L-Arginine Availability and Metabolism Is Altered in Ulcerative Colitis

Synergistic effect and mechanism of monoacylglycerol lipase inhibitor and Icaritin in the treatment of ulcerative colitis

Ulcerative colitis (UC) is a chronic, relapsing nonspecific intestinal inflammatory disease. It is difficult for a single drug to treat UC effectively and maintain long-term efficacy. There is an urgent need to find new drugs and treatment strategies. MAGL11 is a new kind of single acylglycerol lipase (MAGL) inhibitor. Icaritin (Y003) is the major metabolite of icariin in vivo. Several studies have confirmed the role of MAGL inhibitors and icariin in anti-inflammatory and regulation of intestinal stability. Therefore, this study adopted a new strategy of combining MAGL inhibitor with Icaritin to further explore the role and mechanism of drugs in the treatment of UC. Enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA), hematoxylin-eosin staining (HE), immunohistochemical (IHC) and Western blot were used to detect the synergistic protective effects of MAGL11 and Y003 on intestinal pathological injury, intestinal mucosal permeability and inflammation in UC mice. 16S rDNA sequencing was used to detect the synergistic effect of MAGL11 and Y003 on gut microbiota. The effects of MAGL11 and Y003 combined therapy on serum and fecal metabolism of UC mice were analyzed by untargeted metabolomics. Proteomics method was applied to investigate the molecular mechanisms underlying MAGL11 and Y003 synergy in the treatment of UC. The results showed that MAGL11 and Y003 could synergistically improve the clinical symptoms, reduce intestinal inflammation and pathological damage, and improve intestinal mucosal permeability in UC mice. The mechanism study found that MAGL11 and Y003 could synergistically inhibit Toll-like receptors 4 (TLR4) / Myeloid differentiation primary response gene (Myd88)/Nuclear factor kappa-B (NF-κB) pathway and further regulate gut microbiota imbalance and metabolic disorders to treat UC.

Hierarchical tricarboxylic acid cycle regulation by hepatocyte arginase 2 links the urea cycle to oxidative metabolism

Urea cycle impairment and its relationship to obesity and inflammation remained elusive, partly due to the dramatic clinical presentation of classical urea cycle defects. We generated mice with hepatocyte-specific arginase 2 deletion (Arg2LKO) and revealed a mild compensated urea cycle defect. Stable isotope tracing and respirometry revealed hepatocyte urea and TCA cycle flux defects, impaired mitochondrial oxidative metabolism, and glutamine anaplerosis despite normal energy and glucose homeostasis during early adulthood. Yet during middle adulthood, chow- and diet-induced obese Arg2LKO mice develop exaggerated glucose and lipid derangements, which are reversible by replacing the TCA cycle oxidative substrate nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide. Moreover, serum-based hallmarks of urea, TCA cycle, and mitochondrial derangements predict incident fibroinflammatory liver disease in 106,606 patients nearly a decade in advance. The data reveal hierarchical urea-TCA cycle control via ARG2 to drive oxidative metabolism. Moreover, perturbations in this circuit may causally link urea cycle compromise to fibroinflammatory liver disease.

Identification and multimodal characterization of a specialized epithelial cell type associated with Crohn's disease

Crohn's disease (CD) is a complex chronic inflammatory disorder with both gastrointestinal and extra-intestinal manifestations associated immune dysregulation. Analyzing 202,359 cells from 170 specimens across 83 patients, we identify a distinct epithelial cell type in both terminal ileum and ascending colon (hereon as 'LND') with high expression of LCN2, NOS2, and DUOX2 and genes related to antimicrobial response and immunoregulation. LND cells, confirmed by in-situ RNA and protein imaging, are rare in non-IBD controls but expand in active CD, and actively interact with immune cells and specifically express IBD/CD susceptibility genes, suggesting a possible function in CD immunopathogenesis. Furthermore, we discover early and late LND subpopulations with different origins and developmental potential. A higher ratio of late-to-early LND cells correlates with better response to anti-TNF treatment. Our findings thus suggest a potential pathogenic role for LND cells in both Crohn's ileitis and colitis.

Arginase 2 attenuates ulcerative colitis by antioxidant effects of spermidine

BACKGROUND

Spermidine suppress oxidative stress and is involved in various disease pathogenesis including ulcerative colitis (UC). Arginase 2 (ARG2) plays a central role in the synthesis of spermidine. This study aimed to clarify the effect of endogenously produced spermidine on colitis.

METHODS

The physiological role of ARG2 and spermidine was investigated using Arg2-deficient mice with reduced spermidine. Immunohistochemical staining of the rectum was used to analyze ARG2 expression and spermidine levels in healthy controls and UC patients.

RESULTS

In mice with dextran sulfate sodium-induced colitis, ARG2 and spermidine levels were increased in the rectal epithelium. Spermidine protects colonic epithelial cells from oxidative stress and Arg2 knockdown cells reduced antioxidant activity. Organoids cultured from the small intestine and colon of Arg2-deficient mice both were more susceptible to oxidative stress. Colitis was exacerbated in Arg2-deficient mice compared to wild-type mice. Supplementation with spermidine result in comparable severity of colitis in both wild-type and Arg2-deficient mice. In the active phase of UC, rectal ARG2 expression and spermidine accumulation were increased compared to remission. ARG2 and spermidine levels were similar in healthy controls and UC remission patients.

CONCLUSIONS

ARG2 produces spermidine endogenously in the intestinal epithelium and has a palliative effect on ulcerative colitis. ARG2 and spermidine are potential novel therapeutic targets for UC.

A Specialized Epithelial Cell Type Regulating Mucosal Immunity and Driving Human Crohn's Disease

Crohn's disease (CD) is a complex chronic inflammatory disorder that may affect any part of gastrointestinal tract with extra-intestinal manifestations and associated immune dysregulation. To characterize heterogeneity in CD, we profiled single-cell transcriptomics of 170 samples from 65 CD patients and 18 non-inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) controls in both the terminal ileum (TI) and ascending colon (AC). Analysis of 202,359 cells identified a novel epithelial cell type in both TI and AC, featuring high expression of LCN2, NOS2, and DUOX2, and thus is named LND. LND cells, confirmed by high-resolution in-situ RNA imaging, were rarely found in non-IBD controls, but expanded significantly in active CD. Compared to other epithelial cells, genes defining LND cells were enriched in antimicrobial response and immunoregulation. Moreover, multiplexed protein imaging demonstrated that LND cell abundance was associated with immune infiltration. Cross-talk between LND and immune cells was explored by ligand-receptor interactions and further evidenced by their spatial colocalization. LND cells showed significant enrichment of expression specificity of IBD/CD susceptibility genes, revealing its role in immunopathogenesis of CD. Investigating lineage relationships of epithelial cells detected two LND cell subpopulations with different origins and developmental potential, early and late LND. The ratio of the late to early LND cells was related to anti-TNF response. These findings emphasize the pathogenic role of the specialized LND cell type in both Crohn's ileitis and Crohn's colitis and identify novel biomarkers associated with disease activity and treatment response.

Hypusination Maintains Intestinal Homeostasis and Prevents Colitis and Carcinogenesis by Enhancing Aldehyde Detoxification

BACKGROUND & AIMS

The amino acid hypusine, synthesized from the polyamine spermidine by the enzyme deoxyhypusine synthase (DHPS), is essential for the activity of eukaryotic translation initiation factor 5A (EIF5A). The role of hypusinated EIF5A (EIF5AHyp) remains unknown in intestinal homeostasis. Our aim was to investigate EIF5AHyp in the gut epithelium in inflammation and carcinogenesis.

METHODS

We used human colon tissue messenger RNA samples and publicly available transcriptomic datasets, tissue microarrays, and patient-derived colon organoids. Mice with intestinal epithelial-specific deletion of Dhps were investigated at baseline and in models of colitis and colon carcinogenesis.

RESULTS

We found that patients with ulcerative colitis and Crohn's disease exhibit reduced colon levels of DHPS messenger RNA and DHPS protein and reduced levels of EIF5AHyp. Similarly, colonic organoids from colitis patients also show down-regulated DHPS expression. Mice with intestinal epithelial-specific deletion of Dhps develop spontaneous colon hyperplasia, epithelial proliferation, crypt distortion, and inflammation. Furthermore, these mice are highly susceptible to experimental colitis and show exacerbated colon tumorigenesis when treated with a carcinogen. Transcriptomic and proteomic analysis on colonic epithelial cells demonstrated that loss of hypusination induces multiple pathways related to cancer and immune response. Moreover, we found that hypusination enhances translation of numerous enzymes involved in aldehyde detoxification, including glutathione S-transferases and aldehyde dehydrogenases. Accordingly, hypusination-deficient mice exhibit increased levels of aldehyde adducts in the colon, and their treatment with a scavenger of electrophiles reduces colitis.

