive cell isolation. By coupling Dynabeads with antibodies directed against cell surface activation molecules, the beads can be used both for isolation and expansion of the cells. Dynabeads are currently used in two major clinical applications: 1) In the Isolex 300i Magnetic Cell Selection System for CD34 Stem Cell Isolation--2) For ex vivo T cell isolation and expansion using Dynabeads ClinExVivo CD3/CD28 for clinical trials in novel adoptive immunotherapy.
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15
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Porter DL, Antin JH. Donor leukocyte infusions in myeloid malignancies: new strategies. Best Pract Res Clin Haematol 2006; 19:737-55. [PMID: 16997180 DOI: 10.1016/j.beha.2006.05.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
Abstract
Donor leukocyte infusion (DLI) provides direct and potent graft-versus-leukemia (GVL) activity to treat relapse after allogeneic stem-cell transplantation. DLI is dramatically effective for relapsed chronic myelogenous leukemia (CML), but has been less effective for relapse of other myeloid malignancies. Nevertheless, most recipients of DLI for relapsed CML, and many patients with relapsed acute myelogenous leukemia (AML) and myelodysplastic syndrome (MDS), will experience prolonged remissions and probable cure. Graft-versus-host disease remains the major complication of DLI. New strategies for GVL induction explore novel dosing regimens and both methods of enhancing GVL activity of donor T cells and of minimizing toxicity from graft-versus-host disease. Ultimately, the identification of the effector cells and target antigens for GVL induction will lead to the use of tumor-specific adoptive immunotherapy to both prevent and treat relapse with minimal toxicity. Although many issues remain unsettled, the potential to harness the graft-versus-leukemia activity of allogeneic donor cells provides a powerful new paradigm for the immunotherapy of cancer.
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Affiliation(s)
- David L Porter
- University of Pennsylvania Medical Center, 16 Penn Tower, 3400 Spruce St, Philadelphia, PA 19104, USA.
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Abstract
The ability to duplicate the remarkable success of infectious disease vaccines in cancer, with durably robust and highly specific antitumor immune responses, has been long held as one of the keys in developing true "magic bullet" cancer therapies. This article attempts to explain why cancer vaccines have failed (so far), delineate the increasingly complex barriers that prevent the eliciting of effective antitumor immunity and examines the ability of heat shock protein-based vaccines to overcome these barriers. This article is not a definitive compendium of the huge body of relevant literature but rather focuses on the major concepts underlying active specific immunotherapy in general and heat shock protein vaccines in particular.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kelvin P Lee
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of Miami Miller School of Medicine, FL, USA.
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Ballen KK, Colvin G, Dey BR, Porter D, Westervelt P, Spitzer TR, Quesenberry PJ. Cellular immune therapy for refractory cancers: novel therapeutic strategies. Exp Hematol 2006; 33:1427-35. [PMID: 16338484 PMCID: PMC1986765 DOI: 10.1016/j.exphem.2005.06.032] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/16/2005] [Revised: 06/10/2005] [Accepted: 06/29/2005] [Indexed: 01/27/2023]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE Allogeneic stem cell transplantation is curative for certain cancers, but the high doses of chemotherapy and radiotherapy may lead to toxicity. This review summarizes the field of cellular immune therapy using very-low-dose conditioning for refractory cancers. METHODS In our initial study, we treated 25 patients with refractory cancers with 100 cGy total body irradiation followed by allogeneic, nonmobilized peripheral blood cells. Eighteen patients received sibling and seven patients received unrelated cord blood stem cells. RESULTS None of the 13 patients with solid tumors achieved donor chimerism or had a sustained response. Twelve patients with hematologic malignancies were treated, 1 received a cord blood transplant and 11 received sibling donor cells. Nine of these 11 patients achieved donor chimerism, ranging from 5% to 100%. Four patients had sustained complete remission of their cancers. The patients who received cord blood transplants did not respond. Development of chimerism correlated with total previous myelotoxic chemotherapy (p < 0.001). We review additional studies in this area, including data in the haploidentical and unrelated donor setting. The data presented comprises studies performed at the four institutions represented by the authors, and a review of other pertinent studies in this area. CONCLUSIONS Cellular immune therapy is an emerging application of transplantation therapy, which may be appropriate for refractory cancers. New studies in solid tumors, and with alternative donors, will expand the application of this new and promising treatment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Karen K Ballen
- Division of Hematology/Oncology, Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston, 02114, USA.
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Porter DL, Levine BL, Bunin N, Stadtmauer EA, Luger SM, Goldstein S, Loren A, Phillips J, Nasta S, Perl A, Schuster S, Tsai D, Sohal A, Veloso E, Emerson S, June CH. A phase 1 trial of donor lymphocyte infusions expanded and activated ex vivo via CD3/CD28 costimulation. Blood 2005; 107:1325-31. [PMID: 16269610 DOI: 10.1182/blood-2005-08-3373] [Citation(s) in RCA: 181] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Donor lymphocyte infusions (DLIs) induce potent graft versus tumor (GVT) effects for relapsed chronic myelogenous leukemia (CML) after allogeneic stem cell transplantation (SCT) but are disappointing for other diseases. Disease resistance can occur if donor T cells are not appropriately activated in vivo. Ex vivo T-cell activation might overcome disease-induced anergy and augment GVT activity. We performed a phase 1 trial of ex vivo-activated DLI (aDLI) for 18 patients with relapse after SCT. Activated donor T cells are produced through costimulation with anti-CD3- and anti-CD28-coated beads. Patients with aggressive malignancies received induction chemotherapy, and all patients received conventional DLI (median, 1.5 x 10(8) mononuclear cells/kg) followed 12 days later by aDLI. Activated DLI was dose escalated from 1 x 10(6) to 1 x 10(8) CD3+ cells per kilogram in 5 levels. Seven patients developed acute graft versus host disease (GVHD) (5 grade I-II, 2 grade III), and 4 developed chronic GVHD. Eight patients achieved complete remission, including 4 of 7 with acute lymphocytic leukemia (ALL), 2 of 4 with acute myelogenous leukemia (AML), 1 with chronic lymphocytic leukemia (CLL), and 1 of 2 with non-Hodgkin lymphoma (NHL). Four complete responders relapsed while 4 remain alive in remission a median 23 months after aDLI. Overall, 10 of 18 remain alive 11 to 53 months after aDLI. Adoptive transfer of costimulated activated allogeneic T cells is feasible, does not result in excessive GVHD, and may contribute to durable remissions in diseases where conventional DLI has been disappointing.
