The role of nuclear factor kappaB in pancreatic cancer and the clinical applications of targeted therapy

Single-Cell RNA Sequencing (scRNA-seq) Identifies L1CAM as a Key Mediator between Epithelial Tuft Cell and Innate Lymphoid Cell in the Colon of Hnrnp I Knockout Mice

(1) Background: Knockout (KO) of heterogeneous nuclear ribonucleoprotein I (Hnrnp I) in mouse intestinal epithelial cells (IECs) induced a severe inflammatory response in the colon, followed by hyperproliferation. This study aimed to investigate the epithelial lineage dynamics and cell-cell communications that underlie inflammation and colitis. (2) Methods: Single cells were isolated from the colons of wildtype (WT) and KO mice and used in scRNA-seq. Whole colons were collected for immunofluorescence staining and cytokine assays. (3) Results: from scRNA-seq, the number of DCLK1 + colonic tuft cells was significantly higher in the Hnrnp I KO mice compared to the WT mice. This was confirmed by immunofluorescent staining of DCLK1. The DCLK1 + colonic tuft cells in KO mice developed unique communications with lymphocytes via interactions between surface L1 cell adhesion molecule (L1CAM) and integrins. In the KO mice colons, a significantly elevated level of inflammatory cytokines IL4, IL6, and IL13 were observed, which marks type-2 immune responses directed by group 2 innate lymphoid cells (ILC2s). (4) Conclusions: This study demonstrates one critical cellular function of colonic tuft cells, which facilitates type-2 immune responses by communicating with ILC2s via the L1CAM-integrins interaction. This communication promotes pro-inflammatory signaling pathways in ILC2, leading to the increased secretion of inflammatory cytokines.

PCDH1 promotes progression of pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma via activation of NF-κB signalling by interacting with KPNB1

Uncontrolled growth, distant metastasis and chemoresistance are critical characteristics of pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma (PDAC), and they result in high mortality; however, the mechanisms triggering these effects have not been fully investigated. In this study, we analysed a dataset in the Cancer Genome Atlas (TCGA) and identified PCDH1, a rarely studied transmembrane protein, as a novel prognostic marker in PDAC patients. We demonstrated that PCDH1 expression was upregulated in PDAC tissues, and its expression levels were associated with the depth of tumour invasion and lymph node metastasis. Patients with high PCDH1 levels showed poor overall survival (OS). We also investigated the biological significance of PCDH1 in PDAC cell growth, metastasis, and side population (SP) phenotype acquisition and explored the internal molecular mechanisms of PCDH1 action. Our results demonstrated that PCDH1 enhanced p65 nuclear localization by interacting with KPNB1, a well-characterized nuclear transporter, thereby activating the NF-κB signalling pathway and increasing its functional effects during PDAC progression. Hence, our results indicate that PCDH1 can be used as a negative prognostic marker and may be a potential therapeutic target for PDAC patients.

10Z‑Hymenialdisine inhibits angiogenesis by suppressing NF‑κB activation in pancreatic cancer cell lines

10Z‑Hymenialdisine is a natural product derived from the marine sponge Axinella carteri. 10Z‑Hymenialdisine has anti‑inflammatory effects exerted through NF‑κB; however, it is unclear whether 10Z‑Hymenialdisine has anti‑angiogenic effects in cancer cells. In the present study, both the anti‑angiogenic and antimetastatic effects of this compound in pancreatic cancer were investigated. It was initially confirmed that 10Z‑Hymenialdisine significantly inhibited the proliferation of pancreatic cancer cells. Next, using both reverse transcription‑quantitative PCR and ELISA, it was demonstrated that 10Z‑Hymenialdisine significantly suppressed the expression of VEGF and IL‑8 mRNAs and proteins in pancreatic cancer. Immunohistochemical analysis revealed that 10Z‑Hymenialdisine inhibited NF‑κB activity in pancreatic cancer cell lines. It was also identified that 10Z‑Hymenialdisine inhibited tube formation in EA.hy926 cells. In vivo, 10Z‑Hymenialdisine significantly inhibited the growth of BxPC‑3 pancreatic cancer cells that were subcutaneously injected into model mice. In conclusion, the present study demonstrated that 10Z‑Hymenialdisine exerted anti‑angiogenic effects by suppressing NF‑κB activity and angiogenic factors, such as VEGF and IL‑8, in pancreatic cancer cell lines. 10Z‑Hymenialdisine has potential applications as a novel therapeutic agent for the treatment of pancreatic cancer.

The Efficacy of Different Inflammatory Markers for the Prognosis of Patients with Malignant Tumors

Background

Inflammation is considered essential in cancer progression, as it affects the nutritional status and prognosis of patients. In this study, we aim to analyze the efficacy of various inflammatory markers in predicting prognosis in cancer patients.

Methods

Patients with malignant tumor were included as primary and validation cohort. Basic clinical information, anthropometric indicators, body composition analysis, and serological indicators were recorded. After proposing the optimal thresholds by time-dependent receiver operating characteristic (ROC), univariate and multivariate Cox regression analyses were performed to analyze the association between inflammatory markers and overall survival (OS). A nomogram was established to develop a scored-inflammatory marker system. Eight inflammatory models based on combinations of inflammatory markers were assessed. Cox regression analysis was used to analyze the relationship of each inflammatory model and mortality of participants. Then, subanalysis of specific tumor types was conducted by Cox regression. Logistic regression models were used to analyze the relationship between different inflammatory models and malnutrition.

Results

Univariate and multivariate Cox regression analyses indicated that pack-years of cigarette smoking, C-reactive protein (CRP), and systemic immune-inflammation index (SII) were related to the OS of cancer patients. A nomogram was constructed to develop a scored-inflammatory marker system. Among the eight inflammatory models, patients in model A had worst prognosis compared with patients in other models. Subanalysis next showed lung cancer, breast cancer and digestive system neoplasms patients in model A suffered the worst prognosis. Logistic regression indicated that model A was also with predictive value for malnutrition.

Conclusion

A scored-inflammatory marker system was established to predict the OS of cancer patients. The inflammatory models established in this study can be used to predict prognosis, as well as cancer-related malnutrition. Inflammatory model A suffered the worst OS and was with the predictive efficacy for malnutrition.

Cholesterol-Lowering Drugs on Akt Signaling for Prevention of Tumorigenesis

Cholesterol has been reported to be accumulated in cancer cells. The metabolic dysregulation of the cholesterol is associated with tumor development and progression. The cholesterol-lowering drugs have been found to be involved in the prevention and treatment of various cancers. Akt, a serine/threonine kinase, can modulate the role of several downstream proteins involved in cell proliferation, migration, invasion, metabolism, and apoptosis. Since its involvement in several signaling pathways, its dysregulation is commonly reported in several cancers. Thus, targeting Akt could be an effective approach for cancer prevention and therapy. Cholesterol-lowering drugs have been found to affect the expression of Akt, and its activation in the cancer cells and thus have shown anticancer activity in different type of cancers. These drugs act on various signaling pathways such as PTEN/Akt, PI3k/Akt, Akt/NF-κB, Akt/FOXO1, Akt/mTOR, etc., which will be discussed in this article. This review article will discuss the significance of cholesterol in cancer cells, cholesterol-lowering drugs, the role of Akt in cancer cells, and the effects of cholesterol-lowering drugs on Akt in the prevention of therapy resistance and metastasis.

NF-κB and Pancreatic Cancer; Chapter and Verse

Pancreatic Ductal Adenocarcinoma (PDAC) is one of the world's most lethal cancers. An increase in occurrence, coupled with, presently limited treatment options, necessitates the pursuit of new therapeutic approaches. Many human cancers, including PDAC are initiated by unresolved inflammation. The transcription factor NF-κB coordinates many signals that drive cellular activation and proliferation during immunity but also those involved in inflammation and autophagy which may instigate tumorigenesis. It is not surprising therefore, that activation of canonical and non-canonical NF-κB pathways is increasingly recognized as an important driver of pancreatic injury, progression to tumorigenesis and drug resistance. Paradoxically, NF-κB dysregulation has also been shown to inhibit pancreatic inflammation and pancreatic cancer, depending on the context. A pro-oncogenic or pro-suppressive role for individual components of the NF-κB pathway appears to be cell type, microenvironment and even stage dependent. This review provides an outline of NF-κB signaling, focusing on the role of the various NF-κB family members in the evolving inflammatory PDAC microenvironment. Finally, we discuss pharmacological control of NF-κB to curb inflammation, focussing on novel anti-cancer agents which reinstate the process of cancer cell death, the Smac mimetics and their pre-clinical and early clinical trials.

GSK3β as a novel promising target to overcome chemoresistance in pancreatic cancer

Pancreatic cancer is an aggressive malignancy with increasing incidence and poor prognosis due to its late diagnosis and intrinsic chemoresistance. Most pancreatic cancer patients present with locally advanced or metastatic disease characterized by inherent resistance to chemotherapy. These features pose a series of therapeutic challenges and new targets are urgently needed. Glycogen synthase kinase 3 beta (GSK3β) is a conserved serine/threonine kinase, which regulates key cellular processes including cell proliferation, DNA repair, cell cycle progression, signaling and metabolic pathways. GSK3β is implicated in non-malignant and malignant diseases including inflammation, neurodegenerative diseases, diabetes and cancer. GSK3β recently emerged among the key factors involved in the onset and progression of pancreatic cancer, as well as in the acquisition of chemoresistance. Intensive research has been conducted on key oncogenic functions of GSK3β and its potential as a druggable target; currently developed GSK3β inhibitors display promising results in preclinical models of distinct tumor types, including pancreatic cancer. Here, we review the latest findings about GSK-3β biology and its role in the development and progression of pancreatic cancer. Moreover, we discuss therapeutic agents targeting GSK3β that could be administered as monotherapy or in combination with other drugs to surmount chemoresistance. Several studies are also defining potential gene signatures to identify patients who might benefit from GSK3β-based therapeutic intervention. This detailed overview emphasizes the urgent need of additional molecular studies on the impact of GSK3β inhibition as well as structural analysis of novel compounds and omics studies of predictive biomarkers.