CONCLUSIONS

Hypusination in intestinal epithelial cells has a key role in the prevention of colitis and colorectal cancer, and enhancement of this pathway via supplementation of spermidine could have a therapeutic impact.

Metabolite Alterations in Autoimmune Diseases: A Systematic Review of Metabolomics Studies

Autoimmune diseases, characterized by the immune system's loss of self-tolerance, lack definitive diagnostic tests, necessitating the search for reliable biomarkers. This systematic review aims to identify common metabolite changes across multiple autoimmune diseases. Following PRISMA guidelines, we conducted a systematic literature review by searching MEDLINE, ScienceDirect, Google Scholar, PubMed, and Scopus (Elsevier) using keywords "Metabolomics", "Autoimmune diseases", and "Metabolic changes". Articles published in English up to March 2023 were included without a specific start date filter. Among 257 studies searched, 88 full-text articles met the inclusion criteria. The included articles were categorized based on analyzed biological fluids: 33 on serum, 21 on plasma, 15 on feces, 7 on urine, and 12 on other biological fluids. Each study presented different metabolites with indications of up-regulation or down-regulation when available. The current study's findings suggest that amino acid metabolism may serve as a diagnostic biomarker for autoimmune diseases, particularly in systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE), multiple sclerosis (MS), and Crohn's disease (CD). While other metabolic alterations were reported, it implies that autoimmune disorders trigger multi-metabolite changes rather than singular alterations. These shifts could be consequential outcomes of autoimmune disorders, representing a more complex interplay. Further studies are needed to validate the metabolomics findings associated with autoimmune diseases.

LACC1: A critical involvement in macrophage immunometabolism

Laccase domain-containing 1 (LACC1) protein is an enzyme highly expressed in inflammatory macrophages, and studies have shown that it has a key role in diseases such as inflammatory bowel disease, arthritis, and microbial infections. Therefore, in this review, we focus on LACC1-mediated catalysis. In detail, LACC1 converts l-CITrulline (l-CIT) to l-ORNithine (l-ORN) and isocyanic acid in mice and humans and acts as a bridge between proinflammatory nitric oxide synthase (NOS2) and polyamine immunometabolism, thus exerting anti-inflammatory and antibacterial effects. Considering the actions of LACC1, targeting LACC1 may be a potent therapeutic avenue for inflammation-related diseases and microbial infection diseases.

The role of complex interactions between the intestinal flora and host in regulating intestinal homeostasis and inflammatory bowel disease

Pharmacological treatment of inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) is inefficient and difficult to discontinue appropriately, and enterobacterial interactions are expected to provide a new target for the treatment of IBD. We collected recent studies on the enterobacterial interactions among the host, enterobacteria, and their metabolite products and discuss potential therapeutic options. Intestinal flora interactions in IBD are affected in the reduced bacterial diversity, impact the immune system and are influenced by multiple factors such as host genetics and diet. Enterobacterial metabolites such as SCFAs, bile acids, and tryptophan also play important roles in enterobacterial interactions, especially in the progression of IBD. Therapeutically, a wide range of sources of probiotics and prebiotics exhibit potential therapeutic benefit in IBD through enterobacterial interactions, and some have gained wide recognition as adjuvant drugs. Different dietary patterns and foods, especially functional foods, are novel therapeutic modalities that distinguish pro-and prebiotics from traditional medications. Combined studies with food science may significantly improve the therapeutic experience of patients with IBD. In this review, we provide a brief overview of the role of enterobacteria and their metabolites in enterobacterial interactions, discuss the advantages and disadvantages of the potential therapeutic options derived from such metabolites, and postulate directions for further research.

Clinopodium chinense Kuntze ameliorates dextran sulfate sodium-induced ulcerative colitis in mice by reducing systematic inflammation and regulating metabolism

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Clinopodium chinense Kuntze (CC), traditional Chinese medicine with anti-inflammatory, anti-diarrheal, and hemostatic activities, has been used to treat dysentery and bleeding diseases for thousands of years, which are similar to the symptoms of ulcerative colitis (UC).

AIM OF THE STUDY

To obtain a novel treatment for UC, an integrated strategy was developed in this study to investigate the effect and mechanism of CC against UC.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The chemical characterization of CC was scanned by UPLC-MS/MS. Network pharmacology analysis was performed to predict the active ingredients and pharmacological mechanisms of CC against UC. Further, the results of network pharmacology were validated using LPS-induced RAW 264.7 cells and DSS-induced UC mice. The production of pro-inflammatory mediators and biochemical parameters was tested using the ELISA kits. The expression of NF-κB, COX-2, and iNOS proteins was evaluated using Western blot analysis. Body weight, disease activity index, colon length, histopathological examination, and metabolomics analysis in colon tissues were carried out to confirm the effect and mechanism of CC.

RESULTS

Based on the chemical characterization and literature collection, a rich database of ingredients in CC was constructed. Network pharmacology analysis provided five core components as well as revealed that the mechanism of CC against UC was highly related to inflammation, especially the NF-κB signaling pathway. In vitro experiments showed CC could inhibit inflammation by LPS-TLR4-NF-κB-iNOS/COX-2 signaling pathway in RAW264.7 cells. Meanwhile, in vivo experimental results proved that CC significantly alleviated pathological features with increased body weight and colonic length, decreased DAI and oxidative damage, as well as mediated inflammatory factors like NO, PGE2, IL-6, IL-10, and TNF-ɑ. In addition, colon metabolomics analysis revealed CC could restore the abnormal endogenous metabolite levels in UC. 18 screened biomarkers were further enriched in four pathways including Arachidonic acid metabolism, Histidine metabolism, Alanine, aspartate and glutamate metabolism as well as the Pentose phosphate pathway.

CONCLUSION

This study demonstrates that CC could alleviate UC by reducing systematic inflammation and regulating metabolism, which is beneficial for providing scientific data for the development of UC treatment.

3, 3'-diindolylmethane enhances macrophage efferocytosis and subsequently relieves visceral pain via the AhR/Nrf2/Arg-1-mediated arginine metabolism pathway

BACKGROUND

3, 3'-diindolylmethane (DIM), a classical aryl hydrocarbon receptor (AhR) agonist, has been shown to relieve neuropathic pain, but few studies have reported the efficacy of DIM in visceral pain under colitis condition.

PURPOSE

This study aimed to investigate the effect and mechanism of DIM on visceral pain under colitis condition.

METHODS

Cytotoxicity was performed using the MTT assay. RT-qPCR and ELISA assays were applied to determine the expression and release of algogenic substance P (SP), nerve growth factor (NGF) and brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF). Flow cytometry was used to examine the apoptosis and efferocytosis. The expression of Arg-1-arginine metabolism-related enzymes was detected using western blotting assays. ChIP assays were used to examine the binding of Nrf2 to Arg-1. Mouse models of dextran sulfate sodium (DSS) were established to illustrate the effect of DIM and validate the mechanism in vivo.

RESULTS

DIM did not directly affect expressions and release of algogenic SP, NGF and BDNF in enteric glial cells (EGCs). However, when co-cultured with DIM-pre-treated RAW264.7 cells, the release of SP and NGF was decreased in lipopolysaccharides-stimulated EGCs. Furthermore, DIM increased the number of PKH67⁺ F4/80⁺ cells in the co-culture system of EGCs and RAW264.7 cells in vitro and alleviated visceral pain under colitis condition by regulating levels of SP and NGF as well as values of electromyogram (EMG), abdominal withdrawal reflex (AWR) and tail-flick latency (TFL) in vivo, which was significantly inhibited by efferocytosis inhibitor. Subsequently, DIM was found to down-regulate levels of intracellular arginine, up-regulate levels of ornithine, putrescine and Arg-1 but not extracellular arginine or other metabolic enzymes, and polyamine scavengers reversed the effect of DIM on efferocytosis and release of SP and NGF. Moving forward, Nrf2 transcription and the binding of Nrf2 to Arg-1-0.7 kb was enhanced by DIM, AhR antagonist CH223191 abolished the promotion of DIM on Arg-1 and efferocytosis. Finally, nor-NOHA validated the importance of Arg-1-dependent arginine metabolism in DIM-alleviated visceral pain.

CONCLUSION

DIM enhances macrophage efferocytosis in an arginine metabolism-dependent manner via "AhR-Nrf2/Arg-1" signals and inhibits the release of SP and NGF to relieve visceral pain under colitis condition. These findings provide a potential therapeutic strategy for the treatment of visceral pain in patients with colitis.