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Affiliation(s)
- David L Porter
- Stem Cell Transplant Program, Division of Hematology-Oncology, 16 Penn Tower, 3400 Spruce St, Philadelphia, PA 19104, USA.
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Friedmann-Morvinski D, Bendavid A, Waks T, Schindler D, Eshhar Z. Redirected primary T cells harboring a chimeric receptor require costimulation for their antigen-specific activation. Blood 2005; 105:3087-93. [PMID: 15626734 DOI: 10.1182/blood-2004-09-3737] [Citation(s) in RCA: 58] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
AbstractChimeric receptor (CR)–redirected lymphocytes (T bodies) have great potential in the eradication of tumor cells. To extend this approach to target cells that do not express surface ligands to costimulatory receptors (eg, cancer cells), we have generated an antibody-based tripartite chimeric receptor (TPCR) that contains scFv linked to the costimulatory molecule, CD28 without its ligand-binding domain, and to the cytoplasmic moiety of the FcRγ subunit. In this study, we tested the ability of 2,4,6-trinitrophenyl (TNP)–specific TPCR to drive primary, naïve T cells derived from CR-transgenic (Tg) mice to undergo full activation. As a control, we used Tg mice expressing a similar transgene but lacking the signaling region of CD28 (Tg-TPCRΔCD28). Only T cells from the TPCR-Tg and not the CD28-truncated TPCR-Tg mice could undergo activation following stimulation on hapten-modified target cells not expressing B7. Moreover, when stimulated with TNP protein displayed on plastic, the TPCR-Tg T cells expressing the entire TPCR gene became fully activated for proliferation, interleukin 2 production, protection from apoptosis, and killing of TNP-modified target cells. Finally, TPCR-Tg mice manifested a delayed-type hypersensitivity response following skin challenge in the absence of priming. Taken together, our results suggest that the TPCR is the receptor configuration of choice for clinical applications using primary T or stem cells.
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21
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Cooper LJN, Kalos M, DiGiusto D, Brown C, Forman SJ, Raubitschek A, Jensen MC. T-cell genetic modification for re-directed tumor recognition. CANCER CHEMOTHERAPY AND BIOLOGICAL RESPONSE MODIFIERS 2005; 22:293-324. [PMID: 16110618 DOI: 10.1016/s0921-4410(04)22014-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/03/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Laurence J N Cooper
- Cancer Immunotherapeutic Program, City of Hope NCI-Designated Comprehensive Cancer Center, Duarte, CA, USA
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22
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Ballen KK, Colvin G, Porter D, Quesenberry PJ. Low dose total body irradiation followed by allogeneic lymphocyte infusion for refractory hematologic malignancy--an updated review. Leuk Lymphoma 2004; 45:905-10. [PMID: 15291347 PMCID: PMC1986764 DOI: 10.1080/10428190310001628167] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
Abstract
Allogeneic stem cell transplantation is curative for certain cancers, but the high doses of chemotherapy and radiotherapy used in conventional myeloablative conditioning regimens may lead to severe toxicity. In our initial study, we treated 25 patients with refractory cancers with 100 cGy total body irradiation (TBI) followed by allogeneic, non mobilized peripheral blood cells. Eighteen patients received sibling and 7 patients received unrelated cord blood stem cells. None of the 13 patients with solid tumors achieved donor chimerism or had a sustained response. Twelve patients with hematologic malignancies were treated, 1 received a cord blood transplant and 11 received sibling donor cells. Nine of these 11 patients achieved donor chimerism, ranging from 5% to 100%. Four patients had sustained complete remission of their cancers, and 2 are long-term survivors. The development of chimerism correlated with total previous myelotoxic chemotherapy (p < 0.001). This technique is now being extended into the haploidentical setting.
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Affiliation(s)
- Karen K Ballen
- Division of Hematology/Oncology, Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston, MA 02114, USA.
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23
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Villinger F, Miller R, Mori K, Mayne AE, Bostik P, Sundstrom JB, Sugimoto C, Ansari AA. IL-15 is superior to IL-2 in the generation of long-lived antigen specific memory CD4 and CD8 T cells in rhesus macaques. Vaccine 2004; 22:3510-21. [PMID: 15308379 DOI: 10.1016/j.vaccine.2003.07.022] [Citation(s) in RCA: 88] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/26/2003] [Revised: 07/26/2003] [Accepted: 07/28/2003] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
Using tetanus toxoid (TT) and influenza (Flu) immunization of rhesus macaques as a model, the effect of IL-2 and IL-15 on the generation and maintenance of antigen specific memory T cells was evaluated following primary and secondary immunization. Daily cytokine administration expanded primarily effector but not memory cells, while spacing cytokine administration to q3-7 days markedly enhanced TT and Flu specific memory responses. Following primary immunization, TT specific CD4 and influenza matrix protein (Flu-MP) specific CD8 effector responses were enhanced by IL-2 administration but CD8 specific memory responses were no different from cytokine non-treated monkeys. In contrast, expansion of Flu specific CD8 cells with IL-15 was only modest but resulted in significantly elevated levels of memory cells at 6 months. IL-15 also significantly enhanced early and late TT specific CD4 responses. The highest levels of primary effector and memory T cells were observed following alternate administration of both IL-2 and IL-15. Following booster immunization, however, only IL-15 appeared able to enhance CD8 T cell responses while IL-2 or IL2/IL-15 administration were less effective.