Escin inhibits angiogenesis by suppressing interleukin‑8 and vascular endothelial growth factor production by blocking nuclear factor‑κB activation in pancreatic cancer cell lines

Pancreatic cancer (PaCa) is one of the most aggressive types of cancer. Thus, the development of new and more effective therapies is urgently required. Escin, a pentacyclic triterpenoid from the horse chestnut, has been reported to exhibit antitumor potential by reducing cell proliferation and blocking the nuclear factor‑κB (NF‑κB) signaling pathway in several types of cancer. Our previous study reported that NF‑κB enhanced the secretion of interleukin (IL)‑8 and vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF), thereby inducing angiogenesis in PaCa cell lines. In the present study, it was examined whether escin inhibited angiogenesis by blocking NF‑κB activation in PaCa. It was initially confirmed that escin, at concentrations >10 µM, significantly inhibited the proliferation of several PaCa cell lines. Next, using immunocytochemical staining, it was found that escin inhibited the nuclear translocation of NF‑κB. Furthermore, ELISA confirmed that NF‑κB activity in the escin‑treated PaCa cells was significantly inhibited and reverse transcription‑quantitative PCR showed that the mRNA expression levels of tumor necrosis factor‑α‑induced IL‑8 and VEGF were significantly suppressed following escin treatment in the PaCa cell lines. ELISA also showed that escin decreased the secretion of IL‑8 and VEGF from the PaCa cells. Furthermore, tube formation in immortalized human endothelial cells was inhibited following incubation with the supernatants from escin‑treated PaCa cells. These results indicated that escin inhibited angiogenesis by reducing the secretion of IL‑8 and VEGF by blocking NF‑κB activity in PaCa. In conclusion, escin could be used as a novel molecular therapy for PaCa.

Overexpressed CA12 has prognostic value in pancreatic cancer and promotes tumor cell apoptosis via NF-κB signaling

INTRODUCTION

Pancreatic adenocarcinoma (PAAD) is among the deadliest forms of cancer globally. Carbonic anhydrase 12 (CA12) is known to play central roles in regulating many cancers, but its function in the context of PAAD is rarely discussed. This study was, therefore, designed to assess the expression of CA12 in PAAD and to explore its underlying mechanistic role in this cancer type.

METHODS

Immunohistochemical staining was used to measure CA12 expression in PAAD samples. The functionality of pancreatic cancer cells expressing varying levels of CA12 was assessed through wound healing, Transwell, and CCK-8 assays. In addition, flow cytometry was used to measure apoptosis and cell cycle progression in these same cells, while Western blotting was used to analyze the expression of proteins associated with the NF-κB signaling pathway.

RESULTS

PAAD tissue samples exhibited significant CA12 downregulation (P < 0.001), and lower CA12 expression was, in turn, associated with poorer overall survival (P < 0.001). CA12 overexpression significantly impaired the proliferation of PAAD cell lines, instead inducing their apoptotic death and G0/G1 phase cell cycle arrest (P < 0.05). We additionally found that CA12 may exert its tumor suppressive roles via modulating the NF-κB signaling pathway.

CONCLUSION

These results indicate that CA12 functions as a tumor suppressor in PAAD and may thus be a novel therapeutic target that can be used to guide PAAD patient treatment.

Co-delivery of gemcitabine prodrug along with anti NF-κB siRNA by tri-layer micelles can increase cytotoxicity, uptake and accumulation of the system in the cancers

Combination treatment based on gene and chemotherapy is a promising strategy for effective cancer treatment due to the limited therapeutic efficacy of anticancer drugs. Dual functional polymeric micelles (PMs) have been emerged as potent nanocarriers for combinational cancer therapy. In the present study, the potential of tri-layer PMs loaded with anti-nuclear factor-κB (NF-κB) siRNA and 4-(N)-stearoyl gemcitabine (GemC18) has been investigated for cancer treatment. PMs with different core hydrophobicity were prepared by using poly(ε-caprolactone), polyethyleneimine and polyethylene glycol (PCL-PEI-PEG) copolymers and evaluated. The results revealed that GemC18-loaded PMs were significantly more cytotoxic than free drug on breast and pancreatic cancer cells. However, the cytotoxicity of drug loaded micelles was decreased by increasing the micellar core hydrophobicity because of decreasing drug release rate. Moreover, siRNA loaded PMs could considerably inhibit NF-κB expression. PMs loaded with both GemC18 and siRNA exhibited higher capability to induce apoptosis and inhibit migration of both cells. PMs with the most hydrophobic core indicated higher tumor accumulation efficiency via in-vivo imaging study. In conclusion, the prepared PMs hold a promise as an attractive dual functional delivery system for an effective cancer therapy.

Advancement of NF-κB Signaling Pathway: A Novel Target in Pancreatic Cancer

Pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma (PDAC) is one of the deadliest cancers and is the third highest among cancer related deaths. Despite modest success with therapy such as gemcitabine, pancreatic cancer incidence remains virtually unchanged in the past 25 years. Among the several driver mutations for PDAC, Kras mutation contributes a central role for its development, progression and therapeutic resistance. In addition, inflammation is implicated in the development of most human cancer, including pancreatic cancer. Nuclear factor kappa-light-chain-enhancer of activated B cells (NF-κB) is recognized as a key mediator of inflammation and has been frequently observed to be upregulated in PDAC. Several lines of evidence suggest that NF-κB pathways play a crucial role in PDAC development, progression and resistance. In this review, we focused on emphasizing the recent advancements in the involvement of NF-κB in PADC’s progression and resistance. We also highlighted the interaction of NF-κB with other signaling pathways. Lastly, we also aim to discuss how NF-κB could be an excellent target for PDAC prevention or therapy. This review could provide insight into the development of novel therapeutic strategies by considering NF-κB as a target to prevent or treat PDAC.

Exome sequencing reveals the genetic landscape and frequent inactivation of PCDHB3 in Chinese rectal cancers

Colorectal cancer (CRC) is the third most common cancer worldwide, with more than 1.3 million new cases and 690 000 deaths each year. In China, the incidence of CRC has increased dramatically due to dietary and lifestyle changes, to become the fifth leading cause of cancer-related death. Here, we performed whole-exome sequencing in 50 rectal cancer cases among the Chinese population as part of the International Cancer Genome Consortium research project. Frequently mutated genes and enriched pathways were identified. Moreover, a previously unreported gene, PCDHB3, was found frequently mutated in 5.19% cases. Additionally, PCDHB3 expression was found decreased in 81.6% of CRC tissues and all eight CRC cell lines tested. Low expression and cytoplasmic localization of PCDHB3 predict poor prognosis in advanced CRC. Copy number decrease and/or CpG island hypermethylation contributes to the pervasive decreased expression of PCDHB3. PCDHB3 inhibits CRC cell proliferation, migration, and epithelial-mesenchymal transition. The tumor-suppressive effects of PCDHB3 are partially due to inhibition of NF-κB transcriptional activity through K63 deubiquitination of p50 at lysine 244/252, which increases the binding affinity of inactive p50 homodimer to κB DNA, resulting in competitive inhibition of the transcription of NF-κB target genes by p65 dimers. Our study identified PCDHB3 as a novel tumor suppressor in CRC via inhibition of the NF-κB pathway, and its expression and localization may serve as prognostic markers for advanced CRC. Copyright © 2018 Pathological Society of Great Britain and Ireland. Published by John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Design, synthesis, and biological evaluation of novel and analogs as potential IκB kinase β inhibitors for the treatment of pancreatic cancer

Given the important role that inhibitory kappa B (IκB) kinase β (IKKβ) plays in pancreatic cancer (PC) development and progression, inhibitors targeting IKKβ are believed to be increasingly popular as novel anti-PC therapies. Two synthetic molecules, named EF24 and EF31, exhibited favorable potential in terms of inhibition of both IKKβ activity and PC cell proliferation. Aiming to enhance their cellular efficacy and to analyze their structure–activity relationship, four series of EF24 and EF31 analogs were designed and synthesized. Through kinase activity and vitality screening of cancer cells, D6 displayed excellent inhibition of both IKKβ activity and PC cell proliferation. Additionally, multiple biological evaluations showed that D6 was directly bound to IKKβ and significantly suppressed the activation of the IKKβ/nuclear factor κB pathway induced by tumor necrosis factor-α, as well as effectively inducing cancer cell apoptosis. Moreover, molecular docking and molecular dynamics simulation analysis indicated that the dominant force between D6 and IKKβ comprised hydrophobic interactions. In conclusion, D6 may be a promising therapeutic agent for PC treatment and it also provides a structural lead for the design of novel IKKβ inhibitors.

Effects of Raf kinase inhibitor protein expression on pancreatic cancer cell growth and motility: an in vivo and in vitro study

PURPOSE

Raf kinase inhibitor protein (RKIP) is a tumor suppressor that inhibits cell growth and metastasis of malignant tumors. Pancreatic cancer is a leading cause of cancer death with a low survival rate. RKIP expression and its role in tumorigenesis and metastasis in pancreatic cancer are poorly understood. The aims of our study were to assess the effects of RKIP on pancreatic carcinoma cells in vitro and in tumor tissues in vivo.