Barley Leaf Ameliorates Citrobacter-rodentium-Induced Colitis through Arginine Enrichment

Inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) has become a global public health challenge. Our previous study showed that barley leaf (BL) significantly reduces Citrobacter-rodentium (CR)-induced colitis, but its mechanism remains elusive. Thus, in this study, we used non-targeted metabolomics techniques to search for potentially effective metabolites. Our results demonstrated that dietary supplementation with BL significantly enriched arginine and that arginine intervention significantly ameliorated CR-induced colitis symptoms such as reduced body weight, shortened colon, wrinkled cecum, and swollen colon wall in mice; in addition, arginine intervention dramatically ameliorated CR-induced histopathological damage to the colon. The gut microbial diversity analysis showed that arginine intervention significantly decreased the relative abundance of CR and significantly increased the relative abundance of Akkermansia, Blautia, Enterorhabdus, and Lachnospiraceae, which modified the CR-induced intestinal flora disorder. Notably, arginine showed a dose-dependent effect on the improvement of colitis caused by CR.

Pivotal Role of Intestinal Microbiota and Intraluminal Metabolites for the Maintenance of Gut-Bone Physiology

Intestinal microbiota, and their mutual interactions with host tissues, are pivotal for the maintenance of organ physiology. Indeed, intraluminal signals influence adjacent and even distal tissues. Consequently, disruptions in the composition or functions of microbiota and subsequent altered host-microbiota interactions disturb the homeostasis of multiple organ systems, including the bone. Thus, gut microbiota can influence bone mass and physiology, as well as postnatal skeletal evolution. Alterations in nutrient or electrolyte absorption, metabolism, or immune functions, due to the translocation of microbial antigens or metabolites across intestinal barriers, affect bone tissues, as well. Intestinal microbiota can directly and indirectly alter bone density and bone remodeling. Intestinal dysbiosis and a subsequently disturbed gut-bone axis are characteristic for patients with inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) who suffer from various intestinal symptoms and multiple bone-related complications, such as arthritis or osteoporosis. Immune cells affecting the joints are presumably even primed in the gut. Furthermore, intestinal dysbiosis impairs hormone metabolism and electrolyte balance. On the other hand, less is known about the impact of bone metabolism on gut physiology. In this review, we summarized current knowledge of gut microbiota, metabolites and microbiota-primed immune cells in IBD and bone-related complications.

RIOK3 promotes mTORC1 activation by facilitating SLC7A2-mediated arginine uptake in pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma

Pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma (PDAC) is a highly aggressive malignancy with a poor prognosis. Reprogramming of amino acid metabolism is one of the characteristics of PDAC, in which arginine metabolism is significantly altered in PDAC cells and is involved in important signaling pathways. Current studies have identified arginine deprivation as a potential strategy for PDAC treatment. In this study, we performed Liquid Chromatograph Mass Spectrometer (LC-MS)-based non-targeted metabolomic analysis on PDAC cell lines with stable Rio Kinase 3 (RIOK3) knockdown and PDAC tissues with different RIOK3 expressions and found that RIOK3 expression was significantly correlated with arginine metabolism in PDAC. Subsequent RNA sequencing (RNA-Seq) and Western blot analysis showed that RIOK3 knockdown significantly inhibited the expression of arginine transporter solute carrier family 7 member 2 (SLC7A2). Further studies revealed that RIOK3 promoted arginine uptake, mechanistic target of rapamycin complex 1 (mTORC1) activation, cell invasion, and metastasis in PDAC cells via SLC7A2. Finally, we found that patients with high expression of both RIOK3 and infiltrating Treg cells had a worse prognosis. Overall, our study found that RIOK3 in PDAC cells promotes arginine uptake and mTORC1 activation through upregulation of SLC7A2 expression, and also provides a new therapeutic target for therapeutic strategies targeting arginine metabolism.

Patient-Reported Outcomes Correlate With Microbial Community Composition Independent of Mucosal Inflammation in Pediatric Inflammatory Bowel Disease

BACKGROUND

Inflammatory bowel diseases (IBDs) involve an aberrant host response to intestinal microbiota causing mucosal inflammation and gastrointestinal symptoms. Patient-reported outcomes (PROs) are increasingly important in clinical care and research. Our aim was to examine associations between PROs and fecal microbiota in patients 0 to 22 years of age with IBD.

METHODS

A longitudinal, prospective, single-center study tested for associations between microbial community composition via shotgun metagenomics and PROs including stool frequency and rectal bleeding in ulcerative colitis (UC) and abdominal pain and stool frequency in Crohn's disease (CD). Mucosal inflammation was assessed with fecal calprotectin. A negative binomial mixed-effects model including clinical characteristics and fecal calprotectin tested for differentially abundant species and metabolic pathways by PROs.

RESULTS

In 70 CD patients with 244 stool samples, abdominal pain correlated with increased relative abundance of Haemophilus and reduced Clostridium spp. There were no differences relative to calprotectin level. In 23 UC patients with 76 samples, both rectal bleeding and increased stool frequency correlated with increased Klebsiella and reduced Bacteroides spp. Conversely, UC patients with lower calprotectin had reduced Klebsiella. Both UC and CD patients with active symptoms exhibited less longitudinal microbial community stability. No differences in metabolic pathways were observed in CD. Increased sulfoglycolysis and ornithine biosynthesis correlated with symptomatic UC.

CONCLUSIONS

Microbial community composition correlated with PROs in both CD and UC. Metabolic pathways differed relative to PROs in UC, but not CD. Data suggest that microbiota may contribute to patient symptoms in IBD, in addition to effects of mucosal inflammation.

Arginine limitation drives a directed codon-dependent DNA sequence evolution response in colorectal cancer cells

Utilization of specific codons varies between organisms. Cancer represents a model for understanding DNA sequence evolution and could reveal causal factors underlying codon evolution. We found that across human cancer, arginine codons are frequently mutated to other codons. Moreover, arginine limitation-a feature of tumor microenvironments-is sufficient to induce arginine codon-switching mutations in human colon cancer cells. Such DNA codon switching events encode mutant proteins with arginine residue substitutions. Mechanistically, arginine limitation caused rapid reduction of arginine transfer RNAs and the stalling of ribosomes over arginine codons. Such selective pressure against arginine codon translation induced an adaptive proteomic shift toward low-arginine codon-containing genes, including specific amino acid transporters, and caused mutational evolution away from arginine codons-reducing translational bottlenecks that occurred during arginine starvation. Thus, environmental availability of a specific amino acid can influence DNA sequence evolution away from its cognate codons and generate altered proteins.

Arginine limitation causes a directed DNA sequence evolution response in colorectal cancer cells

Utilization of specific codons varies significantly across organisms. Cancer represents a model for understanding DNA sequence evolution and could reveal causal factors underlying codon evolution. We found that across human cancer, arginine codons are frequently mutated to other codons. Moreover, arginine restriction-a feature of tumor microenvironments-is sufficient to induce arginine codon-switching mutations in human colon cancer cells. Such DNA codon switching events encode mutant proteins with arginine residue substitutions. Mechanistically, arginine limitation caused rapid reduction of arginine transfer RNAs and the stalling of ribosomes over arginine codons. Such selective pressure against arginine codon translation induced a proteomic shift towards low arginine codon containing genes, including specific amino acid transporters, and caused mutational evolution away from arginine codons-reducing translational bottlenecks that occurred during arginine starvation. Thus, environmental availability of a specific amino acid can influence DNA sequence evolution away from its cognate codons and generate altered proteins.

Gut transcriptome reveals differential gene expression and enriched pathways linked to immune activation in response to weaning in pigs

Weaning represents one of the most critical periods in pig production associated with increase in disease risk, reduction in performance and economic loss. Physiological changes faced by piglets during the weaning period have been well characterised, however little is currently known about the underlying molecular pathways involved in these processes. As pig meat remains one of the most consumed sources of protein worldwide, understanding how these changes are mediated is critical to improve pig production and consequently sustainable food production globally. In this study, we evaluated the effect of weaning on transcriptomic changes in the colon of healthy piglets over time using an RNA-sequencing approach. The findings revealed a complex and coordinated response to weaning with the majority of genes found to be rapidly differentially expressed within 1 day post weaning. Multiple genes and pathways affected by weaning in the colon were associated with immune regulation, cell signalling and bacterial defence. NOD-like receptors, Toll-like receptor and JAK-STAT signalling pathways were amongst the pathways significantly enriched. Immune activation was evidenced by the enrichment of pathways involved in interferon response, cytokines interactions, oxidoreductase activities and response to microbial invasion. Biosynthesis of amino acids, in particular arginine, was also amongst the most enriched KEGG pathways in weaned pigs, reinforcing the critical role of arginine in gut homeostasis under stress conditions. Overall, transcriptomic and physiological results suggest that pigs going through the weaning transition undergo a transient period of inflammatory state with a temporary breakdown of barrier functions in the gut. These findings could provide valuable tools to monitor host response post weaning, and may be of particular relevance for the investigation and development of intervention strategies aimed to reduce antibiotic use and improve pig health and performance.

Metabolome Changes With Diet-Induced Remission in Pediatric Crohn's Disease

BACKGROUND & AIMS

The Crohn's disease (CD) exclusion diet (CDED) plus partial enteral nutrition (PEN) and exclusive enteral nutrition (EEN) both induce remission in pediatric CD. CDED+PEN is better tolerated and able to sustain remission. We characterized the changes in fecal metabolites induced by CDED+PEN and EEN and their relationship with remission.

