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Zhang Y, Wu D, Tian X, Chen B. From hepatitis B virus infection to acute-on-chronic liver failure: The dynamic role of hepatic macrophages. Scand J Immunol 2024; 99:e13349. [PMID: 38441398 DOI: 10.1111/sji.13349] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/26/2023] [Revised: 11/15/2023] [Accepted: 12/11/2023] [Indexed: 03/07/2024]
Abstract
Acute-on-chronic liver failure (ACLF) is a progressive disease that is associated with rapid worsening of clinical symptoms and high mortality. A multicentre prospective study from China demonstrated that patients with hepatitis B virus-related ACLF (HBV-ACLF) exhibited worse clinical characteristics and higher mortality rates compared to non-HBV-ACLF patients. Immune dysregulation is closely linked to the potential mechanisms of initiation and progression of ACLF. Innate immune response, which is represented by monocytes/macrophages, is up-regulated across ACLF development. This suggests that monocytes/macrophages play an essential role in maintaining the immune homeostasis of ACLF. Information that has been published in recent years shows that the immune status and function of monocytes/macrophages vary in ACLF precipitated by different chronic liver diseases. Monocytes/macrophages have an immune activation effect in hepatitis B-precipitated-ACLF, but they exhibit an immune suppression in cirrhosis-precipitated-ACLF. Therefore, this review aims to explain whether this difference affects the clinical outcome in HBV-ACLF patients as well as the mechanisms involved. We summarize the novel findings that highlight the dynamic polarization phenotype and functional status of hepatic macrophages from the stage of HBV infection to ACLF development. Moreover, we discuss how different HBV-related liver disease tissue microenvironments affect the phenotype and function of hepatic macrophages. In summary, increasing developments in understanding the differences in immune phenotype and functional status of hepatic macrophages in ACLF patients will provide new perspectives towards the effective restoration of ACLF immune homeostasis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yu Zhang
- Department of Hepatology, The First Hospital of Hunan University of Chinese Medicine, Changsha, Hunan Province, China
| | - Dongsheng Wu
- Department of Anorectal Surgical, The First Hospital of Hunan University of Chinese Medicine, Changsha, Hunan Province, China
| | - Xiaoling Tian
- Department of Hepatology, The First Hospital of Hunan University of Chinese Medicine, Changsha, Hunan Province, China
| | - Bin Chen
- Department of Hepatology, The First Hospital of Hunan University of Chinese Medicine, Changsha, Hunan Province, China
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Gotchev D, Dorsey BD, Nguyen D, Kakarla R, Dugan B, Chen S, Gao M, Bailey L, Liu F, Harasym T, Chiu T, Tang S, Lee ACH, Cole AG, Sofia MJ. Structure-Activity Relationships and Discovery of ( S)-6-Isopropyl-2-methoxy-3-(3-methoxypropoxy)-10-oxo-5,10-dihydro-6 H-pyrido[1,2- h][1,7]naphthyridine-9-carboxylic Acid (AB-452), a Novel Orally Available HBV RNA Destabilizer. J Med Chem 2024; 67:1421-1446. [PMID: 38190324 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jmedchem.3c01981] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/10/2024]
Abstract
Approved therapies for hepatitis B virus (HBV) treatment include nucleos(t)ides and interferon alpha (IFN-α) which effectively suppress viral replication, but they rarely lead to cure. Expression of viral proteins, especially surface antigen of the hepatitis B virus (HBsAg) from covalently closed circular DNA (cccDNA) and the integrated genome, is believed to contribute to the persistence of HBV. This work focuses on therapies that target the expression of HBV proteins, in particular HBsAg, which differs from current treatments. Here we describe the identification of AB-452, a dihydroquinolizinone (DHQ) analogue. AB-452 is a potent HBV RNA destabilizer by inhibiting PAPD5/7 proteins in vitro with good in vivo efficacy in a chronic HBV mouse model. AB-452 showed acceptable tolerability in 28-day rat and dog toxicity studies, and a high degree of oral exposure in multiple species. Based on its in vitro and in vivo profiles, AB-452 was identified as a clinical development candidate.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dimitar Gotchev