METHODS

This study included 84 patients with histologically confirmed pancreatic adenocarcinoma. The expression levels of RKIP were measured in pancreatic cancer tissues and adjacent normal tissues using real-time PCR and immunohistochemistry. Overexpression plasmid of RKIP was transfected into SW1990 and AsPC-1 cell lines, and the effects on cell proliferation were studied using a Cell Counting Kit-8 assay. MEK1/2 and ERK1/2 were detected by Western blot and immunofluorescence assay.

RESULTS

Results showed a reduced expression of RKIP in pancreatic carcinoma tissues compared with adjacent normal tissues, which closely correlated with patient outcomes. Overexpression of RKIP suppressed cell proliferation and promoted apoptosis in cultured SW1990 and AsPC-1 cell lines. Transwell assay showed RKIP can inhibit cell migration and invasion, and in vivo RKIP can suppress tumorigenesis by diminishing the volume of the tumors.

CONCLUSIONS

In conclusion, expression of RKIP is closely correlated with the survival of pancreatic cancer patients. RKIP can inhibit pancreatic adenocarcinoma cells proliferation, activities of migration and invasion, through downregulating Raf-1-MEK1/2-ERK1/2 signaling pathway.

Advances in understanding the molecular mechanism of pancreatic cancer metastasis

BACKGROUND

Pancreatic cancer (PC) is usually diagnosed at the late-stage and therefore, has widespread metastasis and a very high mortality rate. The mechanisms underlying PC metastasis are not well understood. Recent advances in genomic sequencing have identified groups of gene mutations that affect PC metastasis, but studies elucidating their roles are lacking. The present review was to investigate the molecular mechanisms of PC metastasis.

DATA SOURCES

Relevant articles on PC metastasis were searched in MEDLINE via PubMed prior to April 2015. The search was limited in English publications.

RESULTS

PC metastatic cascades are multi-factorial events including both intrinsic and extrinsic elements. This review highlights the most important genetic alterations and other mechanisms that account for PC invasion and metastasis, with particular regard to epithelial-mesenchymal transition, inflammation, stress response, and circulating tumor cells.

CONCLUSIONS

Analyses of relevant gene functions and signaling pathways are needed to establish the gene regulatory network and to define the pivotal modulators. Another promising area of study is the genotyping and phenotyping of circulating tumor cells, which could lead to a new era of personalized therapy by identifying specific markers and targets.

Piperlongumine Suppresses Growth and Sensitizes Pancreatic Tumors to Gemcitabine in a Xenograft Mouse Model by Modulating the NF-kappa B Pathway

Pancreatic cancer is an aggressive malignancy, which generally respond poorly to chemotherapy. Hence, novel agents that are safe and effective are highly needed. The aim of this study was to investigate whether piperlongumine, a natural product isolated from the fruit of the pepper Piper longum, has any efficacy against human pancreatic cancer when used either alone or in combination with gemcitabine in vitro and in a xenograft mouse model. In vitro, piperlongumine inhibited the proliferation of pancreatic cancer cell lines, potentiated the apoptotic effects of gemcitabine, inhibited the constitutive and inducible activation of NF-κB, and suppressed the NF-κB-regulated expression of c-Myc, cyclin D1, Bcl-2, Bcl-xL, Survivin, XIAP, VEGF, and matrix metalloproteinase-9 (MMP-9). Furthermore, in an in vivo xenograft model, we found piperlongumine alone significantly suppressed tumor growth and enhanced the antitumor properties of gemcitabine. These results were consistent with the downregulation of NF-κB activity and its target genes, decreased proliferation (PCNA and Ki-67), decreased microvessel density (CD31), and increased apoptosis (TUNEL) in tumor remnants. Collectively, our results suggest that piperlongumine alone exhibits significant antitumor effects against human pancreatic cancer and it further enhances the therapeutic effects of gemcitabine, possibly through the modulation of NF-κB- and NF-κB-regulated gene products.

Dysiherbols A-C and Dysideanone E, Cytotoxic and NF-κB Inhibitory Tetracyclic Meroterpenes from a Dysidea sp. Marine Sponge

Four new tetracyclic meroterpnes, dysiherbols A-C (1-3) and dysideanone E (4), were isolated from a Dysidea sp. marine sponge collected from the South China Sea. Their complete structures and absolute configurations were unambiguously determined by a combination of NMR spectroscopic data, ECD calculations, and single-crystal X-ray diffraction analysis. Within the sesquiterpene quinol structures, dysiherbols A-C possess an intriguing 6/6/5/6-fused tetracyclic carbon skeleton. The NF-κB inhibitory and cytotoxic activity evaluation disclosed that dysiherbol A (1) showed potent activity with respective IC50 values of 0.49 and 0.58 μM, which were about 10-fold and 20-fold more potent than those of dysiherbols B (2) and C (3), which feature hydroxy and ketone carbonyl groups at the C-3 position.

Hyperoside induces apoptosis and inhibits growth in pancreatic cancer via Bcl-2 family and NF-κB signaling pathway both in vitro and in vivo

Although advanced surgical operation and chemotherapy have been under taken, pancreatic cancer remains one of the most aggressive and fatal human malignancies with a low 5-year survival rate of less than 5 %. Therefore, novel therapeutic strategies for prevention and remedy are urgently needed in pancreatic cancer. This present research aimed to investigate the anti-cancer effects of hyperoside in human pancreatic cancer cells. Our in vitro results showed that hyperoside suppressed the proliferation and promoted apoptosis of two different human pancreatic cancer cell lines, which correlated with up-regulation of the ratios of Bax/Bcl-2 and Bcl-xL and down-regulation of levels of nuclear factor-κB (NF-κB) and NF-κB's downstream gene products. What's more, using an orthotopic model of human pancreatic cancer, we found that hyperoside also inhibited the tumor growth significantly. Mechanically, these outcomes could also be associated with the up-regulation of the ratios of Bax/Bcl-2 and Bcl-xL and down-regulation of levels of NF-κB and NF-κB's downstream gene products. Collectively, our experiments indicate that hyperoside may be a promising candidate agent for the treatment of pancreatic cancer.

The mucin MUC4 is a transcriptional and post-transcriptional target of K-ras oncogene in pancreatic cancer. Implication of MAPK/AP-1, NF-κB and RalB signaling pathways

The membrane-bound mucinMUC4 is a high molecularweight glycoprotein frequently deregulated in cancer. In pancreatic cancer, one of the most deadly cancers in occidental countries, MUC4 is neo-expressed in the preneoplastic stages and thereafter is involved in cancer cell properties leading to cancer progression and chemoresistance. K-ras oncogene is a small GTPase of the RAS superfamily, highly implicated in cancer. K-ras mutations are considered as an initiating event of pancreatic carcinogenesis and K-ras oncogenic activities are necessary components of cancer progression. However, K-ras remains clinically undruggable. Targeting early downstream K-ras signaling in cancer may thus appear as an interesting strategy and MUC4 regulation by K-ras in pancreatic carcinogenesis remains unknown. Using the Pdx1-Cre; LStopL-K-rasG12D mouse model of pancreatic carcinogenesis, we show that the in vivo early neo-expression of the mucin Muc4 in pancreatic intraepithelial neoplastic lesions (PanINs) induced by mutated K-ras is correlated with the activation of ERK, JNK and NF-κB signaling pathways. In vitro, transfection of constitutively activated K-rasG12V in pancreatic cancer cells led to the transcriptional upregulation of MUC4. This activation was found to be mediated at the transcriptional level by AP-1 and NF-κB transcription factors via MAPK, JNK and NF-κB pathways and at the posttranscriptional level by a mechanism involving the RalB GTPase. Altogether, these results identify MUC4 as a transcriptional and post-transcriptional target of K-ras in pancreatic cancer. This opens avenues in developing new approaches to target the early steps of this deadly cancer.

Targeted nuclear factor-kappaB suppression enhances gemcitabine response in human pancreatic tumor cell line murine xenografts

BACKGROUND

Pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma (PDAC) is an almost uniformly fatal malignancy characterized by resistance to chemotherapy. Currently, gemcitabine is the agent used most commonly but demonstrates only a partial response. The transcription factor nuclear factor-kappaB (NF-κB), known to be involved in the inflammatory response, is constitutively activated in PDAC and further activated by gemcitabine. Our aim was to examine the effects of targeted NF-κB suppression on gemcitabine resistance using an in vivo tumor growth model.

METHODS

To suppress the NF-κB pathway, the mutant IκBα super-repressor protein was stably expressed in PaCa-2 human PDAC cells. Athymic mice were injected subcutaneously with IκBα-super-repressor (SR) or vector-expressing PaCa-2 cells and randomized to receive phosphate-buffered saline (PBS) or 100 mg/kg gemcitabine(gem) for 4 weeks.

RESULTS

The mean increase in tumor volume was 47 mm(3) (89%) and 196 mm(3) (326%) in gem/SR and gem/vector groups, respectively (P = .03). The PBS-treated groups demonstrated greater tumor growth, ∼340 mm(3) (850%) increase, in both PBS/vector and PBS/SR groups. Intratumoral NF-κB activity was decreased in gem/SR compared with the gem/vector group (P = .04). Decreased Ki-67 positivity was noted in gem/SR (49%) versus gem/vector tumors (73%) (P = .04), with no difference in apoptosis (apoptag, P = .3) or angiogenesis (CD31+, P = .9).