METHODS

A total of 216 fecal metabolites were measured in 80 fecal samples at week (W) 0, W6, and W12, of children with mild to moderate CD in a prospective randomized trial comparing CDED+PEN vs EEN. The metabolites were measured using liquid chromatography coupled to mass spectrometry. Metagenome Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes Orthology analysis was performed to investigate the differential functional gene abundance involved in specific metabolic pathways. Data were analyzed according to clinical outcome of remission (W6_rem), no remission (W6_nr), sustained remission (W12_sr), and nonsustained (W12_nsr) remission.

RESULTS

A decrease in kynurenine and succinate synthesis and an increase in N-α-acetyl-arginine characterized CDED+PEN W6_rem, whereas changes in lipid metabolism characterized EEN W6_rem, especially reflected by lower levels in ceramides. In contrast, fecal metabolites in EEN W6_nr were comparable to baseline/W0 samples. CDED+PEN W6_rem children maintained metabolome changes through W12. In contrast, W12_nsr children in the EEN group, who resumed a free diet after week 6, did not. The metabolome of CDED+PEN differed from EEN in the purine, pyrimidine, and sphingolipid pathways. A significant differential abundance in several genes involved in these pathways was detected.

CONCLUSION

CDED+PEN- and EEN-induced remission are associated with significant changes in inflammatory bowel disease-associated metabolites such as kynurenine, ceramides, amino acids, and others. Sustained remission with CDED+PEN, but not EEN, was associated with persistent changes in metabolites.

CLINICALTRIALS

gov, Number NCT01728870.

Arginine metabolism regulates the pathogenesis of inflammatory bowel disease

The pathogenesis of inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) is related to genetic susceptibility, enteric dysbiosis, and uncontrolled, chronic inflammatory responses that lead to colonic tissue damage and impaired intestinal absorption. As a consequence, patients with IBD are prone to nutrition deficits after each episode of disease resurgence. Nutritional supplementation, especially for protein components, is often implemented during the remission phase of IBD. Notably, ingested nutrients could affect the progression of IBD and the prognostic outcome of patients; therefore, they should be cautiously evaluated prior to being used for IBD intervention. Arginine (Arg) is a semi-essential amino acid required for protein synthesis and intimately associated with gut pathophysiology. To help optimize arginine-based nutritional intervention strategies, the present work summarizes that during the process of IBD, patients manifest colonic Arg deficiency and the turbulence of Arg metabolic pathways. The roles of Arg–nitric oxide (catalyzed by inducible nitric oxide synthase) and Arg–urea (catalyzed by arginases) pathways in IBD are debatable; the Arg–polyamine and Arg–creatine pathways are mainly protective. Overall, supplementation with Arg is a promising therapeutic strategy for IBD; however, the dosage of Arg may need to be carefully tailored for different individuals at different disease stages. Additionally, the combination of Arg supplementation with inhibitors of Arg metabolic pathways as well as other treatment options is worthy of further exploration.

Role of Nutrient-sensing Receptor GPRC6A in Regulating Colonic Group 3 Innate Lymphoid Cells and Inflamed Mucosal Healing

BACKGROUND AND AIMS

Group 3 innate lymphoid cells [ILC3s] sense environmental signals and are critical in gut homeostasis and immune defence. G-protein-coupled receptors [GPCRs] mediate cellular responses to diverse environmental signals. However, the GPCRs' regulation mechanisms of ILC3s is largely unknown.

METHODS

We used wild-type [WT] and GPRC6A-/- mice to investigate the role of GPRC6A in the population and the function of ILC3s. We then purified ILC3s from WT and GPRC6A-/- mice. Colitis was induced in WT mice and GPRC6A-/- mice through dextran sodium sulphate [DSS] administration or C. rodentium infection. Furthermore L-arginine, a selective GPRC6A agonist, was administered to mice with colitis.

RESULTS

We found that colonic ILC3s expressed GPRC6A. The deficiency of GPRC6A decreased ILC3-derived interleukin-22 [IL-22] production and the number of proliferating ILC3s, which led to increased susceptibility to colon injury and pathogen infection and impaired inflamed mucosal healing. Further studies showed that L-arginine, a GPRC6A agonist, promoted colonic ILC3 expansion and function via the mammalian target of rapamycin complex 1 [mTORC1] signalling in vitro. In addition, L-arginine attenuated DSS-induced colitis in vivo. This was associated with a significant increase in IL-22 secretion by ILC3s.

CONCLUSIONS

Our findings unveil a role for the nutrient-sensing receptor GPRC6A in colonic ILC3 function and identify a novel ILC3 receptor signalling pathway modulating inflamed mucosal healing.

Gut microbial metabolome in inflammatory bowel disease: From association to therapeutic perspectives

Inflammatory bowel disease (IBD), comprising Crohn's disease (CD) and ulcerative colitis (UC), is a set of clinically chronic, relapsing gastrointestinal inflammatory disease and lacks of an absolute cure. Although the precise etiology is unknown, developments in high-throughput microbial genomic sequencing significantly illuminate the changes in the intestinal microbial structure and functions in patients with IBD. The application of microbial metabolomics suggests that the microbiota can influence IBD pathogenesis by producing metabolites, which are implicated as crucial mediators of host-microbial crosstalk. This review aims to elaborate the current knowledge of perturbations of the microbiome-metabolome interface in IBD with description of altered composition and metabolite profiles of gut microbiota. We emphasized and elaborated recent findings of several potentially protective metabolite classes in IBD, including fatty acids, amino acids and derivatives and bile acids. This article will facilitate a deeper understanding of the new therapeutic approach for IBD by applying metabolome-based adjunctive treatment.

Protective Role of Spermidine in Colitis and Colon Carcinogenesis

BACKGROUND & AIMS

Because inflammatory bowel disease is increasing worldwide and can lead to colitis-associated carcinoma (CAC), new interventions are needed. We have shown that spermine oxidase (SMOX), which generates spermidine (Spd), regulates colitis. Here we determined whether Spd treatment reduces colitis and carcinogenesis.

METHODS

SMOX was quantified in human colitis and associated dysplasia using quantitative reverse-transcription polymerase chain reaction and immunohistochemistry. We used wild-type (WT) and Smox-/- C57BL/6 mice treated with dextran sulfate sodium (DSS) or azoxymethane (AOM)-DSS as models of colitis and CAC, respectively. Mice with epithelial-specific deletion of Apc were used as a model of sporadic colon cancer. Animals were supplemented or not with Spd in the drinking water. Colonic polyamines, inflammation, tumorigenesis, transcriptomes, and microbiomes were assessed.

RESULTS

SMOX messenger RNA levels were decreased in human ulcerative colitis tissues and inversely correlated with disease activity, and SMOX protein was reduced in colitis-associated dysplasia. DSS colitis and AOM-DSS-induced dysplasia and tumorigenesis were worsened in Smox-/- vs WT mice and improved in both genotypes with Spd. Tumor development caused by Apc deletion was also reduced by Spd. Smox deletion and AOM-DSS treatment were both strongly associated with increased expression of α-defensins, which was reduced by Spd. A shift in the microbiome, with reduced abundance of Prevotella and increased Proteobacteria and Deferribacteres, occurred in Smox-/- mice and was reversed with Spd.

CONCLUSIONS

Loss of SMOX is associated with exacerbated colitis and CAC, increased α-defensin expression, and dysbiosis of the microbiome. Spd supplementation reverses these phenotypes, indicating that it has potential as an adjunctive treatment for colitis and chemopreventive for colon carcinogenesis.

Amino Acid Solute Carrier Transporters in Inflammation and Autoimmunity

The past decade exposed the importance of many homeostasis and metabolism related proteins in autoimmunity disease and inflammation. Solute carriers (SLCs) are a group of membrane channels that can transport amino acids, the building blocks of proteins, nutrients, and neurotransmitters. This review summarizes the role of SLCs amino acid transporters in inflammation and autoimmunity disease. In detail, the importance of Glutamate transporters SLC1A1, SLC1A2, and SLC1A3, mainly expressed in the brain where they help prevent glutamate excitotoxicity, is discussed in the context of central nervous system disorders such as multiple sclerosis. Similarly, the cationic amino acid transporter SLC7A1 (CAT1), which is an important arginine transporter for T cells, and SLC7A2 (CAT2), essential for innate immunity. SLC3 family proteins, which bind with light chains from the SLC7 family (SLC7A5, SLC7A7 and SLC7A11) to form heteromeric amino acid transporters, are also explored to describe their roles in T cells, NK cells, macrophages and tumor immunotherapies. Altogether, the link between SLC amino acid transporters with inflammation and autoimmunity may contribute to a better understanding of underlying mechanism of disease and provide novel potential therapeutic avenues. Significance Statement SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT In this review, we summarize the link between SLC amino acid transporters and inflammation and immune responses, specially SLC1 family members and SLC7 members. Studying the link may contribute to a better understanding of related diseases and provide potential therapeutic targets and useful to the researchers who have interest in the involvement of amino acids in immunity.