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Affiliation(s)
- F Villinger
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, Emory University, Woodruff Memorial Building 2339, 1639 Pierce Drive, Atlanta, GA 30322, USA.
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24
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Dermime S, Gilham DE, Shaw DM, Davidson EJ, Meziane EK, Armstrong A, Hawkins RE, Stern PL. Vaccine and antibody-directed T cell tumour immunotherapy. Biochim Biophys Acta Rev Cancer 2004; 1704:11-35. [PMID: 15238242 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbcan.2004.03.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/06/2003] [Revised: 01/22/2004] [Accepted: 03/31/2004] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
Abstract
Clearer evidence for immune surveillance in malignancy and the identification of many new tumour-associated antigens (TAAs) have driven novel vaccine and antibody-targeted responses for therapy in cancer. The exploitation of active immunisation may be particularly favourable for TAA where tolerance is incomplete but passive immunisation may offer an additional strategy where the immune repertoire is affected by either tolerance or immune suppression. This review will consider how to utilise both active and passive types of therapy delivered by T cells in the context of the failure of tumour-specific immunity by presenting cancer patients. This article will outline the progress, problems and prospects of several different vaccine and antibody-targeted approaches for immunotherapy of cancer where proof of principle pre-clinical studies have been or will soon be translated into the clinic. Two examples of vaccination-based therapies where both T cell- and antibody-mediated anti-tumour responses are likely to be relevant and two examples of oncofoetal antigen-specific antibody-directed T cell therapies are described in the following sections: (1) therapeutic vaccination against human papillomavirus (HPV) antigens in cervical neoplasia; (2) B cell lymphoma vaccines including against immunoglobulin idiotype; (3) oncofoetal antigens as tumour targets for redirecting T cells with antibody strategies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Said Dermime
- Immunology, Cancer Research UK Groups, Paterson Institute for Cancer Research and University of Manchester, Christie Hospital NHS Trust, Manchester M20 4BX, UK
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25
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Imai C, Mihara K, Andreansky M, Nicholson IC, Pui CH, Geiger TL, Campana D. Chimeric receptors with 4-1BB signaling capacity provoke potent cytotoxicity against acute lymphoblastic leukemia. Leukemia 2004; 18:676-84. [PMID: 14961035 DOI: 10.1038/sj.leu.2403302] [Citation(s) in RCA: 588] [Impact Index Per Article: 29.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/08/2023]
Abstract
To develop a therapy for drug-resistant B-lineage acute lymphoblastic leukemia (ALL), we transduced T lymphocytes with anti-CD19 chimeric receptors, consisting of an anti-CD19 single-chain variable domain (reactive with most ALL cases), the hinge and transmembrane domains of CD8alpha, and the signaling domain of CD3zeta. We compared the antileukemic activity mediated by a novel receptor ('anti-CD19-BB-zeta') containing the signaling domain of 4-1BB (CD137; a crucial molecule for T-cell antitumor activity) to that of a receptor lacking costimulatory molecules. Retroviral transduction produced efficient and durable receptor expression in human T cells. Lymphocytes expressing anti-CD19-BB-zeta receptors exerted powerful and specific cytotoxicity against ALL cells, which was superior to that of lymphocytes with receptors lacking 4-1BB. Anti-CD19-BB-zeta lymphocytes were remarkably effective in cocultures with bone marrow mesenchymal cells, and against leukemic cells from patients with drug-resistant ALL: as few as 1% anti-CD19-BB-zeta-transduced T cells eliminated most ALL cells within 5 days. These cells also expanded and produced interleukin-2 in response to ALL cells at much higher rates than those of lymphocytes expressing equivalent receptors lacking 4-1BB. We conclude that anti-CD19 chimeric receptors containing 4-1BB are a powerful new tool for T-cell therapy of B-lineage ALL and other CD19+ B-lymphoid malignancies.
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MESH Headings
- Antigens, CD
- Antigens, CD19/immunology
- Burkitt Lymphoma/pathology
- Burkitt Lymphoma/therapy
- CD3 Complex/chemistry
- CD3 Complex/genetics
- CD3 Complex/pharmacology
- CD8 Antigens/chemistry
- CD8 Antigens/genetics
- CD8 Antigens/pharmacology
- Cell Line, Tumor
- Coculture Techniques
- Cytotoxicity Tests, Immunologic
- Humans
- Immunoconjugates/genetics
- Immunoconjugates/pharmacology
- Immunoglobulin Variable Region/genetics
- Immunoglobulin Variable Region/pharmacology
- Immunotherapy
- Precursor Cell Lymphoblastic Leukemia-Lymphoma/pathology
- Precursor Cell Lymphoblastic Leukemia-Lymphoma/therapy
- Protein Structure, Tertiary
- Receptors, Nerve Growth Factor/genetics
- Receptors, Nerve Growth Factor/therapeutic use
- Receptors, Tumor Necrosis Factor/genetics
- Receptors, Tumor Necrosis Factor/therapeutic use
- Recombinant Fusion Proteins/genetics
- Recombinant Fusion Proteins/pharmacology
- T-Lymphocytes/cytology
- T-Lymphocytes/immunology
- T-Lymphocytes/metabolism
- Transduction, Genetic
- Tumor Necrosis Factor Receptor Superfamily, Member 9
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Affiliation(s)
- C Imai
- Department of Hematology-Oncology, St Jude Children's Research Hospital, Memphis, TN 38105-2794, USA
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26
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Finney HM, Akbar AN, Lawson ADG. Activation of Resting Human Primary T Cells with Chimeric Receptors: Costimulation from CD28, Inducible Costimulator, CD134, and CD137 in Series with Signals from the TCRζ Chain. THE JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY 2003; 172:104-13. [PMID: 14688315 DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.172.1.104] [Citation(s) in RCA: 340] [Impact Index Per Article: 16.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
Abstract
Chimeric receptors that include CD28 signaling in series with TCRzeta in the same receptor have been demonstrated to activate prestimulated human primary T cells more efficiently than a receptor providing TCRzeta signaling alone. We examined whether this type of receptor can also activate resting human primary T cells, and whether molecules other than CD28 could be included in a single chimeric receptor in series with TCRzeta to mediate the activation of resting human primary T cells. Human CD33-specific chimeric receptors were generated with CD28, inducible costimulator, CD134, or CD137 signaling regions in series with TCRzeta signaling region and transfected by electroporation into resting human primary T cells. Their ability to mediate Ag-specific activation was analyzed in comparison with a receptor providing TCRzeta signaling alone. Inclusion of any of the costimulatory signaling regions in series with TCRzeta enhanced the level of specific Ag-induced IL-2, IFN-gamma, TNF-alpha, and GM-CSF cytokine production and enabled resting primary T cells to survive and proliferate in response to Ag in the absence of any exogenous factors. Inclusion of CD28, inducible costimulator, or CD134 enhanced TCRzeta-mediated, Ag-specific target cell lysis. Chimeric receptors providing B7 and TNFR family costimulatory signals in series with TCRzeta in the same receptor can confer self-sufficient clonal expansion and enhanced effector function to resting human T cells. This type of chimeric receptor may now be used to discover the most potent combination of costimulatory signals that will improve current immunotherapeutic strategies.