- Arbutus Biopharma, 701 Veterans Circle, Warminster, Pennsylvania 18974, United States
| | - Bruce D Dorsey
- Arbutus Biopharma, 701 Veterans Circle, Warminster, Pennsylvania 18974, United States
| | - Duyan Nguyen
- Arbutus Biopharma, 701 Veterans Circle, Warminster, Pennsylvania 18974, United States
| | - Ramesh Kakarla
- Arbutus Biopharma, 701 Veterans Circle, Warminster, Pennsylvania 18974, United States
| | - Benjamin Dugan
- Arbutus Biopharma, 701 Veterans Circle, Warminster, Pennsylvania 18974, United States
| | - Shuai Chen
- Arbutus Biopharma, 701 Veterans Circle, Warminster, Pennsylvania 18974, United States
| | - Min Gao
- Arbutus Biopharma, 701 Veterans Circle, Warminster, Pennsylvania 18974, United States
| | - Laurèn Bailey
- Arbutus Biopharma, 701 Veterans Circle, Warminster, Pennsylvania 18974, United States
| | - Fei Liu
- Arbutus Biopharma, 701 Veterans Circle, Warminster, Pennsylvania 18974, United States
| | - Troy Harasym
- Arbutus Biopharma, 701 Veterans Circle, Warminster, Pennsylvania 18974, United States
| | - Tim Chiu
- Arbutus Biopharma, 701 Veterans Circle, Warminster, Pennsylvania 18974, United States
| | - Sunny Tang
- Arbutus Biopharma, 701 Veterans Circle, Warminster, Pennsylvania 18974, United States
| | - Amy C-H Lee
- Arbutus Biopharma, 701 Veterans Circle, Warminster, Pennsylvania 18974, United States
| | - Andrew G Cole
- Arbutus Biopharma, 701 Veterans Circle, Warminster, Pennsylvania 18974, United States
| | - Michael J Sofia
- Arbutus Biopharma, 701 Veterans Circle, Warminster, Pennsylvania 18974, United States
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Hatton AA, Guerra FE. Scratching the Surface Takes a Toll: Immune Recognition of Viral Proteins by Surface Toll-like Receptors. Viruses 2022; 15:52. [PMID: 36680092 PMCID: PMC9863796 DOI: 10.3390/v15010052] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/12/2022] [Revised: 12/22/2022] [Accepted: 12/22/2022] [Indexed: 12/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Early innate viral recognition by the host is critical for the rapid response and subsequent clearance of an infection. Innate immune cells patrol sites of infection to detect and respond to invading microorganisms including viruses. Surface Toll-like receptors (TLRs) are a group of pattern recognition receptors (PRRs) that can be activated by viruses even before the host cell becomes infected. However, the early activation of surface TLRs by viruses can lead to viral clearance by the host or promote pathogenesis. Thus, a plethora of research has attempted to identify specific viral ligands that bind to surface TLRs and mediate progression of viral infection. Herein, we will discuss the past two decades of research that have identified specific viral proteins recognized by cell surface-associated TLRs, how these viral proteins and host surface TLR interactions affect the host inflammatory response and outcome of infection, and address why controversy remains regarding host surface TLR recognition of viral proteins.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alexis A. Hatton
- Department of Microbiology & Cell Biology, Montana State University, Bozeman, MT 59718, USA
| | - Fermin E. Guerra
- Department of Laboratory Medicine & Pathology, University of Washington, Seattle, WA 98195, USA
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Medical Advances in Hepatitis D Therapy: Molecular Targets. Int J Mol Sci 2022; 23:ijms231810817. [PMID: 36142728 PMCID: PMC9506394 DOI: 10.3390/ijms231810817] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/05/2022] [Revised: 09/08/2022] [Accepted: 09/09/2022] [Indexed: 11/25/2022] Open
Abstract