Human gut bacterial metabolism drives Th17 activation and colitis

Bacterial activation of T helper 17 (Th17) cells exacerbates mouse models of autoimmunity, but how human-associated bacteria impact Th17-driven disease remains elusive. We show that human gut Actinobacterium Eggerthella lenta induces intestinal Th17 activation by lifting inhibition of the Th17 transcription factor Rorγt through cell- and antigen-independent mechanisms. E. lenta is enriched in inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) patients and worsens colitis in a Rorc-dependent manner in mice. Th17 activation varies across E. lenta strains, which is attributable to the cardiac glycoside reductase 2 (Cgr2) enzyme. Cgr2 is sufficient to induce interleukin (IL)-17a, a major Th17 cytokine. cgr2+ E. lenta deplete putative steroidal glycosides in pure culture; related compounds are negatively associated with human IBD severity. Finally, leveraging the sensitivity of Cgr2 to dietary arginine, we prevented E. lenta-induced intestinal inflammation in mice. Together, these results support a role for human gut bacterial metabolism in driving Th17-dependent autoimmunity.

The Pharmacological Mechanism of Guchangzhixie Capsule Against Experimental Colitis

Ulcerative colitis (UC) is the major type of inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) characterized by an overactive immune response and destruction of colorectal epithelium with intricate pathological factors. Guchangzhixie (GCZX) capsule, included in the Chinese Pharmacopoeia 2020, has been widely utilized against UC. However, the underlying molecular mechanisms have not been elucidated. In the present study, a murine model of experimental colitis was established by orally feeding 4% dextran sodium sulfate (DSS) for 5 days and subsequently subjecting to GCZX treatment for another 15 days. Network pharmacology analysis was performed to predict the pertinent mechanisms of GCZX capsule. Cellular experiments examining the functional changes of intestinal organoids (IOs), macrophages (Mφs), and human colon epithelial cell cells (NCM460 cell line) after GCZX therapy were performed. Sequencing of 16S rRNA was conducted on the stools from the mouse model. Liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry (LC–MS) was utilized to detect serum metabolites. As a result, DSS induced experimental colitis, and this induction was alleviated by GCZX treatment, as evidenced by rescued pathological symptoms in UC mouse models, such as rectal bleeding stopping, decreased levels of albumin, interleukin-17, as well as chemokine (C-X-C motif) ligand 1 (CXCL1), and reduction in colon length. Network pharmacology analysis showed that GCZX-target genes were enriched in pathogen-induced infections, inflammatory pathways, as well as neoplastic processes. DSS treatment decreased microbial diversity and led to the accumulation of pathological bacterial, which was reversed by GCZX capsule. PICRUSt2 (Phylogenetic Investigation of Communities by Reconstruction of Unobserved States) based on profiles of microbiota composition demonstrated a decreased incidence of infectious disease and cancers after GCZX therapy. In full accordance with these data, GCZX administration suppressed Mφ transition to pro-inflammatory phenotype, alleviated tumor necrosis factor-α (TNFα)-compromised IOs functions, and decreased the recruitment of Mφs by epithelial cells. We conclude that GCZX capsule is an effective drug for UC and its pharmacological mechanisms involve re-establishing an anti-inflammatory milieu and favoring mucosal healing.

A novel bioavailable curcumin-galactomannan complex modulates the genes responsible for the development of chronic diseases in mice: A RNA sequence analysis

BACKGROUND

Chronic diseases or non-communicable diseases are a major burden worldwide due to the lack of highly efficacious treatment modalities and the serious side effects associated with the available therapies.

PURPOSE/STUDY DESIGN

A novel self-emulsifying formulation of curcumin with fenugreek galactomannan hydrogel scaffold as a water-dispersible non-covalent curcumin-galactomannan molecular complex (curcumagalactomannosides, CGM) has shown better bioavailability than curcumin and can be used for the prevention and treatment of chronic diseases. However, the exact potential of this formulation has not been studied, which would pave the way for its use for the prevention and treatment of multiple chronic diseases.

METHODS

The whole transcriptome analysis (RNAseq) was used to identify differentially expressed genes (DEGs) in the liver tissues of mice treated with LPS to investigate the potential of CGM on the prevention and treatment of chronic diseases. Expression analysis using DESeq2 package, GO, and pathway analysis of the differentially expressed transcripts was performed using UniProtKB and KEGG-KAAS server.

RESULTS

The results showed that 559 genes differentially expressed between the liver tissue of control mice and CGM treated mice (100 mg/kg b.wt. for 14 days), with adjusted p-value below 0.05, of which 318 genes were significantly upregulated and 241 were downregulated. Further analysis showed that 33 genes which were upregulated (log2FC > 8) in the disease conditions were significantly downregulated, and 32 genes which were downregulated (log2FC < -8) in the disease conditions were significantly upregulated after the treatment with CGM.

CONCLUSION

Overall, our study showed CGM has high potential in the prevention and treatment of multiple chronic diseases.

Network pharmacology dissection of multiscale mechanisms for jiaoqi powder in treating ulcerative colitis

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

The incidence of ulcerative colitis (UC) is increasing worldwide, making it a serious public health challenge. Currently, there are no accepted curative treatments for UC. As such, the exploration of new therapeutic strategies for UC treatment is of considerable clinical importance. Jiaoqi powder (JQP) is a classic Chinese medicinal formula commonly used as a complementary and alternative medicine for treating gastrointestinal bleeding. JQP is thus a potential alternative medicine for UC treatment. However, the protective mechanism underlying the action of JQP has not been elucidated, thereby, necessitating further studies to decipher the mechanisms involved in the complex interplay among its components.

AIM OF THE STUDY

To explore the protective effect of JQP against UC and to further investigate its mechanism in silico and in vivo using a systems pharmacology approach.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

A systems pharmacology approach was used to predict the active components of JQP. Putative targets and the potential mechanism of JQP on UC were obtained through target fishing, network construction, and enrichment analyses. An animal-based model of dextran sodium sulfate (DSS)-induced colitis in C57BL/6 mice was further used to validate the treatment mechanisms of JQP. The underlying pharmacological mechanisms of JQP in UC were determined using polymerase chain reaction tests, histological staining, immunohistochemistry, enzyme-linked immunoassays, and flow cytometry analysis.

RESULTS

In this study, 17 effective components and 941 potential targets of JQP were identified. Similarly, 2104 UC-related targets were also identified. Construction of PPI networks led to the identification of 184 putative therapeutic targets of JQP. Sixty-nine core targets among these 184 were further screened based on their DC values. Gene ontology (GO) functional and Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes (KEGG) pathway analyses revealed that the core targets were primarily enriched in immune response and inflammatory signalling pathways. Subsequent animal-based in vivo experiments revealed that JQP ameliorated symptoms and histological changes in DSS colitis by significantly impairing DSS's ability to induce high expression levels of NF-κB/p65, IL-1β, IL-6, and TNF-α. JQP also reduced the levels of COX-2, CCL2, CXCL2, HIF-1α, MMP3 and MMP9 and regulated the Th17/Treg cell balance in DSS-induced mice.

CONCLUSIONS

This study demonstrated that JQP could treat UC by improving the mucosal inflammatory response, repairing the intestinal barrier, and modulating the Th17/Treg immune balance. The results of this study provide new insights into UC treatment and further elucidate the theoretical and practical implications of the pharmaceutical development of TCMs.

SLC7A2 deficiency promotes hepatocellular carcinoma progression by enhancing recruitment of myeloid-derived suppressors cells

The main reason for poor prognosis in hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) patients is high metastasis and recurrence. Cancer progression depends on a tumor-supportive microenvironment. Therefore, illustrating the mechanisms of tumor immunity in underlying HCC metastasis is essential. Here, we report a novel role of solute carrier family 7 member 2 (SLC7A2), a member of the solute carrier family, in HCC metastasis. The reduction of SLC7A2 was an independent and significant risk factor for the survival of HCC patients. Upregulation of SLC7A2 decreased HCC invasion and metastasis, whereas downregulation of SLC7A2 promoted HCC invasion and metastasis. We further found that deficient SLC7A2 medicated the upregulation of CXCL1 through PI3K/Akt/NF-kκB pathway to recruit myeloid-derived suppressor cells (MDSCs), exerting tumor immunosuppressive effect. Moreover, we found that G9a-mediated di-methylation of H3K9 (H3K9me2) silenced the expression of SLC7A2 to suppress HCC metastasis and immune escape. In conclusion, G9a-mediated silencing of SLC7A2 exerts unexpected functions in cancer metastasis by fostering a tumor-supportive microenvironment through CXCL1 secretion and MDSCs recruitment. Thus, SLC7A2 may provide new mechanistic insight into the cancer-promoting property of MDSCs.