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MESH Headings
- Animals
- Antigens, CD
- Antigens, Differentiation, T-Lymphocyte/biosynthesis
- Antigens, Differentiation, T-Lymphocyte/genetics
- Antigens, Differentiation, T-Lymphocyte/physiology
- CD28 Antigens/biosynthesis
- CD28 Antigens/genetics
- CD28 Antigens/physiology
- Cell Line, Tumor
- Cells, Cultured
- Cytokines/biosynthesis
- Cytotoxicity Tests, Immunologic/methods
- Humans
- Inducible T-Cell Co-Stimulator Protein
- Interphase/immunology
- Intracellular Fluid/enzymology
- Intracellular Fluid/metabolism
- Lymphocyte Activation/genetics
- Lymphocyte Activation/immunology
- Membrane Proteins/biosynthesis
- Membrane Proteins/genetics
- Membrane Proteins/metabolism
- Membrane Proteins/physiology
- Mice
- Mutagenesis, Insertional/methods
- Phosphatidylinositol 3-Kinases/metabolism
- Phosphorylation
- Proto-Oncogene Proteins c-bcl-2/biosynthesis
- Receptors, Antigen, T-Cell/biosynthesis
- Receptors, Antigen, T-Cell/genetics
- Receptors, Antigen, T-Cell/metabolism
- Receptors, Antigen, T-Cell/physiology
- Receptors, Nerve Growth Factor/biosynthesis
- Receptors, Nerve Growth Factor/genetics
- Receptors, Nerve Growth Factor/physiology
- Receptors, OX40
- Receptors, Tumor Necrosis Factor/biosynthesis
- Receptors, Tumor Necrosis Factor/genetics
- Receptors, Tumor Necrosis Factor/physiology
- Recombinant Fusion Proteins/biosynthesis
- Recombinant Fusion Proteins/genetics
- Recombinant Fusion Proteins/physiology
- Signal Transduction/genetics
- Signal Transduction/immunology
- T-Lymphocyte Subsets/enzymology
- T-Lymphocyte Subsets/immunology
- T-Lymphocyte Subsets/metabolism
- Transfection
- Tumor Necrosis Factor Receptor Superfamily, Member 9
- Tyrosine/metabolism
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Affiliation(s)
- Helene M Finney
- Celltech R&D, 208 Bath Road, Slough, Berkshire SL1 3WE, United Kingdom.
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27
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Briones J, Timmerman JM, Panicalli DL, Levy R. Antitumor immunity after vaccination with B lymphoma cells overexpressing a triad of costimulatory molecules. J Natl Cancer Inst 2003; 95:548-55. [PMID: 12671023 DOI: 10.1093/jnci/95.7.548] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND The costimulatory molecules B7-1, intercellular adhesion molecule-1 (ICAM-1), and leukocyte function-associated antigen-3 (LFA-3) play pivotal roles in the activation of T cells. We investigated whether in vivo vaccination with lymphoma cells infected with a recombinant, nonreplicating fowlpox (FP) virus encoding this triad of costimulatory molecules (TRICOM) could stimulate lymphoma-specific immunity. METHODS TRICOM-infected A20 B lymphoma cells were analyzed for expression of B7-1, ICAM-1, and LFA-3. Mice (10 per group) were vaccinated with irradiated A20 cells infected with either the TRICOM vector or the wild-type FP virus (WT-FP), challenged with live A20 tumor cells, and followed for survival. Mice with established A20 tumors were also treated with irradiated TRICOM-infected A20 cells. Survival curves were compared with the log-rank statistic. The mechanism of the antitumor effect was studied by in vivo depletion of CD4(+) and CD8(+) T cells and in vitro cytotoxicity assays. All statistical tests were two-sided. RESULTS A20 tumor cells infected with TRICOM expressed high levels of B7-1, ICAM-1, and LFA-3. Mice vaccinated with irradiated TRICOM-infected A20 cells had prolonged survival relative to mice vaccinated with WT-FP-infected cells (80% versus 20% survival at 110 days; P<.001). In mice with established tumors, tumor growth was slower in those treated with TRICOM-infected tumor cells than in those treated with WT-FP-infected cells, and this treatment provided a survival advantage (P<.001). Depletion of CD4(+) or CD8(+) T cells reduced the antitumor immunity provided by the tumor cell-TRICOM vaccine, and lymphocytes from vaccinated mice displayed in vitro cytotoxic activity toward A20 cells. CONCLUSIONS Increasing expression of costimulatory molecules on B lymphoma cells by infection with a recombinant FP virus encoding B7-1, ICAM-1, and LFA-3 stimulates antitumor immune responses in vivo and may provide a novel strategy for treating patients with B-cell malignancies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Javier Briones
- Division of Oncology, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA 94305-5151, USA
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28
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Castro MG, Cowen R, Williamson IK, David A, Jimenez-Dalmaroni MJ, Yuan X, Bigliari A, Williams JC, Hu J, Lowenstein PR. Current and future strategies for the treatment of malignant brain tumors. Pharmacol Ther 2003; 98:71-108. [PMID: 12667889 DOI: 10.1016/s0163-7258(03)00014-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 130] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