An approximate number of 250 million people worldwide are chronically infected with hepatitis B virus, making them susceptible to a coinfection with hepatitis D virus. The superinfection causes the most severe form of a viral hepatitis and thus drastically worsens the course of the disease. Until recently, the only available therapy consisted of interferon-α, only eligible for a minority of patients. In July 2020, the EMA granted Hepcludex conditional marketing authorization throughout the European Union. This first-in-class entry inhibitor offers the promise to prevent the spread in order to gain control and eventually participate in curing hepatitis B and D. Hepcludex is an example of how understanding the viral lifecycle can give rise to new therapy options. Sodium taurocholate co-transporting polypeptide, the virus receptor and the target of Hepcludex, and other targets of hepatitis D therapy currently researched are reviewed in this work. Farnesyltransferase inhibitors such as Lonafarnib, targeting another essential molecule in the HDV life cycle, represent a promising target for hepatitis D therapy. Farnesyltransferase attaches a farnesyl (isoprenyl) group to proteins carrying a C-terminal Ca1a2X (C: cysteine, a: aliphatic amino acid, X: C-terminal amino acid) motif like the large hepatitis D virus antigen. This modification enables the interaction of the HBV/HDV particle and the virus envelope proteins. Lonafarnib, which prevents this envelopment, has been tested in clinical trials. Targeting the lifecycle of the hepatitis B virus needs to be considered in hepatitis D therapy in order to cure a patient from both coexisting infections. Nucleic acid polymers target the hepatitis B lifecycle in a manner that is not yet understood. Understanding the possible targets of the hepatitis D virus therapy is inevitable for the improvement and development of a sufficient therapy that HDV patients are desperately in need of.
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Vaillant A. HBsAg, Subviral Particles, and Their Clearance in Establishing a Functional Cure of Chronic Hepatitis B Virus Infection. ACS Infect Dis 2021; 7:1351-1368. [PMID: 33302622 DOI: 10.1021/acsinfecdis.0c00638] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
In diverse viral infections, the production of excess viral particles containing only viral glycoproteins (subviral particles or SVP) is commonly observed and is a commonly evolved mechanism for immune evasion. In hepatitis B virus (HBV) infection, spherical particles contain the hepatitis B surface antigen, outnumber infectious virus 10 000-100 000 to 1, and have diverse inhibitory effects on the innate and adaptive immune response, playing a major role in the chronic nature of HBV infection. The current goal of therapies in development for HBV infection is a clinical outcome called functional cure, which signals a persistent and effective immune control of the infection. Although removal of spherical SVP (and the HBsAg they carry) is an important milestone in achieving functional cure, this outcome is rarely achieved with current therapies due to distinct mechanisms for assembly, secretion, and persistence of SVP, which are poorly targeted by direct acting antivirals or immunotherapies. In this Review, the current understanding of the distinct mechanisms involved in the production and persistence of spherical SVP in chronic HBV infection and their immunoinhibitory activity will be reviewed as well as current therapies in development with the goal of clearing spherical SVP and achieving functional cure.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrew Vaillant
- Replicor Inc., 6100 Royalmount Avenue, Montreal, Quebec H8Y 3E6, Canada
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Sajjad M, Ali S, Baig S, Sharafat S, Khan BA, Khan S, Mughal N, Abidi SH. HBV S antigen evolution in the backdrop of HDV infection affects epitope processing and presentation. J Med Virol 2021; 93:3714-3729. [PMID: 33289144 DOI: 10.1002/jmv.26711] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/20/2020] [Revised: 11/13/2020] [Accepted: 12/03/2020] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION HBV can evolve under selection pressure exerted by drugs and/or host immunity, resulting in accumulation of escape mutations that can affect the drug or the immune activity. Hepatitis delta virus (HDV) coinfection is also known to exert selection pressure on HBV, which leads to selective amplification of certain mutations, especially in genes that are required for HDV pathogenesis, such as HBsAg. However, little is known about the function of these mutations on HBV or HDV life cycle. The purpose of this study is to determine mutations selectively amplified in the backdrop of HDV, and how these mutations affect processing of CD4- and CD8-T cell epitopes. METHODS HBsAg was successfully amplified from 49/50 HBV mono- and 36/50 coinfected