Healthy Cotwins Share Gut Microbiome Signatures With Their Inflammatory Bowel Disease Twins and Unrelated Patients

BACKGROUND & AIMS

It is currently unclear whether reported changes in the gut microbiome are cause or consequence of inflammatory bowel disease (IBD). Therefore, we studied the gut microbiome of IBD-discordant and -concordant twin pairs, which offers the unique opportunity to assess individuals at increased risk of developing IBD, namely healthy cotwins from IBD-discordant twin pairs.

METHODS

Fecal samples were obtained from 99 twins (belonging to 51 twin pairs), 495 healthy age-, sex-, and body mass index-matched controls, and 99 unrelated patients with IBD. Whole-genome metagenomic shotgun sequencing was performed. Taxonomic and functional (pathways) composition was compared among healthy cotwins, IBD-twins, unrelated patients with IBD, and healthy controls with multivariable (ie, adjusted for potential confounding) generalized linear models.

RESULTS

No significant differences were observed in the relative abundance of species and pathways between healthy cotwins and their IBD-twins (false discovery rate <0.10). Compared with healthy controls, 13, 19, and 18 species, and 78, 105, and 153 pathways were found to be differentially abundant in healthy cotwins, IBD-twins, and unrelated patients with IBD, respectively (false discovery rate <0.10). Of these, 8 (42.1%) of 19 and 1 (5.6%) of 18 species, and 37 (35.2%) of 105 and 30 (19.6%) of 153 pathways overlapped between healthy cotwins and IBD-twins, and healthy cotwins and unrelated patients with IBD, respectively. Many of the shared species and pathways have previously been associated with IBD. The shared pathways include potentially inflammation-related pathways, for example, an increase in propionate degradation and L-arginine degradation pathways.

CONCLUSIONS

The gut microbiome of healthy cotwins from IBD-discordant twin pairs displays IBD-like signatures. These IBD-like microbiome signatures might precede the onset of IBD. However, longitudinal follow-up studies are needed to infer a causal relationship.

Versatile Nutraceutical Potentials of Watermelon-A Modest Fruit Loaded with Pharmaceutically Valuable Phytochemicals

Watermelon (Citrulus lantus) is an important horticultural crop which belongs to the Curcubitaceae family. The nutraceutical potential of watermelon has been illustrated by several researchers, which makes it a better choice of functional food. Watermelon has been used to treat various ailments, such as cardio-vascular diseases, aging related ailments, obesity, diabetes, ulcers, and various types of cancers. The medicinal properties of watermelon are attributed by the presence of important phytochemicals with pharmaceutical values such as lycopene, citrulline, and other polyphenolic compounds. Watermelon acts as vital source of l-citrulline, a neutral-alpha amino acid which is the precursor of l-arginine, an essential amino acid necessary for protein synthesis. Supplementation of l-citrulline and lycopene displayed numerous health benefits in in vitro and in vivo studies. Similarly, the dietary intake of watermelon has proven benefits as functional food in humans for weight management. Apart from the fruits, the extracts prepared from the seeds, sprouts, and leaves also evidenced medicinal properties. The present review provides a comprehensive overview of benefits of watermelon for the treatment of various ailments.

Arginase impedes the resolution of colitis by altering the microbiome and metabolome

Arginase 1 (Arg1), which converts l-arginine into ornithine and urea, exerts pleiotropic immunoregulatory effects. However, the function of Arg1 in inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) remains poorly characterized. Here, we found that Arg1 expression correlated with the degree of inflammation in intestinal tissues from IBD patients. In mice, Arg1 was upregulated in an IL-4/IL-13- and intestinal microbiota-dependent manner. Tie2-Cre Arg1fl/fl mice lacking Arg1 in hematopoietic and endothelial cells recovered faster from colitis than Arg1-expressing (Arg1fl/fl) littermates. This correlated with decreased vessel density, compositional changes in intestinal microbiota, diminished infiltration by myeloid cells, and an accumulation of intraluminal polyamines that promote epithelial healing. The proresolving effect of Arg1 deletion was reduced by an l-arginine-free diet, but rescued by simultaneous deletion of other l-arginine-metabolizing enzymes, such as Arg2 or Nos2, demonstrating that protection from colitis requires l-arginine. Fecal microbiota transfers from Tie2-Cre Arg1fl/fl mice into WT recipients ameliorated intestinal inflammation, while transfers from WT littermates into Arg1-deficient mice prevented an advanced recovery from colitis. Thus, an increased availability of l-arginine as well as altered intestinal microbiota and metabolic products accounts for the accelerated resolution from colitis in the absence of Arg1. Consequently, l-arginine metabolism may serve as a target for clinical intervention in IBD patients.

Protective effects of citrulline supplementation in ulcerative colitis rats

It has been reported that supplementing certain amino acids has therapeutic effects on ulcerative colitis (UC). We intend to explore whether citrulline (Cit) supplementation has protective effects on UC. Fifteen male Wistar rats were divided into normal control group (NC group), UC group and UC+Cit group, with five rats in each group. The UC model was established by TNBS/ethanol method. Rats in UC+Cit group were intragastrically administered with Cit for 7 consecutive days after modeling. All rats were sacrificed after 7 days. Blood samples were collected to detect the number of monocytes. Colon tissues were taken for HE staining. Immunohistochemistry staining for CD68 and p-STAT3 were performed to detect the infiltration of monocytes and the phosphorylation of STAT3 in colon tissues. The concentrations of MCP-1, IL-6 and IL-17A and the protein expression of p-STAT3 in colon tissues were measured by ELISA and western blot methods, respectively. The body weight of UC group rats decreased significantly after 7 days (p<0.05). However, the weight loss of UC+Cit group rats was not statistically significant (p>0.05). The number of peripheral blood monocytes in UC+Cit group was significantly lower than that in UC group (p<0.05), and the infiltration of CD68-positive monocytes in the colon tissue of UC+Cit group was significantly reduced than that in UC group. The concentrations of MCP-1, IL-6 and IL-17A and the expression of p-STAT3 in colon tissues of UC+Cit group rats were significantly lower than those in UC group (both p<0.05). Our study suggests that Cit supplementation may be a potential therapy for UC.

Anti-Inflammatory Potential of Cow, Donkey and Goat Milk Extracellular Vesicles as Revealed by Metabolomic Profile

In recent years, extracellular vesicles (EVs), cell-derived micro and nano-sized structures enclosed in a double-layer membrane, have been in the spotlight for their high potential in diagnostic and therapeutic applications. Indeed, they act as signal mediators between cells and/or tissues through different mechanisms involving their complex cargo and exert a number of biological effects depending upon EVs subtype and cell source. Being produced by almost all cell types, they are found in every biological fluid including milk. Milk EVs (MEVs) can enter the intestinal cells by endocytosis and protect their labile cargos against harsh conditions in the intestinal tract. In this study, we performed a metabolomic analysis of MEVs, from three different species (i.e., bovine, goat and donkey) by mass spectroscopy (MS) coupled with Ultrahigh-performance liquid chromatography (UHPLC). Metabolites, both common or specific of a species, were identified and enriched metabolic pathways were investigated, with the final aim to evaluate their anti-inflammatory and immunomodulatory properties in view of prospective applications as a nutraceutical in inflammatory conditions. In particular, metabolites transported by MEVs are involved in common pathways among the three species. These metabolites, such as arginine, asparagine, glutathione and lysine, show immunomodulating effects. Moreover, MEVs in goat milk showed a greater number of enriched metabolic pathways as compared to the other kinds of milk.

Oxidative Stress and Redox-Modulating Therapeutics in Inflammatory Bowel Disease

Inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) is associated with the production of reactive species that target cysteine redox switches in proteins, thereby affecting gene regulation, DNA damage, ion transport, intermediary metabolism, and mitochondrial function. Precursors of reactive species are derived from organic and inorganic compounds and their cofactors, including amino acids, vitamins, oxygen, nitrite, and sulfate. Nutrition and the gut microbiome fuel this process to a significant extent. The production of reactive species in IBD is reflected by a reduction in systemic free thiols, the major components of the antioxidant machinery. Systemic free thiols are amenable to nutritional or therapeutic intervention. This opens up future avenues for therapeutic modulation of redox status in IBD.