Glioblastoma (GB) is the most common subtype of primary brain tumor in adults. These tumors are highly invasive, very aggressive, and often infiltrate critical neurological areas within the brain. The mean survival time after diagnosis of GB has remained unchanged during the last few decades, in spite of advances in surgical techniques, radiotherapy, and also chemotherapy; patients' survival ranges from 9 to 12 months after initial diagnosis. In the same time frame, with our increasing understanding and knowledge of the physiopathology of several cancers, meaningful advances have been made in the treatment and control of several cancers, such as breast, prostate, and hematopoietic malignancies. Although a number of the genetic lesions present in GB have been elucidated and our understanding of the progressions of this cancer has increased dramatically over the last few years, it has not yet been possible to harness this information towards developing effective cures. In this review, we will focus on the classical ways in which GB is currently being treated, and will introduce a novel therapeutic modality, i.e., gene therapy, which we believe will be used in combination with classical treatment strategies to prolong the life-span of patients and to ultimately be able to control and/or cure these brain tumors. We will discuss the use of several vector systems that are needed to introduce the therapeutic genes within either the tumor mass, if these are not resectable, or the tumor bed, after successful tumor resection. We also discuss different therapeutic modalities that could be exploited using gene therapy, i.e., conditional cytotoxic approach, direct cytotoxicity, immunotherapy, inhibition of angiogenesis, and the use of pro-apoptotic genes. The advantages and disadvantages of each of the current vector systems available to transfer genes into the CNS are also discussed. With the advances in molecular techniques, both towards the elucidation of the physiopathology of GB and the development of novel, more efficient and less toxic vectors to deliver putative therapeutic genes into the CNS, it should be possible to develop new rationale and effective therapeutic approaches to treat this devastating cancer.
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Affiliation(s)
- M G Castro
- Gene Therapeutics Research Institute, Cedars-Sinai Medical Center, Research Pavilion, 8700 Beverly Boulevard, Suite 5090, Los Angeles, CA 90048, USA.
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29
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Abstract
The genetic modification of T lymphocytes is an important approach to investigating normal T-cell biology and to increasing antitumour immunity. A number of genetic strategies aim to increase the recognition of tumour antigens, enhance antitumour activities and prevent T-cell malfunction. T cells can also be engineered to increase safety, as well as to express markers that can be tracked by non-invasive imaging technologies. Genetically modified T cells are therefore proving to be of great value for basic immunology and experimental immunotherapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michel Sadelain
- Department of Medicine and Immunology Program, Memorial Sloan-Kettering Cancer Center, New York, New York 10021, USA.
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30
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Ochsenbein AF. Principles of tumor immunosurveillance and implications for immunotherapy. Cancer Gene Ther 2002; 9:1043-55. [PMID: 12522443 DOI: 10.1038/sj.cgt.7700540] [Citation(s) in RCA: 75] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/16/2002] [Indexed: 01/24/2023]
Abstract
Although antigen loss variants, major histocompatibility (MHC) class I down-regulation, or the expression of inhibitory molecules may explain the failure of immunosurveillance against some tumors, this seems not to apply for many other solid peripheral or lymphohematopoietic tumors. Why then is immunosurveillance so ineffective and can it be improved? This review focuses on one important aspect of tumor immunity, namely the relevance of antigen dose and localization. Immune responses in vivo are induced in organized lymphoid tissues, i.e., in lymph nodes and spleen. The antigen dose that reaches secondary lymphoid organs over time is a crucial parameter that drives antiviral and antitumoral immune responses. Tumors use various strategies to prevent efficient presentation of their antigens in lymphoid organs. A major obstacle to the induction of an endogenous tumor-specific cytotoxic T lymphocyte (CTL) response is the inefficient presentation of tumor antigen on MHC class I molecules of professional antigen-presenting cells. Peripheral solid tumors that develop outside lymphoid organs are, therefore, often ignored by the immune system. In other situations, tumors - especially of lymphohematopoietic origin - may tolerize specific CTLs. Understanding tumor immunosurveillance is key to the design of efficient antitumor vaccines. Attempts to improve immunity to tumors include vaccination strategies to (a) provide the tumor antigen to secondary lymphoid organs using recombinant viruses or dendritic cells as carriers, (b) express costimulatory signals on tumor cells, or (c) improve the efficiency of cross-priming.