samples. The sequences were used to identify mutations specific to each study group, followed by an in silico analysis to determine the effect of these mutations on (1) proteasomal degradation, (2) MHC-I and MHC-II biding, and (3) processing of T-cell epitopes. RESULTS HBV-HDV coinfected sequences exhibited certain unique mutations in HBsAg genes. Some of these mutations affected the generation of proteasomal sites, binding of HBsAg epitopes to MHC-I and -II ligands, and subsequent generation of T- cell epitopes. CONCLUSION These observations suggest that HBV selectively amplifies certain mutations in the backdrop of HDV coinfection. Selective amplification of these mutations at certain strategic locations might not only enable HBV to counteract the inhibitory effects of HDV on HBV replication but also facilitate its survival by escaping the immune response.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mehwish Sajjad
- Department of Microbiology, Dow University of Health Sciences, Karachi, Pakistan
| | - Syed Ali
- Nazarbayev University School of Medicine, Nur-Sultan, Kazakhstan
| | - Samina Baig
- Department of Microbiology, Dow University of Health Sciences, Karachi, Pakistan
| | - Shaheen Sharafat
- Department of Microbiology, Dow University of Health Sciences, Karachi, Pakistan
| | - Bilal Ahmed Khan
- Department of Pathology, Dow University of Health Sciences, Karachi, Pakistan
| | - Saeed Khan
- Department of Pathology, Dow University of Health Sciences, Karachi, Pakistan
| | - Nouman Mughal
- Department of Biological and Biomedical Sciences, Aga Khan University, Karachi, Pakistan
- Department of Surgery, Aga Khan University, Karachi, Pakistan
| | - Syed Hani Abidi
- Department of Biological and Biomedical Sciences, Aga Khan University, Karachi, Pakistan
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Li Y, Li S, Duan X, Yang C, Xu M, Chen L. Macrophage Phenotypes and Hepatitis B Virus Infection. J Clin Transl Hepatol 2020; 8:424-431. [PMID: 33447526 PMCID: PMC7782119 DOI: 10.14218/jcth.2020.00046] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/14/2020] [Revised: 08/20/2020] [Accepted: 09/06/2020] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Globally, hepatitis B virus (HBV) infection and its related liver diseases account for 780,000 deaths every year. Outcomes of HBV infection depend on the interaction between the virus and host immune system. It is becoming increasingly apparent that Kupffer cells (KCs), the largest population of resident and monocyte-derived macrophages in the liver, contribute to HBV infection in various aspects. These cells play an important role not only in the anti-HBV immunity including virus recognition, cytokine production to directly inhibit viral replication and recruitment and activation of other immune cells involved in virus clearance but also in HBV outcome and progression, such as persistent infection and development of end-stage liver diseases. Since liver macrophages play multiple roles in HBV infection, they are directly targeted by HBV to benefit its life cycle. In the present review, we briefly outline the current advances of research of macrophages, especially the studies of their phenotypes, in chronic HBV infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yujia Li
- Institute of Blood Transfusion, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences and Peking Union Medical College, Chengdu, Sichuan, China
| | - Shilin Li
- Institute of Blood Transfusion, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences and Peking Union Medical College, Chengdu, Sichuan, China
| | - Xiaoqiong Duan
- Institute of Blood Transfusion, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences and Peking Union Medical College, Chengdu, Sichuan, China
| | - Chunhui Yang
- Institute of Blood Transfusion, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences and Peking Union Medical College, Chengdu, Sichuan, China
| | - Min Xu
- Institute of Blood Transfusion, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences and Peking Union Medical College, Chengdu, Sichuan, China
| | - Limin Chen
- Institute of Blood Transfusion, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences and Peking Union Medical College, Chengdu, Sichuan, China
- Toronto General Research Institute, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON M5G 1L6, Canada