Altered nutrient status reprograms host inflammation and metabolic health via gut microbiota

The metabolism of macro- and micronutrients is a complex and highly regulated biological process. An imbalance in the metabolites and their signaling networks can lead to nonresolving inflammation and consequently to the development of chronic inflammatory-associated diseases. Therefore, identifying the accumulated metabolites and altered pathways during inflammatory disorders would not only serve as "real-time" markers but also help in the development of nutritional therapeutics. In this review, we explore recent research that has delved into elucidating the effects of carbohydrate/calorie restriction, protein malnutrition, lipid emulsions and micronutrient deficiencies on metabolic health and inflammation. Moreover, we describe the integrated stress response in terms of amino acid starvation and lipemia and how this modulates new age diseases such as inflammatory bowel disease and atherosclerosis. Lastly, we explain the latest research on metaflammation and inflammaging. This review focuses on multiple signaling pathways, including, but not limited to, the FGF21-β-hydroxybutryate-NLRP3 axis, the GCN2-eIF2α-ATF4 pathway, the von Hippel-Lindau/hypoxia-inducible transcription factor pathway and the TMAO-PERK-FoxO1 axis. Additionally, throughout the review, we explain how the gut microbiota responds to altered nutrient status and also how antimicrobial peptides generated from nutrient-based signaling pathways can modulate the gut microbiota. Collectively, it must be emphasized that metabolic starvation and inflammation are strongly regulated by both environmental (i.e., nutrition, gut microbiome) and nonenvironmental (i.e., genetics) factors, which can influence the susceptibility to inflammatory disorders.

Regulating T-cell differentiation through the polyamine spermidine

BACKGROUND

The cross-talk between the host and its microbiota plays a key role in the promotion of health. The production of metabolites such as polyamines by intestinal-resident bacteria is part of this symbiosis shaping host immunity. The polyamines putrescine, spermine, and spermidine are abundant within the gastrointestinal tract and might substantially contribute to gut immunity.

OBJECTIVE

We aimed to characterize the polyamine spermidine as a modulator of T-cell differentiation and function.

METHODS

Naive T cells were isolated from wild-type mice or cord blood from healthy donors and submitted to polarizing cytokines, with and without spermidine treatment, to evaluate CD4⁺ T-cell differentiation in vitro. Moreover, mice were subjected to oral supplementation of spermidine, or its precursor l-arginine, to assess the frequency and total numbers of regulatory T (Treg) cells in vivo.

RESULTS

Spermidine modulates CD4⁺ T-cell differentiation in vitro, preferentially committing naive T cells to a regulatory phenotype. After spermidine treatment, activated T cells lacking the autophagy gene Atg5 fail to upregulate Foxp3 to the same extent as wild-type cells. These results indicate that spermidine's polarizing effect requires an intact autophagic machinery. Furthermore, dietary supplementation with spermidine promotes homeostatic differentiation of Treg cells within the gut and reduces pathology in a model of T-cell transfer-induced colitis.

CONCLUSION

Altogether, our results highlight the beneficial effects of spermidine, or l-arginine, on gut immunity by promoting Treg cell development.

Intestinal Permeability, Inflammation and the Role of Nutrients

The interaction between host and external environment mainly occurs in the gastrointestinal tract, where the mucosal barrier has a critical role in many physiologic functions ranging from digestion, absorption, and metabolism. This barrier allows the passage and absorption of nutrients, but at the same time, it must regulate the contact between luminal antigens and the immune system, confining undesirable products to the lumen. Diet is an important regulator of the mucosal barrier, and the cross-talk among dietary factors, the immune system, and microbiota is crucial for the modulation of intestinal permeability and for the maintenance of gastrointestinal tract (GI) homeostasis. In the present review, we will discuss the role of a number of dietary nutrients that have been proposed as regulators of inflammation and epithelial barrier function. We will also consider the metabolic function of the microbiota, which is capable of elaborating the diverse nutrients and synthesizing products of great interest. Better knowledge of the influence of dietary nutrients on inflammation and barrier function can be important for the future development of new therapeutic approaches for patients with mucosal barrier dysfunction, a critical factor in the pathogenesis of many GI and non-GI diseases.

Intravenous Arginine Administration Benefits CD4+ T-Cell Homeostasis and Attenuates Liver Inflammation in Mice with Polymicrobial Sepsis

This study investigated the effects of a single dose of arginine (Arg) administration at the beginning of sepsis on CD4+ T-cell regulation and liver inflammation in C57BL/6J mice. Mice were divided into normal control (NC), sham (SH), sepsis saline (SS), and sepsis Arg (SA) groups. An inducible nitric oxide (NO) synthase (iNOS) inhibitor was administered to additional sepsis groups to evaluate the role of NO during sepsis. Sepsis was induced using cecal ligation and puncture (CLP). The SS and SA groups received saline or Arg (300 mg/kg body weight) via tail vein 1 h after CLP. Mice were euthanized at 12 and 24 h post-CLP. Blood, para-aortic lymph nodes, and liver tissues were collected for further measurement. The findings showed that sepsis resulted in decreases in blood and para-aortic lymph node CD4+ T-cell percentages, whereas percentages of interleukin (IL)-4- and IL-17-expressing CD4+ T cells were upregulated. Compared to the SS group, Arg administration resulted in maintained circulating and para-aortic lymph node CD4+ T cells, an increased Th1/Th2 ratio, and a reduced Th17/Treg ratio post-CLP. In addition, levels of plasma liver injury markers and expression of inflammatory genes in liver decreased. These results suggest that a single dose of Arg administered after CLP increased Arg availability, sustained CD4+ T-cell populations, elicited more-balanced Th1/Th2/Th17/Treg polarization in the circulation and the para-aortic lymph nodes, and attenuated liver inflammation in sepsis. The favorable effects of Arg were abrogated when an iNOS inhibitor was administered, which indicated that NO may be participated in regulating the homeostasis of Th/Treg cells and subsequent liver inflammation during sepsis.

Mechanisms of Regulation of Transporters of Amino Acid Absorption in Inflammatory Bowel Diseases

Intestinal absorption of dietary amino acids/peptides is essential for protein homeostasis, which in turn is crucial for maintaining health as well as restoration of health from significant diseases. Dietary amino acids/peptides are absorbed by unique transporter processes present in the brush border membrane of absorptive villus cells, which line the entire length of the intestine. To date, the only nutrient absorptive system described in the secretory crypt cells in the mammalian intestine is the one that absorbs the amino acid glutamine. Majority of the amino acid transporters are sodium dependent and therefore require basolateral membrane Na-K-ATPase to maintain an efficient transcellular Na gradient for their activity. These transport processes are tightly regulated by various cellular and molecular mechanisms that facilitate their optimal activity during normal physiological processes. Malabsorption of amino acids, recently described in pathophysiological states such as in inflammatory bowel disease (IBD), is undoubtedly responsible for the debilitating symptoms of IBD such as malnutrition, weight loss and ultimately a failure to thrive. Also recently, in vivo models of IBD and in vitro studies have demonstrated that specific immune-inflammatory mediators/pathways regulate specific amino acid transporters. This provides possibilities to derive novel nutrition and immune-based treatment options for conditions such as IBD. © 2020 American Physiological Society. Compr Physiol 10:673-686, 2020.

Fleszar M, Bednarz-Misa I, Lewandowski Ł, Szczuka I, Kempiński R, Neubauer K. Transcriptional and Metabolomic Analysis of L-Arginine/Nitric Oxide Pathway in Inflammatory Bowel Disease and Its Association with Local Inflammatory and Angiogenic Response: Preliminary Findings

L-arginine/nitric oxide pathway in Crohn's disease (CD) and ulcerative colitis (UC) is poorly investigated. The aim of current study is to quantify pathway serum metabolites in 52 CD (40 active), 48 UC (33 active), and 18 irritable bowel syndrome patients and 40 controls using mass spectrometry and at determining mRNA expression of pathway-associated enzymes in 91 bowel samples. Arginine and symmetric dimethylarginine decreased (p < 0.05) in active-CD (129 and 0.437 µM) compared to controls (157 and 0.494 µM) and active-UC (164 and 0.52 µM). Citrulline and dimethylamine increased (p < 0.05) in active-CD (68.7 and 70.9 µM) and active-UC (65.9 and 73.9 µM) compared to controls (42.7 and 50.4 µM). Compared to normal, CD-inflamed small bowel had downregulated (p < 0.05) arginase-2 by 2.4-fold and upregulated dimethylarginine dimethylaminohydrolase (DDAH)-2 (1.5-fold) and arginine N-methyltransferase (PRMT)-2 (1.6-fold). Quiescent-CD small bowel had upregulated (p < 0.05) arginase-2 (1.8-fold), DDAH1 (2.9-fold), DDAH2 (1.5-fold), PRMT1 (1.5-fold), PRMT2 (1.7-fold), and PRMT5 (1.4-fold). Pathway enzymes were upregulated in CD-inflamed/quiescent and UC-inflamed colon as compared to normal. Compared to inflamed, quiescent CD-colon had upregulated DDAH1 (5.7-fold) and ornithine decarboxylase (1.6-fold). Concluding, the pathway is deregulated in CD and UC, also in quiescent bowel, reflecting inflammation severity and angiogenic potential. Functional analysis of PRMTs and DDAHs as potential targets for therapy is warranted.