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31
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Haynes NM, Trapani JA, Teng MWL, Jackson JT, Cerruti L, Jane SM, Kershaw MH, Smyth MJ, Darcy PK. Rejection of syngeneic colon carcinoma by CTLs expressing single-chain antibody receptors codelivering CD28 costimulation. JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY (BALTIMORE, MD. : 1950) 2002; 169:5780-6. [PMID: 12421958 DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.169.10.5780] [Citation(s) in RCA: 85] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
A new strategy to improve the therapeutic utility of redirected T cells for cancer involves the development of novel Ag-specific chimeric receptors capable of stimulating optimal and sustained T cell antitumor activity in vivo. Given that T cells require both primary and costimulatory signals for optimal activation and that many tumors do not express critical costimulatory ligands, modified single-chain Ab receptors have been engineered to codeliver CD28 costimulation. In this study, we have compared the antitumor potency of primary T lymphocytes expressing carcinoembryonic Ag (CEA)-reactive chimeric receptors that incorporate either TCR-zeta or CD28/TCR-zeta signaling. Although both receptor-transduced T cell effector populations demonstrated cytolysis of CEA(+) tumors in vitro, T cells expressing the single-chain variable fragment of Ig (scFv)-CD28-zeta chimera had a far greater capacity to control the growth of CEA(+) xenogeneic and syngeneic colon carcinomas in vivo. The observed enhanced antitumor activity of T cells expressing the scFv-CD28-zeta receptor was critically dependent on perforin and the production of IFN-gamma. Overall, this study has illustrated the ability of a chimeric scFv receptor capable of harnessing the signaling machinery of both TCR-zeta and CD28 to augment T cell immunity against tumors that have lost expression of both MHC/peptide and costimulatory ligands in vivo.
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MESH Headings
- Adenocarcinoma/genetics
- Adenocarcinoma/immunology
- Adenocarcinoma/prevention & control
- Adjuvants, Immunologic/administration & dosage
- Adjuvants, Immunologic/biosynthesis
- Adjuvants, Immunologic/genetics
- Animals
- Binding Sites, Antibody/genetics
- CD28 Antigens/administration & dosage
- CD28 Antigens/genetics
- CD28 Antigens/immunology
- Carcinoembryonic Antigen/administration & dosage
- Carcinoembryonic Antigen/biosynthesis
- Carcinoembryonic Antigen/genetics
- Carcinoembryonic Antigen/immunology
- Cells, Cultured
- Colonic Neoplasms/genetics
- Colonic Neoplasms/immunology
- Colonic Neoplasms/pathology
- Colonic Neoplasms/prevention & control
- Cytotoxicity, Immunologic/genetics
- Epitopes, T-Lymphocyte/genetics
- Epitopes, T-Lymphocyte/metabolism
- Graft Rejection/genetics
- Graft Rejection/immunology
- Growth Inhibitors/administration & dosage
- Growth Inhibitors/biosynthesis
- Growth Inhibitors/genetics
- Humans
- Immunoglobulin Variable Region/administration & dosage
- Immunoglobulin Variable Region/genetics
- Immunoglobulin Variable Region/immunology
- Immunotherapy, Adoptive/methods
- Interferon-gamma/deficiency
- Interferon-gamma/genetics
- Interferon-gamma/physiology
- Membrane Glycoproteins/deficiency
- Membrane Glycoproteins/genetics
- Membrane Glycoproteins/physiology
- Membrane Proteins/genetics
- Membrane Proteins/immunology
- Mice
- Mice, Inbred BALB C
- Mice, Inbred C57BL
- Mice, Knockout
- Mice, SCID
- Perforin
- Pore Forming Cytotoxic Proteins
- Receptors, Antigen, T-Cell/genetics
- Receptors, Antigen, T-Cell/immunology
- Receptors, Immunologic/administration & dosage
- Receptors, Immunologic/biosynthesis
- Receptors, Immunologic/genetics
- Recombinant Fusion Proteins/administration & dosage
- Recombinant Fusion Proteins/biosynthesis
- Recombinant Fusion Proteins/genetics
- T-Lymphocytes, Cytotoxic/immunology
- T-Lymphocytes, Cytotoxic/metabolism
- T-Lymphocytes, Cytotoxic/transplantation
- Transplantation, Isogeneic
- Tumor Cells, Cultured
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Affiliation(s)
- Nicole M Haynes
- Cancer Immunology Program, Sir Donald and Lady Trescowthick Laboratories, Peter MacCallum Cancer Institute, St. Andrew's Place, East Melbourne, Victoria, Australia
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32
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Haynes NM, Trapani JA, Teng MWL, Jackson JT, Cerruti L, Jane SM, Kershaw MH, Smyth MJ, Darcy PK. Single-chain antigen recognition receptors that costimulate potent rejection of established experimental tumors. Blood 2002; 100:3155-63. [PMID: 12384413 DOI: 10.1182/blood-2002-04-1041] [Citation(s) in RCA: 128] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Tumor cells are usually weakly immunogenic as they largely express self-antigens and can down-regulate major histocompatability complex/peptide molecules and critical costimulatory ligands. The challenge for immunotherapies has been to provide vigorous immune effector cells that circumvent these tumor escape mechanisms and eradicate established tumors. One promising approach is to engineer T cells with single-chain antibody receptors, and since T cells require 2 distinct signals for optimal activation, we have compared the therapeutic efficacy of erbB2-reactive chimeric receptors that contain either T-cell receptor zeta (TCR-zeta) or CD28/TCR-zeta signaling domains. We have demonstrated that primary mouse CD8(+) T lymphocytes expressing the single-chain Fv (scFv)-CD28-zeta receptor have a greater capacity to secrete Tc1 cytokines, induce T-cell proliferation, and inhibit established tumor growth and metastases in vivo. The suppression of established tumor burden by cytotoxic T cells expressing the CD28/TCR-zeta chimera was critically dependent upon their interferon gamma (IFN-gamma) secretion. Our study has illustrated the practical advantage of engineering a T-cell signaling complex that codelivers CD28 activation, dependent only upon the tumor's expression of the appropriate tumor associated antigen.