CONCLUSION

Stable IκBα-SR expression in vivo potentiated the antitumor effects of gemcitabine, resulting in decreased tumor growth in association with decreased cell proliferation. Molecular suppression of the NF-κB pathway decreases successfully gemcitabine resistance in a relatively chemoresistant PDAC line. Thus, NF-κB-targeted agents may complement gemcitabine-based therapies and decrease chemoresistance in patients with PDAC.

Curaxin CBL0137 eradicates drug resistant cancer stem cells and potentiates efficacy of gemcitabine in preclinical models of pancreatic cancer

Pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma (PDA) continues to be one of the deadliest cancers due to the absence of effective treatment. Curaxins are a class of small molecules with anti-cancer activity demonstrated in different models of cancer in mice. The lead curaxin compound, CBL0137, recently entered Phase I clinical trials. Curaxins modulate several important signaling pathways involved in the pathogenesis of PDA through inhibition of chromatin remodeling complex FACT. FACT is overexpressed in multiple types of tumor, with one of the highest rate of overexpression in PDA (59%). In this study, the efficacy of CBL0137 alone or in combination with current standard of care, gemcitabine, was tested against different models of PDA in vitro and in mouse models. It was found that CBL0137 alone is a potent inducer of apoptosis in pancreatic cancer cell lines and is toxic not only for proliferating bulk tumor cells, but also for pancreatic cancer stem cells. In mice, CBL0137 was effective against several PDA models, including orthotopic gemcitabine resistant PANC-1 model and patient derived xenografts, in which CBL0137 anti-tumor effect correlated with overexpression of FACT. Moreover, we observed synergy of CBL0137 with gemcitabine which may be explained by the ability of CBL0137 to inhibit several transcriptional programs induced by gemcitabine, including NF-kappaB response and expression of ribonucleotide reductase, one of the targets of gemcitabine in cells. This data suggest testing of CBL0137 efficacy in Phase II trial in PDA patients alone and in combination with gemcitabine.

Inflammatory cytokines regulate the expression of glycosyltransferases involved in the biosynthesis of tumor-associated sialylated glycans in pancreatic cancer cell lines

BACKGROUND

Pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma (PDAC) is characterized by an abundant stroma containing several pro-inflammatory cytokines, which are described to modulate the expression of important genes related to tumor promotion and progression. In the present work we have investigated the potential role of these cytokines in the biosynthesis of tumor-associated carbohydrate antigens such as sialyl-Lewis(x) (SLe(x)) through the regulation of specific glycosyltransferase genes.

METHODS

Two human PDAC cell lines MDAPanc-3 and MDAPanc-28 were treated with pro-inflammatory cytokines IL-1β, TNFα, IL-6 or IL-8, and the content of tumor-associated carbohydrate antigens at the cell membrane was analyzed by flow cytometry. In addition, variation in the mRNA expression of sialyltransferase (ST) and fucosyltransferase (FUT) genes, which codify for the ST and FucT enzymes involved in the carbohydrate antigens' biosynthesis, was determined. The inflammatory microenvironment of PDAC tissues and the expression of Lewis-type antigens were analyzed by immunohistochemistry to find a possible correlation between inflammation status and the presence of tumor-associated carbohydrate antigens.

RESULTS

IL-1β stimuli increased SLe(x) and α2,6-sialic acid levels in MDAPanc-28 cells and enhanced the mRNA levels of ST3GAL3-4 and FUT5-7, which codify for ST and FucT enzymes related to SLe(x) biosynthesis, and of ST6GAL1. IL-6 and TNFα treatments increased the levels of SLe(x) and Le(y) antigens in MDPanc-3 cells and, similarly, the mRNA expression of ST3GAL3-4, FUT1-2 and FUT6, related to these Lewis-type antigens' biosynthesis, were increased. Most PDAC tissues stained for SLe(x) and SLe(a) and tended to be expressed in the tumor samples with a higher presence of inflammatory immune cells.

CONCLUSIONS

The inflammatory microenvironment can modulate the glycosylation pattern of PDAC cells, increasing the expression of tumor-associated sialylated antigens such as SLe(x), which contributes to pancreatic tumor malignancy.

Luteolin and Gemcitabine Protect Against Pancreatic Cancer in an Orthotopic Mouse Model

OBJECTIVE

This study aimed to evaluate the ability of luteolin (Lut), gemcitabine (Gem), and their combination (Lut + Gem) to prevent the growth of pancreatic tumors in vivo.

METHODS

The antitumor effect of intraperitoneally administered Lut, Gem, and Lut + Gem was evaluated using an orthotopic mouse model for 6 weeks. Tumor growth after injection of human pancreatic cancer cells was assessed by measuring pancreatic tumor mass. The mechanism of action of antitumor effect was assessed by immunohistochemistry and Western blot procedures.

RESULTS

Luteolin + Gem significantly lowered (P = 0.048) the pancreatic tumor mass compared with control. Luteolin, Gem, and Lut + Gem significantly reduced the proliferating cell nuclear antigen expression (25%, 37%, and 37%, respectively). Luteolin + Gem treatment led to a significant reduction in the expressions of K-ras (46%, P = 0.0006), GSK-3β (34%, P = 0.014), P(Tyr216)GSK-3β (16%, P = 0.033), P(Ser311)NF-κB p65 (27%, P = 0.036), and bcl-2/bax ratio (68%, P = 0.006) while significantly increasing the expressions of cytochrome c (44%, P = 0.035) and caspase 3 (417%, P = 0.003).

CONCLUSIONS

Luteolin + Gem promoted apoptotic cell death in pancreatic tumor cells in vivo through inhibition of the K-ras/GSK-3β/NF-κB signaling pathway, leading to a reduction in the Bcl-2/Bax ratio, release of cytochrome c, and activation of caspase 3.

Pancreatic cancer and its stroma: a conspiracy theory

Pancreatic cancer is characterised by a prominent desmoplastic/stromal reaction that has received little attention until recent times. Given that treatments focusing on pancreatic cancer cells alone have failed to significantly improve patient outcome over many decades, research efforts have now moved to understanding the pathophysiology of the stromal reaction and its role in cancer progression. In this regard, our Group was the first to identify the cells (pancreatic stellate cells, PSCs) that produced the collagenous stroma of pancreatic cancer and to demonstrate that these cells interacted closely with cancer cells to facilitate local tumour growth and distant metastasis. Evidence is accumulating to indicate that stromal PSCs may also mediate angiogenesis, immune evasion and the well known resistance of pancreatic cancer to chemotherapy and radiotherapy. This review will summarise current knowledge regarding the critical role of pancreatic stellate cells and the stroma in pancreatic cancer biology and the therapeutic approaches being developed to target the stroma in a bid to improve the outcome of this devastating disease.

α-Mangostin: a dietary antioxidant derived from the pericarp of Garcinia mangostana L. inhibits pancreatic tumor growth in xenograft mouse model

AIMS

Pancreatic cancer (PC) is the most aggressive malignant disease, ranking as the fourth most leading cause of cancer-related death among men and women in the United States. In this study, we provide evidence of chemotherapeutic effects of α-mangostin, a dietary antioxidant isolated from the pericarp of Garcinia mangostana L. against human PC.

RESULTS

The chemotherapeutic effect of α-mangostin was determined using four human PC cells (PL-45, PANC1, BxPC3, and ASPC1). α-Mangostin resulted in a significant inhibition of PC cells viability without having any effects on normal human pancreatic duct epithelial cells. α-Mangostin showed a dose-dependent increase of apoptosis in PC cells. Also, α-mangostin inhibited the expression levels of pNF-κB/p65Ser552, pStat3Ser727, and pStat3Tyr705. α-Mangostin inhibited DNA binding activity of nuclear factor kappa B (NF-κB) and signal transducer and activator 3 (Stat3). α-Mangostin inhibited the expression levels of matrix metallopeptidase 9 (MMP9), cyclin D1, and gp130; however, increased expression of tissue inhibitor of metalloproteinase 1 (TIMP1) was observed in PC cells. In addition, i.p. administration of α-mangostin (6 mg/kg body weight, 5 days a week) resulted in a significant inhibition of both primary (PL-45) and secondary (ASPC1) human PC cell-derived orthotopic and ectopic xenograft tumors in athymic nude mice. No sign of toxicity was observed in any of the mice administered with α-mangostin. α-Mangostin treatment inhibited the biomarkers of cell proliferation (Ki-67 and proliferating cell nuclear antigen [PCNA]) in the xenograft tumor tissues.

INNOVATION

We present, for the first time, that dietary antioxidant α-mangostin inhibits the growth of PC cells in vitro and in vivo.

CONCLUSION

These results suggest the potential therapeutic efficacy of α-mangostin against human PC.

Proteomic identification of potential prognostic biomarkers in resectable pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma

Pancreatic cancer is a devastating disease with a mortality rate almost identical with its incidence. In this context, the investigation of the pancreatic cancer proteome has gained considerable attention because profiles of proteins may be able to identify disease states and progression more accurately. Therefore, our objective was to investigate the changes in the proteome of patients suffering from pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma (PDAC) by a comprehensive quantitative approach. Comparative proteomic profiling by label-free LC-MS/MS analysis of nine matched pairs of tumor and nontumor pancreas samples was used to identify differences in protein levels characteristic for PDAC. In this analysis, 488 proteins were quantified by at least two peptides of which 99 proteins displayed altered levels in PDAC (p < 0.01, fold change >1.3). Screening of data revealed a number of molecules that had already been related to PDAC such as galectin-1 (LEG1), major vault protein, adenylyl cyclase-associated protein 1 (CAP1), but also a potential new prognostic biomarker prolargin (PRELP). The Kaplan-Meier survival analysis revealed a significant correlation of protein abundance of PRELP with postoperative survival of patients with PDAC. For selected proteins the findings were verified by targeted proteomics (SRM), validated by immunohistochemistry and Western blotting and their value as candidate biomarkers is discussed.