ECM1 is an essential factor for the determination of M1 macrophage polarization in IBD in response to LPS stimulation

Inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) comprises chronic relapsing disorders of the gastrointestinal tract characterized pathologically by intestinal inflammation and epithelial injury. Here, we uncover a function of extracellular matrix protein 1 (ECM1) in promoting the pathogenesis of human and mouse IBD. ECM1 was highly expressed in macrophages, particularly tissue-infiltrated macrophages under inflammatory conditions, and ECM1 expression was significantly induced during IBD progression. The macrophage-specific knockout of ECM1 resulted in increased arginase 1 (ARG1) expression and impaired polarization into the M1 macrophage phenotype after lipopolysaccharide (LPS) treatment. A mechanistic study showed that ECM1 can regulate M1 macrophage polarization through the granulocyte-macrophage colony-stimulating factor/STAT5 signaling pathway. Pathological changes in mice with dextran sodium sulfate-induced IBD were alleviated by the specific knockout of the ECM1 gene in macrophages. Taken together, our findings show that ECM1 has an important function in promoting M1 macrophage polarization, which is critical for controlling inflammation and tissue repair in the intestine.

In vivo and in vitro protective effect of arginine against intestinal inflammatory response induced by Clostridium perfringens in broiler chickens

Background

Necrotic enteritis is a widespread disease in poultry caused by Clostridium perfringens. We previously reported that dietary arginine supplementation protected the intestinal mucosa of broiler chickens with necrotic enteritis, but the related protective mechanisms remain unclear. The in vivo trial was designed as a 2 × 2 factorial arrangement to evaluated the effects of arginine supplementation on inflammatory responses, arginine transporters, arginine catabolism and JAK-STAT signalling pathway in broiler chickens challenged with C. perfringens or without C. perfringens. Furthermore, we validated the in vivo results using intestinal epithelial cells of chicken embryos.

Results

C. perfringens infection markedly increased gut gross pathological and histopathological lesion scores, promoted liver C. perfringens invasion, reduced serum arginine levels, and elevated jejunal mucosal lysozyme activities (P < 0.05), but these effects were significantly reversed by arginine supplementation in vivo (P < 0.05). The challenge significantly increased serum procalcitonin levels, jejunal mucosal iNOS activities and jejunal IL-6, TGF-β3, cationic amino acid transporter (CAT)-1, and CAT-3 mRNA expression (P < 0.05), whereas arginine supplementation significantly reduced jejunal IFN-γ, IL-1β, IL-6, IL-10, TGF-β3, and CAT-3 mRNA expression (P < 0.05). Arginine supplementation significantly attenuated the C. perfringens challenge-induced increases in jejunal iNOS, arginase 2, arginine decarboxylase, arginine:glycine amidinotransferase, JAK1, JAK3, STAT1, and STAT6 mRNA expression (P < 0.05). The in vitro experiment showed that C. perfringens challenge markedly increased cellular cytotoxicity and the mRNA expression of IL-1β, IL-8, IL-10, CAT-1 and CAT-3 (P < 0.05), which were significantly reversed by 50 μmol/L and/or 400 μmol/L arginine pre-treatment (P < 0.05).

Conclusions

Arginine prevented C. perfringens challenge-induced circulated arginine deficiency, normalized intestinal arginine transport and catabolism, down-regulated JAK-STAT signalling pathway and attenuated the inflammatory response, which exerted protective effects on the intestine of broiler chickens.

Mucosal gene expression changes induced by anti-TNF treatment in inflammatory bowel disease patients

In the last two decades anti‐tumor necrosis factor (anti‐TNF) therapy for inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) has been widely used to induce and maintain clinical and endoscopical remission, completely changing management of the disease. In this study, we aimed to identify gene expression changes in inflamed mucosa from Crohn's disease and ulcerative colitis patients treated with 5‐aminosalicylic acid (5‐ASA) (N = 25) or anti‐TNF agents (N = 12) compared to drug‐free IBD patients (N = 12) and non‐IBD control subjects (N = 18). The mucosal expression of 84 genes previously associated with IBD was evaluated by qPCR. We found that both therapeutic regimens induce a decrease in LCN2, NOS2, and TFF1, the levels of which are overexpressed in drug‐free patients compared to non‐IBD control subjects. Interestingly, a stronger effect of anti‐TNF drugs was observed on LCN2 and TFF1 levels. However, 5‐ASA seems to induce a more robust reduction of NOS2 expression. Moreover, we found that anti‐TNF treatment significantly increased ABCB1, leading to levels similar to those found in non‐IBD control subjects.

Dietary Arginine Regulates Severity of Experimental Colitis and Affects the Colonic Microbiome

There is great interest in safe and effective alternative therapies that could benefit patients with inflammatory bowel diseases (IBD). L-arginine (Arg) is a semi-essential amino acid with a variety of physiological effects. In this context, our aim was to investigate the role of dietary Arg in experimental colitis. We used two models of colitis in C57BL/6 mice, the dextran sulfate sodium (DSS) model of injury and repair, and Citrobacter rodentium infection. Animals were given diets containing (1) no Arg (Arg0), 6.4 g/kg (ArgNL), or 24.6 g/kg Arg (ArgHIGH); or (2) the amino acids downstream of Arg: 28 g/kg L-ornithine (OrnHIGH) or 72 g/kg L-proline (ProHIGH). Mice with DSS colitis receiving the ArgHIGH diet had increased levels of Arg, Orn, and Pro in the colon and improved body weight loss, colon length shortening, and histological injury compared to ArgNL and Arg0 diets. Histology was improved in the ArgNL vs. Arg0 group. OrnHIGH or ProHIGH diets did not provide protection. Reduction in colitis with ArgHIGH diet also occurred in C. rodentium-infected mice. Diversity of the intestinal microbiota was significantly enhanced in mice on the ArgHIGH diet compared to the ArgNL or Arg0 diets, with increased abundance of Bacteroidetes and decreased Verrucomicrobia. In conclusion, dietary supplementation of Arg is protective in colitis models. This may occur by restoring overall microbial diversity and Bacteroidetes prevalence. Our data provide a rationale for Arg as an adjunctive therapy in IBD.

Serum Polyunsaturated Fatty Acids Correlate with Serum Cytokines and Clinical Disease Activity in Crohn's Disease

Crohn's disease (CD) has been associated with an increased consumption of n-6 polyunsaturated fatty acid (PUFA), while greater intake of n-3 PUFA has been associated with a reduced risk. We sought to investigate serum fatty acid composition in CD, and associations of fatty acids with disease activity, cytokines, and adipokines. Serum was prospectively collected from 116 CD subjects and 27 non-IBD controls. Clinical disease activity was assessed by the Harvey Bradshaw Index (HBI). Serum fatty acids were measured by gas chromatography. Serum cytokines and adipokines were measured by Luminex assay. Dietary histories were obtained from a subset of patients. Nine serum cytokines and adipokines were increased in CD versus controls. CD subjects had increased percentage serum monounsaturated fatty acids (MUFA), dihomo-gamma linolenic acid (DGLA), eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA), docosapentaenoic acid (DPA), and oleic acid, but decreased arachidonic acid (AA) versus controls. The % total n-3 fatty acids and % EPA directly correlated with pro-inflammatory cytokine levels and HBI, whereas the % total n-6 fatty acids were inversely correlated with pro-inflammatory cytokine levels and HBI. CD subjects had increased caloric intake versus controls, but no alterations in total fat or PUFA intake. We found differences in serum fatty acids, most notably PUFA, in CD that correlated both with clinical disease activity and inflammatory cytokines. Our findings indicate that altered fatty acid metabolism or utilization is present in CD and is related to disease activity.

The Role of Dietary Nutrients in Inflammatory Bowel Disease

Inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) is a chronic and relapsing inflammatory disease of the gastrointestinal tract. Although the precise etiology of IBD remains incompletely understood, accumulating evidence suggests that various environmental factors, including dietary nutrients, contribute to its pathogenesis. Dietary nutrients are known to have an impact on host physiology and diseases. The interactions between dietary nutrients and intestinal immunity are complex. Dietary nutrients directly regulate the immuno-modulatory function of gut-resident immune cells. Likewise, dietary nutrients shape the composition of the gut microbiota. Therefore, a well-balanced diet is crucial for good health. In contrast, the relationships among dietary nutrients, host immunity and/or the gut microbiota may be perturbed in the context of IBD. Genetic predispositions and gut dysbiosis may affect the utilization of dietary nutrients. Moreover, the metabolism of nutrients in host cells and the gut microbiota may be altered by intestinal inflammation, thereby increasing or decreasing the demand for certain nutrients necessary for the maintenance of immune and microbial homeostasis. Herein, we review the current knowledge of the role dietary nutrients play in the development and the treatment of IBD, focusing on the interplay among dietary nutrients, the gut microbiota and host immune cells. We also discuss alterations in the nutritional metabolism of the gut microbiota and host cells in IBD that can influence the outcome of nutritional intervention. A better understanding of the diet-host-microbiota interactions may lead to new therapeutic approaches for the treatment of IBD.