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MESH Headings
- 3T3 Cells
- Adenocarcinoma/immunology
- Adenocarcinoma/pathology
- Adenocarcinoma/secondary
- Adenocarcinoma/therapy
- Animals
- Antibodies, Monoclonal/genetics
- Antibodies, Monoclonal/immunology
- Antigens, Neoplasm/immunology
- Breast Neoplasms/immunology
- Breast Neoplasms/pathology
- CD28 Antigens/genetics
- CD28 Antigens/immunology
- CD3 Complex
- CD4-Positive T-Lymphocytes/immunology
- COS Cells
- Chlorocebus aethiops
- Colorectal Neoplasms/immunology
- Colorectal Neoplasms/pathology
- Colorectal Neoplasms/therapy
- Humans
- Immunoglobulin Fragments/genetics
- Immunoglobulin Fragments/immunology
- Immunoglobulin Variable Region/genetics
- Immunoglobulin Variable Region/immunology
- Immunotherapy, Adoptive
- Interferon-gamma/deficiency
- Interferon-gamma/genetics
- Interferon-gamma/metabolism
- Jurkat Cells
- Lung Neoplasms/secondary
- Lung Neoplasms/therapy
- Lymphocyte Activation
- Membrane Glycoproteins/deficiency
- Membrane Glycoproteins/genetics
- Membrane Proteins/genetics
- Membrane Proteins/immunology
- Mice
- Mice, Inbred BALB C
- Mice, Knockout
- Mice, SCID
- Neoplasms, Experimental/immunology
- Neoplasms, Experimental/therapy
- Perforin
- Pore Forming Cytotoxic Proteins
- Receptor, ErbB-2/genetics
- Receptor, ErbB-2/immunology
- Receptors, Antigen, T-Cell/genetics
- Receptors, Antigen, T-Cell/immunology
- Recombinant Fusion Proteins/genetics
- Recombinant Fusion Proteins/immunology
- Recombinant Proteins
- Sarcoma, Experimental/immunology
- Sarcoma, Experimental/pathology
- Spleen/cytology
- T-Lymphocytes, Cytotoxic/immunology
- T-Lymphocytes, Cytotoxic/metabolism
- T-Lymphocytes, Cytotoxic/transplantation
- Transfection
- Tumor Cells, Cultured/immunology
- Xenograft Model Antitumor Assays
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Affiliation(s)
- Nicole M Haynes
- Cancer Immunology Program, Sir Donald and Lady Trescowthick Laboratories, Peter MacCallum Cancer Institute, Royal Melbourne Hospital Research Foundation, A'Beckett Street, Victoria, Australia 8006
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Dunussi-Joannopoulos K. The combination of chemotherapy and systemic immunotherapy and the concept of cure in murine leukemia and lymphoma. Leuk Lymphoma 2002; 43:2075-82. [PMID: 12533031 DOI: 10.1080/1042819021000032926] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
While important advances have been made in our understanding of the molecular and biochemical processes that lead to the malignant transformation of myeloid and lymphoid cells, no major breakthroughs leading to long-term survival of patients of acute myeloid leukemia (AML) and lymphoma have been achieved during the last decade. Treatment failure, particularly in AML, is mostly related to the problem of resistance to multiple chemotherapeutic drugs and the morbidity and mortality associated with intensive chemotherapy. Thus, a significant challenge that remains is to develop novel therapeutic strategies that would ideally be able to address these issues. Novel immune approaches to cancer immunotherapy, while promising for specificity and long-term protection as single therapies, have not typically proven potent enough to generate long-lasting therapeutic responses. Recent evidence suggests that combining immunotherapy with chemotherapy can lead to increased effectiveness of chemotherapy without making the treatment intolerable to patients. This review focuses on the role of T cell costimulation in tumor immunosurveillance and on the therapeutic efficacy of a combination regimen consisting of chemotherapy and immunotherapy with recombinant B7.2-IgG fusion protein in preclinical AML and lymphoma models.
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34
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Restifo NP, Antony PA, Finkelstein SE, Leitner WW, Surman DP, Theoret MR, Touloukian CE. Assumptions of the tumor 'escape' hypothesis. Semin Cancer Biol 2002; 12:81-6. [PMID: 11926416 PMCID: PMC1508167 DOI: 10.1006/scbi.2001.0399] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
The reasons why cancer cells are not destroyed by the immune system are likely to be similar, in most cases, to the reasons why normal cells are not destroyed by the immune system. Unfortunately for tumor immunologists, these reasons have not yet been fully elucidated. What is known, however, is that the lack of autoimmune destruction of normal tissue after immune activation is a finely regulated, highly orchestrated sequence of events. Viewed in this light, it is interesting to conceptualize the derangement of the tumor genome not merely as an engine that enables cancer cells to dodge immune recognition. The dysregulation characteristic of the transformed genome is also what makes tumor immunity, a specialized form of autoimmunity, possible.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nicholas P Restifo
- National Cancer Institute, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD, USA.
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35
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Maher J, Brentjens RJ, Gunset G, Rivière I, Sadelain M. Human T-lymphocyte cytotoxicity and proliferation directed by a single chimeric TCRzeta /CD28 receptor. Nat Biotechnol 2002; 20:70-5. [PMID: 11753365 DOI: 10.1038/nbt0102-70] [Citation(s) in RCA: 719] [Impact Index Per Article: 32.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/27/2023]
Abstract
Artificial receptors provide a promising approach to target T lymphocytes to tumor antigens. However, the receptors described thus far produce either an activation or a co-stimulatory signal alone, thus limiting the spectrum of functions accomplished by the genetically modified cells. Here we show that human primary T lymphocytes expressing fusion receptors directed to prostate-specific membrane antigen (PSMA) and containing combined T-cell receptor-zeta (TCRzeta), and CD28 signaling elements, effectively lyse tumor cells expressing PSMA. When stimulated by cell-surface PSMA, retrovirally transduced lymphocytes undergo robust proliferation, expanding by more than 2 logs in three weeks, and produce large amounts of interleukin-2 (IL-2). Importantly, the amplified cell populations retain their antigen-specific cytolytic activity. These data demonstrate that fusion receptors containing both TCR and CD28 signaling moieties are potent molecules able to redirect and amplify human T-cell responses. These findings have important implications for adoptive immunotherapy of cancer, especially in the context of tumor cells that fail to express major histocompatibility complex antigens and co-stimulatory molecules.