Shikonin suppresses tumor growth and synergizes with gemcitabine in a pancreatic cancer xenograft model: Involvement of NF-κB signaling pathway

Although gemcitabine is currently the best chemotherapeutic agent available for the treatment of advanced pancreatic cancer, eventual failure of response is a significant clinical problem. Therefore, novel therapeutic approaches against this disease are highly needed. The aim of this study was to evaluate whether shikonin, a naphthoquinone derivative, has potential in the treatment of pancreatic cancer when used either alone or in combination with gemcitabine. Our in vitro results showed that shikonin inhibited the proliferation of three different human pancreatic cancer cell lines and potentiated the cytotoxic effect of gemcitabine, which correlated with the down-regulation of constitutive as well as gemcitabine-induced activation of NF-κB and NF-κB-regulated gene products. Most importantly, using a xenograft model of human pancreatic cancer, we found shikonin alone significantly suppressed tumor growth and argumented the antitumor activity of gemcitabine. These effects also correlated with the down-regulation of NF-κB activity and its target genes, decreased proliferation (PCNA and Ki-67), decreased microvessel density (CD31), and increased apoptosis (TUNEL) in tumor remnants. Collectively, our results suggest that shikonin can suppress the growth of human pancreatic tumors and potentiate the antitumor effects of gemcitabine through the suppression of NF-κB and NF-κB-regulated gene products.

Quantitative glycoproteomics analysis reveals changes in N-glycosylation level associated with pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma

Glycosylation plays an important role in epithelial cancers, including pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma. However, little is known about the glycoproteome of the human pancreas or its alterations associated with pancreatic tumorigenesis. Using quantitative glycoproteomics approach, we investigated protein N-glycosylation in pancreatic tumor tissue in comparison with normal pancreas and chronic pancreatitis tissue. The study lead to the discovery of a roster of glycoproteins with aberrant N-glycosylation level associated with pancreatic cancer, including mucin-5AC (MUC5AC), carcinoembryonic antigen-related cell adhesion molecule 5 (CEACAM5), insulin-like growth factor binding protein (IGFBP3), and galectin-3-binding protein (LGALS3BP). Pathway analysis of cancer-associated aberrant glycoproteins revealed an emerging phenomenon that increased activity of N-glycosylation was implicated in several pancreatic cancer pathways, including TGF-β, TNF, NF-kappa-B, and TFEB-related lysosomal changes. In addition, the study provided evidence that specific N-glycosylation sites within certain individual proteins can have significantly altered glycosylation occupancy in pancreatic cancer, reflecting the complexity of the molecular mechanisms underlying cancer-associated glycosylation events.

Antiprotease strategy in pancreatic cancer treatment: emergence from a preclinical study

OBJECTIVES

Resistance to gemcitabine is one of the main causes of treatment failure in pancreatic cancer. Compelling evidences have shown the involvement of nuclear factor κB (NF-κB) activation in such phenomenon. The protease inhibitor gabexate mesilate has been shown to inhibit NF-κB. We here investigated if combined treatment with this drug could improve gemcitabine antitumoral efficacy in pancreatic cancer cells.

METHODS

The effect of gabexate mesilate and gemcitabine, both used at concentrations achievable in human plasma, was assessed on in vitro pancreatic cancer cell growth, invasion, and tumor angiogenesis. The molecular mechanism at the basis of these effects was also investigated.

RESULTS

Gabexate mesilate significantly increased gemcitabine anti-invasive and antiangiogenic efficacy. This effect was related to inhibition of gemcitabine-induced NF-κB activation by gabexate mesilate, which prevented RelA/p65 nuclear translocation and resulted in metalloproteinase 2, metalloproteinase 9, vascular endothelial growth factor, and interleukin 8 down-regulation. Combined treatment with gabexate mesilate also inhibited gemcitabine-induced extracellular-regulated kinase 1/2 and AKT activation by increased expression of Raf kinase inhibitor protein and phosphatase and tensin homolog.

CONCLUSIONS

Combined treatment with gabexate mesilate sensitizes pancreatic cancer cells to gemcitabine by inhibition of the NF-κB pathway. The efficacy of this therapeutic strategy in pancreatic cancer patients remains to be established and deserves future clinical investigation.

Escin Chemosensitizes Human Pancreatic Cancer Cells and Inhibits the Nuclear Factor-kappaB Signaling Pathway

Background. There is an urgent need to develop new treatment strategies and drugs for pancreatic cancer that is highly resistant to radio-chemotherapy. Aesculus hippocastanum (the horse chestnut) known in Chinese medicine as a plant with anti-inflammatory, antiedema, antianalgesic, and antipyretic activities. The main active compound of this plant is Escin (C54H84O23). Objective. To evaluate the effect of Escin alone and combined with chemotherapy on pancreatic cancer cell survival and to unravel mechanism(s) of Escin anticancer activity. Methods. Cell survival was measured by XTT colorimetric assay. Synergistic effect of combined therapy was determined by CalcuSyn software. Cell cycle and induction of apoptosis were evaluated by FACS analysis. Expression of NF- κ B-related proteins (p65, I κ Bα, and p-I κ Bα) and cyclin D was evaluated by western blot analysis. Results. Escin decreased the survival of pancreatic cancer cells with IC50 = 10-20 M. Escin combined with gemcitabine showed only additive effect, while its combination with cisplatin resulted in a significant synergistic cytotoxic effect in Panc-1 cells. High concentrations of Escin induced apoptosis and decreased NF- κ B-related proteins and cyclin D expression. Conclusions. Escin decreased pancreatic cancer cell survival, induced apoptosis, and downregulated NF- κ B signaling pathway. Moreover, Escin sensitized pancreatic cancer cells to chemotherapy. Further translational research is required.

Genes-environment interactions in obesity- and diabetes-associated pancreatic cancer: a GWAS data analysis

BACKGROUND

Obesity and diabetes are potentially alterable risk factors for pancreatic cancer. Genetic factors that modify the associations of obesity and diabetes with pancreatic cancer have previously not been examined at the genome-wide level.

METHODS

Using genome-wide association studies (GWAS) genotype and risk factor data from the Pancreatic Cancer Case Control Consortium, we conducted a discovery study of 2,028 cases and 2,109 controls to examine gene-obesity and gene-diabetes interactions in relation to pancreatic cancer risk by using the likelihood-ratio test nested in logistic regression models and Ingenuity Pathway Analysis (IPA).

RESULTS

After adjusting for multiple comparisons, a significant interaction of the chemokine signaling pathway with obesity (P = 3.29 × 10(-6)) and a near significant interaction of calcium signaling pathway with diabetes (P = 1.57 × 10(-4)) in modifying the risk of pancreatic cancer were observed. These findings were supported by results from IPA analysis of the top genes with nominal interactions. The major contributing genes to the two top pathways include GNGT2, RELA, TIAM1, and GNAS. None of the individual genes or single-nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) except one SNP remained significant after adjusting for multiple testing. Notably, SNP rs10818684 of the PTGS1 gene showed an interaction with diabetes (P = 7.91 × 10(-7)) at a false discovery rate of 6%.

CONCLUSIONS

Genetic variations in inflammatory response and insulin resistance may affect the risk of obesity- and diabetes-related pancreatic cancer. These observations should be replicated in additional large datasets.

IMPACT

A gene-environment interaction analysis may provide new insights into the genetic susceptibility and molecular mechanisms of obesity- and diabetes-related pancreatic cancer.

Moringa Oleifera aqueous leaf extract down-regulates nuclear factor-kappaB and increases cytotoxic effect of chemotherapy in pancreatic cancer cells

BACKGROUND

Fewer than 6% patients with adenocarcinoma of the pancreas live up to five years after diagnosis. Chemotherapy is currently the standard treatment, however, these tumors often develop drug resistance over time. Agents for increasing the cytotoxic effects of chemotherapy or reducing the cancer cells' chemo-resistance to the drugs are required to improve treatment outcome. Nuclear factor kappa B (NF-kB), a pro-inflammatory transcription factor, reportedly plays a significant role in the resistance of pancreatic cancer cells to apoptosis-based chemotherapy. This study investigated the effect of aqueous Moringa Oleifera leaf extract on cultured human pancreatic cancer cells - Panc-1, p34, and COLO 357, and whether it can potentiates the effect of cisplatin chemotherapy on these cells.

METHODS

The effect of Moringa Oleifera leaf extract alone and in combination with cisplatin on the survival of cultured human pancreatic cancer cells was evaluated by XTT-based colorimetric assay. The distribution of Panc-1 cells in the cell cycle following treatment with Moringa leaf extract was evaluated by flow cytometry, and evaluations of protein levels were via immunoblotting. Data of cell survival following combined treatments were analyzed with Calcusyn software.

RESULTS

Moringa Oleifera leaf extract inhibited the growth of all pancreatic cell lines tested. This effect was significant in all cells following exposure to ≥0.75 mg/ml of the extract. Exposure of Panc-1 cells to Moringa leaf extract induced an elevation in the sub-G1 cell population of the cell-cycle, and reduced the expression of p65, p-IkBα and IkBα proteins in crude cell extracts. Lastly, Moringa Oleifera leaf extract synergistically enhanced the cytotoxic effect of cisplatin on Panc-1 cells.