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Affiliation(s)
- John Maher
- Department of Human Genetics/Medicine, Gene Transfer and Somatic Cell Engineering Laboratory, and Immunology Program, Memorial Sloan-Kettering Cancer Center, New York, NY 10021, USA
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36
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Märten A, Ziske C, Schöttker B, Renoth S, Weineck S, Buttgereit P, Schakowski F, von Rücker A, Sauerbruch T, Schmidt-Wolf IG. Interactions between dendritic cells and cytokine-induced killer cells lead to an activation of both populations. J Immunother 2001; 24:502-10. [PMID: 11759073 DOI: 10.1097/00002371-200111000-00007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 80] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
Dendritic cells (DCs) are major antigen-presenting cells. They are capable of capturing and processing tumor antigens, expressing lymphocyte costimulatory molecules, and secreting cytokines to initiate immune responses. Here, the authors tested the effect of cytokine-induced killer (CIK) cells, a population that includes CD3+CD56+ cells (natural killer T cells), with regard to their capacity to immunomodulate DCs. Cytokine-induced killer cells were cocultured with autologous DCs generated from peripheral blood mononuclear cells. Expression of markers typical for both populations was measured using flow cytometry, and secretion of interleukin (IL)-12 was determined using enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays. Cytotoxicity assays were performed to investigate the role of IL-12 and the importance of cell-cell interactions. Considering this, receptors for IL-12 and CD40 were blocked and cocultures were performed with cell culture inserts. Coculture of CIK cells led to a significant increase of DC-specific, costimulatory, and antigen-presenting molecules in DC cultures. In addition, coculture resulted in a dramatically increase of IL-12 secretion by DCs and to a significant increase in cytotoxic activity of CIK cells toward carcinoma cells. Blockage of IL-12 uptake decreased the cytolytic activity of CIK cells. Cytokine secretion was shown to be important for activation of CIK cells, and also cellular interactions between DCs and effector cells caused a higher cytolytic capacity. Interactions between DCs and CIK cells caused changes in the surface molecule expression of both populations, led to an increase of IL-12 secretion, and rendered an improved cytotoxic activity. The natural killer T cell subpopulation seems to be responsible for this effect. Therefore, coculture of DCs with CIK cells may have a major impact on immunotherapeutic protocols for patients with cancer.
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Affiliation(s)
- A Märten
- Medizinische Klinik und Poliklinik I, Allgemeine Innere Medizin, Rheinische Friedrich-Wilhelms-Universität, Bonn, Germany
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37
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Leis JF, Maziarz RT. Specific Immunotherapy for Non-Hodgkin's Lymphoma. Lab Med 2001. [DOI: 10.1309/1mwt-476a-fa6m-75ru] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/27/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Jose F. Leis
- Division of Hematology and Medical Oncology, Adult Bone Marrow Transplant Program, Oregon Health & Sciences University, Portland, OR, 97201
| | - Richard T. Maziarz
- Division of Hematology and Medical Oncology, Adult Bone Marrow Transplant Program, Oregon Health & Sciences University, Portland, OR, 97201
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GARLIE NINAK, SIEBENLIST RUTHE, LEFEVER ANNV. T CELLS ACTIVATED IN VITRO AS IMMUNOTHERAPY FOR RENAL CELL CARCINOMA: CHARACTERIZATION OF 2 EFFECTOR T-CELL POPULATIONS. J Urol 2001. [DOI: 10.1016/s0022-5347(05)66149-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- NINA K. GARLIE
- From the Immunotherapy Program, St. Luke’s Medical Center, Milwaukee, Wisconsin
| | - RUTH E. SIEBENLIST
- From the Immunotherapy Program, St. Luke’s Medical Center, Milwaukee, Wisconsin
| | - ANN V. LEFEVER
- From the Immunotherapy Program, St. Luke’s Medical Center, Milwaukee, Wisconsin
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39
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T CELLS ACTIVATED IN VITRO AS IMMUNOTHERAPY FOR RENAL CELL CARCINOMA: CHARACTERIZATION OF 2 EFFECTOR T-CELL POPULATIONS. J Urol 2001. [DOI: 10.1097/00005392-200107000-00087] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
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40
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Tiberghien P. Use of suicide gene-expressing donor T-cells to control alloreactivity after haematopoietic stem cell transplantation. J Intern Med 2001; 249:369-77. [PMID: 11298857 DOI: 10.1046/j.1365-2796.2001.00809.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
Conditional ablation of alloreactive donor T-cells to prevent or treat graft-versus-host disease (GvHD) in the context of allogeneic haematopoietic stem cell transplantation could significantly contribute to expand the use of alloreactivity as a treatment modality. The prevention and treatment of GvHD induced by herpes simplex virus 1-thymidine kinase (HS-tk)-expressing donor T-cells by ganciclovir (GCV) has been demonstrated. Early clinical findings suggest that the use of such cells early or late after transplantation is associated with no acute toxicity, persistent circulation of the gene-modified cells (GMC) and GCV-sensitive GvHD. However, a number of limitations such as reduced immune function of gene-modified T-cells, immunogenicity of GMC as well as presence of a truncated HS-tk gene have emerged and need to be addressed.
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Affiliation(s)
- P Tiberghien
- Etablissement Français du Sang de Bourgogne/Franche-Comté, UPRES-EA 2284 Université de Franche-Comté, Besançon, France.
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41
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Affiliation(s)
- H Hörig
- Department of Surgery, Albert Einstein College of Medicine, Bronx, New York, 10461, USA
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