CONCLUSION

Moringa Oleifera leaf extract inhibits the growth of pancreatic cancer cells, the cells NF-κB signaling pathway, and increases the efficacy of chemotherapy in human pancreatic cancer cells.

Flavonoid apigenin modified gene expression associated with inflammation and cancer and induced apoptosis in human pancreatic cancer cells through inhibition of GSK-3β/NF-κB signaling cascade

SCOPE

The objective was to examine the inhibitory effects of citrus fruit bioactive compounds on BxPC-3 and PANC-1 human pancreatic cancer cells, focusing on the antiproliferative mechanism of action of the flavonoid apigenin related to the glycogen synthase kinase-3β/nuclear factor kappa B signaling pathway.

METHODS AND RESULTS

Flavonoids, limonoids, phenolic acids, and ascorbic acid were tested for cytotoxic effects on BxPC-3 and PANC-1 cells; apigenin was the most potent (IC50 = 23 and 12 μM for 24 and 48 h for BxPC-3 and IC50 = 71 and 41 μM for 24 and 48 h for PANC-1). Apigenin induced pancreatic cell death through inhibition of the glycogen synthase kinase-3β/nuclear factor kappa B signaling pathway. Apigenin arrested cell cycle at G2 /M phase (36 and 32% at 50 μM for BxPC-3 and PANC-1, respectively) with concomitant decrease in the expression of cyclin B1. Apigenin activated the mitochondrial pathway of apoptosis (44 and 14% at 50 μM for BxPC-3 and PANC-1, respectively) and modified the expression of apoptotic proteins. Apigenin highly upregulated the expression of cytokine genes IL17F (114.2-fold), LTA (33.1-fold), IL17C (23.2-fold), IL17A (11.3-fold), and IFNB1 (8.9-fold) in BxPC-3 cells, which potentially contributed to the anticancer properties.

CONCLUSION

Flavonoids have a protective role in pancreatic cancer tumorigenesis.

Involvement of microRNA-181b in the gemcitabine resistance of pancreatic cancer cells

BACKGROUND/OBJECTIVES

MicroRNAs (miRs) have been shown to regulate the sensitivity to several chemotherapeutic agents in various types of cancers. MiR-181b is one of such regulators, yet its importance in pancreatic cancer is not determined so far. The aim of this study was to investigate the relationship between microRNA (miR)-181b expression and gemcitabine resistance in pancreatic cancer cells.

METHODS

The effects of overexpression or knockdown of miR-181b on four pancreatic cancer cell lines exposed to gemcitabine were examined. The induction of apoptosis and the changes of the cylindromatosis (CYLD) protein were examined. Furthermore, the effect of small interference RNA for CYLD (siCYLD) on cell viability and the relationship between CYLD and nuclear factor kappa B (NF-κB) were investigated.

RESULTS

The expression of miR-181b was higher in BxPC3, Panc1 and PSN1 cells compared with MiaPaCa2 cells. Pre-miR-181b transfection into MiaPaCa2 cells increased their gemcitabine resistance, whereas anti-miR-181b transfection into the other pancreatic cancer cell lines reduced their resistance to gemcitabine and led to the induction of apoptosis. The protein levels of CYLD were increased by anti-miR-181b in Panc1 and PSN1 cells. Inhibition of CYLD increased the NF-κB activity and gemcitabine resistance in Panc1 and PSN1 cells.

CONCLUSIONS

The present study demonstrated that miR-181b was associated with the resistance of pancreatic cancer cells to gemcitabine, and verified that miR-181b enhances the activity of NF-κB by inhibiting CYLD, leading to the resistance to gemcitabine. Our results suggest that miR-181b is a potential target for decreasing gemcitabine resistance.

Dimethylaminoparthenolide and gemcitabine: a survival study using a genetically engineered mouse model of pancreatic cancer

BACKGROUND

Pancreatic cancer remains one of the deadliest cancers due to lack of early detection and absence of effective treatments. Gemcitabine, the current standard-of-care chemotherapy for pancreatic cancer, has limited clinical benefit. Treatment of pancreatic cancer cells with gemcitabine has been shown to induce the activity of the transcription factor nuclear factor-kappaB (NF-κB) which regulates the expression of genes involved in the inflammatory response and tumorigenesis. It has therefore been proposed that gemcitabine-induced NF-κB activation may result in chemoresistance. We hypothesize that NF-κB suppression by the novel inhibitor dimethylaminoparthenolide (DMAPT) may enhance the effect of gemcitabine in pancreatic cancer.

METHODS

The efficacy of DMAPT and gemcitabine was evaluated in a chemoprevention trial using the mutant Kras and p53-expressing LSL-KrasG12D/+; LSL-Trp53R172H; Pdx-1-Cre mouse model of pancreatic cancer. Mice were randomized to treatment groups (placebo, DMAPT [40 mg/kg/day], gemcitabine [50 mg/kg twice weekly], and the combination DMAPT/gemcitabine). Treatment was continued until mice showed signs of ill health at which time they were sacrificed. Plasma cytokine levels were determined using a Bio-Plex immunoassay. Statistical tests used included log-rank test, ANOVA with Dunnett's post-test, Student's t-test, and Fisher exact test.

RESULTS

Gemcitabine or the combination DMAPT/gemcitabine significantly increased median survival and decreased the incidence and multiplicity of pancreatic adenocarcinomas. The DMAPT/gemcitabine combination also significantly decreased tumor size and the incidence of metastasis to the liver. No significant differences in the percentages of normal pancreatic ducts or premalignant pancreatic lesions were observed between the treatment groups. Pancreata in which no tumors formed were analyzed to determine the extent of pre-neoplasia; mostly normal ducts or low grade pancreatic lesions were observed, suggesting prevention of higher grade lesions in these animals. While gemcitabine treatment increased the levels of the inflammatory cytokines interleukin 1α (IL-1α), IL-1β, and IL-17 in mouse plasma, DMAPT and DMAPT/gemcitabine reduced the levels of the inflammatory cytokines IL-12p40, monocyte chemotactic protein-1 (MCP-1), macrophage inflammatory protein-1 beta (MIP-1β), eotaxin, and tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-α), all of which are NF-κB target genes.

CONCLUSION

In summary, these findings provide preclinical evidence supporting further evaluation of agents such as DMAPT and gemcitabine for the prevention and treatment of pancreatic cancer.

Holy Basil leaf extract decreases tumorigenicity and metastasis of aggressive human pancreatic cancer cells in vitro and in vivo: potential role in therapy

There is an urgent need to develop alternative therapies against lethal pancreatic cancer (PC). Ocimum sanctum ("Holy Basil") has been used for thousands of years in traditional Indian medicine, but its anti-tumorigenic effect remains largely unexplored. Here, we show that extracts of O. sanctum leaves inhibit the proliferation, migration, invasion, and induce apoptosis of PC cells in vitro. The expression of genes that promote the proliferation, migration and invasion of PC cells including activated ERK-1/2, FAK, and p65 (subunit of NF-κB), was downregulated in PC cells after O. sanctum treatment. Intraperitoneal injections of the aqueous extract significantly inhibited the growth of orthotopically transplanted PC cells in vivo (p<0.05). Genes that inhibit metastasis (E-cadherin) and induce apoptosis (BAD) were significantly upregulated in tumors isolated from mice treated with O. sanctum extracts, while genes that promote survival (Bcl-2 and Bcl-xL) and chemo/radiation resistance (AURKA, Chk1 and Survivin) were downregulated. Overall, our study suggests that leaves of O. sanctum could be a potential source of novel anticancer compounds in the future.

Pharmacokinetics, protein binding and metabolism of a quinoxaline urea analog as an NF-κB inhibitor in mice and rats by LC-MS/MS

13-197 is a novel NF-κB inhibitor that shows promising in vitro efficacy data against pancreatic cancer. In this study, we characterized the pharmacokinetics, tissue distribution, protein binding and metabolism of 13-197 in mice and rats. A valid, sensitive and selective LC-MS/MS method was developed. This method was validated for the quantification of 13-197, in the range of 0.1 or 0.2-500 ng/mL in mouse plasma, liver, kidney, lung, heart, spleen, brain, urine and feces. 13-197 has low bioavailability of 3 and 16% in mice and rats, respectively. It has faster absorption in mice with 12-fold shorter Tmax than in rats. Tissue concentrations were 1.3-69.2-fold higher in mice than in rats at 72 h after intravenous administration. 13-197 is well distributed to the peripheral tissues and has relatively high tissue-plasma concentration ratios, ranging from 1.8 to 3634, in both mice and rats. It also demonstrated more than 99% binding to plasma proteins in both mice and rats. Finally, <1% of 13-197 is excreted unchanged in urine and feces, and metabolite profiling studies detected more than 20 metabolites in mouse and rat plasma, urine and feces, which indicates that 13-197 is extensively metabolized and primarily eliminated by metabolism rather than by excretion.

Targeting the NF-κB and mTOR pathways with a quinoxaline urea analog that inhibits IKKβ for pancreas cancer therapy

PURPOSE

The presence of TNF-α in approximately 50% of surgically resected tumors suggests that the canonical NF-κB and the mTOR pathways are activated. Inhibitor of IκB kinase β (IKKβ) acts as the signaling node that regulates transcription via the p-IκBα/NF-κB axis and regulates translation via the mTOR/p-S6K/p-eIF4EBP axis. A kinome screen identified a quinoxaline urea analog 13-197 as an IKKβ inhibitor. We hypothesized that targeting the NF-κB and mTOR pathways with 13-197 will be effective in malignancies driven by these pathways.

EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN

Retrospective clinical and preclinical studies in pancreas cancers have implicated NF-κB. We examined the effects of 13-197 on the downstream targets of the NF-κB and mTOR pathways in pancreatic cancer cells, pharmacokinetics, toxicity and tumor growth, and metastases in vivo.

RESULTS

13-197 inhibited the kinase activity of IKKβ in vitro and TNF-α-mediated NF-κB transcription in cells with low-μmol/L potency. 13-197 inhibited the phosphorylation of IκBα, S6K, and eIF4EBP, induced G1 arrest, and downregulated the expression of antiapoptotic proteins in pancreatic cancer cells. Prolonged administration of 13-197 did not induce granulocytosis and protected mice from lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced death. Results also show that 13-197 is orally available with extensive distribution to peripheral tissues and inhibited tumor growth and metastasis in an orthotopic pancreatic cancer model without any detectable toxicity.

CONCLUSION

These results suggest that 13-197 targets IKKβ and thereby inhibits mTOR and NF-κB pathways. Oral availability along with in vivo efficacy without obvious toxicities makes this quinoxaline urea chemotype a viable cancer therapeutic.

Aberrant glycogen synthase kinase 3β is involved in pancreatic cancer cell invasion and resistance to therapy

Background and Purpose

The major obstacles to treatment of pancreatic cancer are the highly invasive capacity and resistance to chemo- and radiotherapy. Glycogen synthase kinase 3β (GSK3β) regulates multiple cellular pathways and is implicated in various diseases including cancer. Here we investigate a pathological role for GSK3β in the invasive and treatment resistant phenotype of pancreatic cancer.

Methods

Pancreatic cancer cells were examined for GSK3β expression, phosphorylation and activity using Western blotting and in vitro kinase assay. The effects of GSK3β inhibition on cancer cell survival, proliferation, invasive ability and susceptibility to gemcitabine and radiation were examined following treatment with a pharmacological inhibitor or by RNA interference. Effects of GSK3β inhibition on cancer cell xenografts were also examined.

Results

Pancreatic cancer cells showed higher expression and activity of GSK3β than non-neoplastic cells, which were associated with changes in its differential phosphorylation. Inhibition of GSK3β significantly reduced the proliferation and survival of cancer cells, sensitized them to gemcitabine and ionizing radiation, and attenuated their migration and invasion. These effects were associated with decreases in cyclin D1 expression and Rb phosphorylation. Inhibition of GSK3β also altered the subcellular localization of Rac1 and F-actin and the cellular microarchitecture, including lamellipodia. Coincident with these changes were the reduced secretion of matrix metalloproteinase-2 (MMP-2) and decreased phosphorylation of focal adhesion kinase (FAK). The effects of GSK3β inhibition on tumor invasion, susceptibility to gemcitabine, MMP-2 expression and FAK phosphorylation were observed in tumor xenografts.

Conclusion

The targeting of GSK3β represents an effective strategy to overcome the dual challenges of invasiveness and treatment resistance in pancreatic cancer.

Anoikis induction and inhibition of peritoneal metastasis of pancreatic cancer cells by a nuclear factor-κB inhibitor, (-)-DHMEQ

The transcription factor nuclear factor-κB (NF-κB) plays a crucial role in pancreatic cancer (PC) progression. NF-κB is also involved in resistance to anoikis, a special type of apoptosis induced when cells are detached from the extracellular matrix or other cells. Anoikis resistance is related to the metastatic abilities of tumor cells; however, little is known about anoikis induction as it relates to inhibition of PC metastasis by NF-κB inhibitors. Here we used a specific NF-κB inhibitor, (-)-dehydroxymethylepoxyquinomicin (DHMEQ), to investigate anoikis induction and peritoneal metastasis suppression following NF-κB inhibition. We transduced Gluc, a secretory form of luciferase, into a PC cell line, AsPC-1 (AsPC-1-Gluc), for our in vivo experiments. (-)-DHMEQ induced anoikis in AsPC-1-Gluc cells as measured by cell survival assays and flow cytometry. The DNA-binding activity of p65 was enhanced immediately after cell detachment from culture dishes in ELISA assays. Some antiapoptotic proteins such as cellular inhibitor of apoptotic protein-1 were consequently upregulated on Western blots. (-)-DHMEQ prevented this increase in p65 activity and the subsequent expressions of antiapoptotic molecules. In a murine xenograft model, anoikis-resistant PC cell lines tended to metastasize to the peritoneum more than anoikis-sensitive cells, suggesting a correlation between anoikis sensitivity and peritoneal metastasis. (-)-DHMEQ successfully inhibited peritoneal metastasis of AsPC-1-Gluc cells. We monitored metastasis inhibition by ex vivo chemiluminescent detection of Gluc secreted from tumor cells into murine plasma and by in vivo imaging. Our results suggest that (-)-DHMEQ inhibited peritoneal dissemination by preventing anoikis resistance of PC cells.

Efficacy of dimethylaminoparthenolide and sulindac in combination with gemcitabine in a genetically engineered mouse model of pancreatic cancer

OBJECTIVES

Pancreatic cancer remains one of the deadliest diseases, with limited surgical and treatment options. Two targets of interest include the transcription factor nuclear factor-κB and cyclooxygenase-2, which are constitutively activated and overexpressed, respectively, in human pancreatic adenocarcinoma. We have previously shown that dimethylaminoparthenolide (DMAPT), a bioavailable nuclear factor-κB inhibitor, and the cyclooxygenase inhibitors sulindac and celecoxib have potential chemotherapeutic efficacy. The current study evaluates the efficacy of intervention with DMAPT and sulindac in the LSL-Kras(G12D);Pdx-1-Cre genetically engineered mouse model. Gemcitabine, traditionally a chemotherapeutic agent, has relatively low toxicity; thus, combinations with low-dose gemcitabine were also explored.

METHODS

LSL-Kras(G12D);Pdx-1-Cre mice at 7 months of age were randomized into placebo, DMAPT (40 mg/kg per day), sulindac (20 mg/kg per day), gemcitabine (50 mg/kg twice weekly), and combination treatment groups. After 3 months of treatment, the mice were killed.

RESULTS

The percentage of normal pancreatic ducts was significantly increased by the combinations of DMAPT/sulindac, DMAPT/gemcitabine, sulindac/gemcitabine, and DMAPT/sulindac/gemcitabine compared to placebo. Additionally, the percentage of mouse pancreatic intraepithelial neoplasia-2 lesions was significantly decreased by DMAPT/gemcitabine.

CONCLUSIONS

Intervention with DMAPT and sulindac in combination with gemcitabine may delay or prevent progression of premalignant pancreatic lesions in the LSL-Kras(G12D);Pdx-1-Cre mouse model of pancreatic cancer.

Noxa/Mcl-1 balance influences the effect of the proteasome inhibitor MG-132 in combination with anticancer agents in pancreatic cancer cell lines

Pancreatic cancer progresses aggressively and owing to chemoresistance responds poorly to chemotherapy. Thus, there is an urgent need to understand the mechanisms of cancer cell resistance to generate effective strategies to circumvent intrinsic chemoresistance in this tumour indication. In this study, three pancreatic cancer cell lines, MIA PaCa-2, MDAPanc-3 and AsPC-1, were treated with the proteasome inhibitor MG-132 together with camptothecin, doxorubicin or paclitaxel, and cytotoxicity was measured using the 3-(4,5-dimethylthiazol-2-yl)-2,5-diphenyltetrazolium bromide assay. The combination of MG-132 and camptothecin at a ratio of 5 : 1 gave the most promising results and enhanced cytotoxicity compared with the single compounds in MIA PaCa-2 cells. The increase was shown to be due to enhanced caspase-3 activity resulting in apoptosis. Moreover, this combination upregulated the levels of the proapoptotic protein Noxa and reduced the levels of the antiapoptotic protein Mcl-1, as demonstrated by western blotting. In contrast, the combination of MG-132 with doxorubicin also induced increased cytotoxicity, but apoptosis was decreased. The lack of an enhanced apoptosis induction could be correlated with high levels of Mcl-1 in response to the combined treatment with MG-132 and doxorubicin. Thus, the results indicate that regulation of the antiapoptotic and proapoptotic Bcl-2 family members Noxa and Mcl-1 is predicative of the effectiveness of the combination of MG-132 with different anticancer agents on apoptosis induction in pancreatic cancer cells.

Aberrant glycogen synthase kinase 3β in the development of pancreatic cancer

Development and progression of pancreatic cancer involves general metabolic disorder, local chronic inflammation, and multistep activation of distinct oncogenic molecular pathways. These pathologic processes result in a highly invasive and metastatic tumor phenotype that is a major obstacle to curative surgical intervention, infusional gemcitabine-based chemotherapy, and radiation therapy. Many clinical trials with chemical compounds and therapeutic antibodies targeting growth factors, angiogenic factors, and matrix metalloproteinases have failed to demonstrate definitive therapeutic benefits to refractory pancreatic cancer patients. Glycogen synthase kinase 3β (GSK3β), a serine/threonine protein kinase, has emerged as a therapeutic target in common chronic and progressive diseases, including cancer. Here we review accumulating evidence for a pathologic role of GSK3β in promoting tumor cell survival, proliferation, invasion, and resistance to chemotherapy and radiation in pancreatic cancer. We also discuss the putative involvement of GSK3β in mediating metabolic disorder, local inflammation, and molecular alteration leading to pancreatic cancer development. Taken together, we highlight potential therapeutic as well as preventive effects of GSK3β inhibition in pancreatic cancer.

Stromal galectin-1 expression is associated with long-term survival in resectable pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma

The overall 5 year survival rate for pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma (i.e., PDAC) is a dismal 5%, although patients that have undergone surgical resection have a somewhat better survival rate of up to 20%. Very long-term survivors of PDAC (defined as patients with ≥ 10 year survival following apparently curative resection), on the other hand, are considerably less frequent. The molecular characteristics of very long-term survivors (VLTS) are poorly understood, but might provide novel insights into prognostication for this disease. In this study, a panel of five VLTS and stage-matched short-term survivors (STS, defined as disease-specific mortality within 14 months of resection) were identified, and quantitative proteomics was applied to comparatively profile tumor tissues from both cohorts. Differentially expressed proteins were identified in cancers from VLTS vs. STS patients. Specifically, the expression of galectin-1 was 2-fold lower in VLTS compared with STS tumors. Validation studies were performed by immunohistochemistry (IHC) in two additional cohorts of resected PDAC, including: 1) an independent cohort of VLTS and 2) a panel of sporadic PDAC with a considerable range of overall survival following surgery. Immunolabeling analysis confirmed that significantly lower expression of stromal galectin-1 was associated with VLTS (p = 0.02) and also correlated with longer survival in sporadic, surgically-treated PDAC cases (hazard ratio = 4.9, p = 0.002). The results from this study provide new insights to better understand the role of galectin-1 in PDAC survival, and might be useful for rendering prognostic information, and developing more effective therapeutic strategies aimed at improving survival.

Glycogen synthase kinase-3 inhibition sensitizes pancreatic cancer cells to TRAIL-induced apoptosis

Tumor necrosis factor-related apoptosis inducing ligand (TRAIL) induces apoptosis in a variety of cancer cell lines with little or no effect on normal cells. However, its effect is limited as some cancers including pancreatic cancer show de novo resistance to TRAIL induced apoptosis. In this study we report that GSK-3 inhibition using the pharmacologic agent AR-18, enhanced TRAIL sensitivity in a range of pancreatic and prostate cancer cell lines. This sensitization was found to be caspase-dependent, and both pharmacological and genetic knock-down of GSK-3 isoforms resulted in apoptotic features as shown by cleavage of PARP and caspase-3. Elevated levels of reactive oxygen intermediates and disturbance of mitochondrial membrane potential point to a mitochondrial amplification loop for TRAIL-induced apoptosis after GSK-3 inhibition. Consistent with this, overexpression of anti-apoptotic mitochondrial targets such as Bcl-XL, Mcl-1, and Bcl-2 rescued PANC-1 and PPC-1 cells from TRAIL sensitization. However, overexpression of the caspase-8 inhibitor CrmA also inhibited the sensitizing effects of GSK-3 inhibitor, suggesting an additional role for GSK-3 that inhibits death receptor signaling. Acute treatment of mice bearing PANC-1 xenografts with a combination of AR-18 and TRAIL also resulted in a significant increase in apoptosis, as measured by caspase-3 cleavage. Sensitization to TRAIL occurred despite an increase in β-catenin due to GSK-3 inhibition, suggesting that the approach might be effective even in cancers with dysregulated β-catenin. These results suggest that GSK-3 inhibitors might be effectively combined with TRAIL for the treatment of pancreatic cancer.

Dimethylamino parthenolide enhances the inhibitory effects of gemcitabine in human pancreatic cancer cells

INTRODUCTION

Gemcitabine is standard treatment for pancreatic cancer but has limited clinical benefit due to chemoresistance. Nuclear factor-kappaB (NF-κB) can promote chemoresistance and is therefore an attractive therapeutic target. We hypothesize that NF-κB suppression with the novel, orally bioavailable inhibitor dimethylamino parthenolide (DMAPT) will sensitize pancreatic cancer cells to gemcitabine.

METHODS

BxPC-3, PANC-1, and MIA PaCa-2 human pancreatic cancer cell lines were treated with gemcitabine and/or DMAPT. Effects on the NF-κB pathway were determined by electrophoretic mobility shift assay, ELISA, or Western blot. Proliferation and apoptosis were measured by cell counts and ELISA, respectively. The effect of gemcitabine in vivo was determined using a MIA PaCa-2 heterotopic xenograft model.

RESULTS

Gemcitabine induced NF-κB activity in BxPC-3, PANC-1, and MIA PaCa-2 cells and decreased the level of the NF-κB inhibitor IκBα in BxPC-3 and PANC-1 cells. DMAPT prevented the gemcitabine-induced activation of NF-κB. The combination of DMAPT/gemcitabine inhibited pancreatic cancer cell growth more than either agent alone. Gemcitabine also induced intratumoral NF-κB activity in vivo.

CONCLUSIONS

DMAPT enhanced the anti-proliferative effects of gemcitabine in association with NF-κB suppression in pancreatic cancer cells in vitro. Furthermore, gemcitabine induced NF-κB activity in vivo, thus supporting the evaluation of NF-κB-targeted agents to complement gemcitabine-based therapies.

Down regulation of CIAPIN1 reverses multidrug resistance in human breast cancer cells by inhibiting MDR1

Cytokine-induced apoptosis inhibitor 1 (CIAPIN1), initially named anamorsin, a newly indentified antiapoptotic molecule is a downstream effector of the receptor tyrosine kinase-Ras signaling pathway. Current study has revealed that CIAPIN1 may have wide and important functions, especially due to its close correlations with malignant tumors. However whether or not it is involved in the multi-drug resistance (MDR) process of breast cancer has not been elucidated. To explore the effect of CIAPIN1 on MDR, we examined the expression of P-gp and CIAPIN1 by immunohistochemistry and found there was positive correlation between them. Then we successfully interfered with RNA translation by the infection of siRNA of CIAPIN1 into MCF7/ADM breast cancer cell lines through a lentivirus, and the expression of the target gene was significantly inhibited. After RNAi the drug resistance was reduced significantly and the expression of MDR1mRNA and P-gp in MCF7/ADM cell lines showed a significant decrease. Also the expression of P53 protein increased in a statistically significant way (p ≤ 0.01) after RNAi exposure. In addition, flow cytometry analysis reveals that cell cycle and anti-apoptotic enhancing capability of cells changed after RNAi treatment. These results suggested CIAPIN1 may participate in breast cancer MDR by regulating MDR1 and P53 expression, changing cell cycle and enhancing the anti-apoptotic capability of cells.

The role of Rac1 in the regulation of NF-κB activity, cell proliferation, and cell migration in non-small cell lung carcinoma

The small GTPase Rac1 regulates many cellular processes, including cytoskeletal reorganization, cell migration, proliferation, and survival. Additionally, Rac1 plays a major role in activating NF-κB-mediated transcription. Both Rac1 and NF-κB regulate many properties of the malignant phenotype, including anchorage-independent proliferation and survival, metastasis, and angiogenesis. Despite these findings, the roles of Rac1and NF-κB in non-small cell lung carcinoma, a leading cause of cancer deaths, have not been thoroughly investigated. Here, we compared the effects of Rac1 siRNA to that of the Rac1 inhibitor NSC23766 on multiple features of the NSCLC malignant phenotype, including NF-κB activity. We show that the siRNA-mediated silencing of Rac1 in lung cancer cells results in decreased cell proliferation and migration. The decrease in proliferation was observed in both anchorage-dependent and anchorage-independent assays. Furthermore, cells with decreased Rac1 expression have a slowed progression through the G 1 phase of the cell cycle. These effects induced by Rac1 siRNA correlated with a decrease in NF-κB transcriptional activity. Additionally, inhibition of NF-κB signaling with BAY 11-7082 inhibited proliferation; indicating that the loss of cell proliferation and migration induced by the silencing of Rac1 expression may be attributed in part to loss of NF-κB activity. Interestingly, treatment with the Rac1 inhibitor NSC23766 strongly inhibits cell proliferation, cell cycle progression, and NF-κB activity in lung cancer cells, to an even greater extent than the inhibition induced by Rac1 siRNA. These findings indicate that Rac1 plays an important role in lung cancer cell proliferation and migration, most likely through its ability to promote NF-κB activity, and highlight Rac1 pathways as therapeutic targets for the treatment of lung cancer.

The activity of Gli transcription factors is essential for Kras-induced pancreatic tumorigenesis

Pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma (PDAC), one of the most aggressive human malignancies, is thought to be initiated by KRAS activation. Here we find that transcriptional activation mediated by the Gli family of transcription factors, although dispensable for pancreatic development, is required for Kras-induced proliferation and survival in primary pancreatic epithelial cells in culture and for Kras-driven pancreatic intraepithelial neoplasia and PDAC formation in vivo. Further, ectopic Gli1 activation in the mouse pancreas accelerates Kras-driven tumor formation, underscoring the importance of Gli transcription factors in pancreatic tumorigenesis. Interestingly, we demonstrate Gli-regulated I-kappa-B kinase epsilon (IKBKE) and NF-κB activity in pancreatic cancer cells and show that this activity is a critical downstream mediator for Gli-dependent PDAC cell transformation and survival. Together, these studies demonstrate the requirement for Gli in Kras-dependent pancreatic epithelial transformation, suggest a mechanism of Gli-NF-κB oncogenic activation, and provide genetic evidence supporting the therapeutic targeting of Gli activity in pancreatic cancer.