- Correspondence to: Limin Chen, Institute of Blood Transfusion, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences, Peking Union Medical College, 26 Huacai Street, Chengdu, Sichuan 610052, China. Tel: +86-28-61648530, E-mail: or
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8
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Thi EP, Dhillon AP, Ardzinski A, Bidirici-Ertekin L, Cobarrubias KD, Cuconati A, Kondratowicz AS, Kwak K, Li AHL, Miller A, Pasetka C, Pei L, Phelps JR, Snead NM, Wang X, Ye X, Sofia MJ, Lee ACH. ARB-1740, a RNA Interference Therapeutic for Chronic Hepatitis B Infection. ACS Infect Dis 2019; 5:725-737. [PMID: 30403127 DOI: 10.1021/acsinfecdis.8b00191] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
Current approved nucleoside analogue treatments for chronic hepatitis B virus (HBV) infection are effective at controlling viral titer but are not curative and have minimal impact on the production of viral proteins such as surface antigen (HBsAg), the HBV envelope protein believed to play a role in maintaining the immune tolerant state required for viral persistence. Novel agents are needed to effect HBV cure, and reduction of HBV antigenemia may potentiate activation of effective and long-lasting host immune control. ARB-1740 is a clinical stage RNA interference agent composed of three siRNAs delivered using lipid nanoparticle technology. In a number of cell and animal models of HBV, ARB-1740 caused HBV RNA reduction, leading to inhibition of multiple elements of the viral life cycle including HBsAg, HBeAg, and HBcAg viral proteins as well as replication marker HBV DNA. ARB-1740 demonstrated pan-genotypic activity in vitro and in vivo, targeting three distinct highly conserved regions of the HBV genome, and effectively inhibited replication of nucleoside analogue-resistant HBV variants. Combination of ARB-1740 with a capsid inhibitor and pegylated interferon-alpha led to greater liver HBsAg reduction which correlated with more robust induction of innate immune responses in a human chimeric mouse model of HBV. The preclinical profile of ARB-1740 demonstrates the promise of RNA interference and HBV antigen reduction in treatment strategies driving toward a cure for HBV.
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Affiliation(s)
- Emily P. Thi
- Arbutus Biopharma, 701 Veterans Circle, Warminster, Pennsylvania 18974 United States
| | - Ammen P. Dhillon
- Arbutus Biopharma, 701 Veterans Circle, Warminster, Pennsylvania 18974 United States
| | - Andrzej Ardzinski
- Arbutus Biopharma, 701 Veterans Circle, Warminster, Pennsylvania 18974 United States
| | - Lale Bidirici-Ertekin
- Arbutus Biopharma, 701 Veterans Circle, Warminster, Pennsylvania 18974 United States
| | - Kyle D. Cobarrubias
- Arbutus Biopharma, 701 Veterans Circle, Warminster, Pennsylvania 18974 United States
| | - Andrea Cuconati
- Arbutus Biopharma, 701 Veterans Circle, Warminster, Pennsylvania 18974 United States
| | | | - Kaylyn Kwak
- Arbutus Biopharma, 701 Veterans Circle, Warminster, Pennsylvania 18974 United States
| | - Alice H. L. Li
- Arbutus Biopharma, 701 Veterans Circle, Warminster, Pennsylvania 18974 United States
| | - Angela Miller
- Arbutus Biopharma, 701 Veterans Circle, Warminster, Pennsylvania 18974 United States
| | - Chris Pasetka
- Arbutus Biopharma, 701 Veterans Circle, Warminster, Pennsylvania 18974 United States
| | - Luying Pei
- Arbutus Biopharma, 701 Veterans Circle, Warminster, Pennsylvania 18974 United States
| | - Janet R. Phelps
- Arbutus Biopharma, 701 Veterans Circle, Warminster, Pennsylvania 18974 United States
| | - Nicholas M. Snead
- Arbutus Biopharma, 701 Veterans Circle, Warminster, Pennsylvania 18974 United States
| | - Xiaohe Wang
- Arbutus Biopharma, 701 Veterans Circle, Warminster, Pennsylvania 18974 United States
| | - Xin Ye
- Arbutus Biopharma, 701 Veterans Circle, Warminster, Pennsylvania 18974 United States
| | - Michael J. Sofia
- Arbutus Biopharma, 701 Veterans Circle, Warminster, Pennsylvania 18974 United States
| | - Amy C. H. Lee
- Arbutus Biopharma, 701 Veterans Circle, Warminster, Pennsylvania 18974 United States
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Shi A, Zhang X, Xiao F, Zhu L, Yan W, Han M, Luo X, Chen T, Ning Q. CD56 bright natural killer cells induce HBsAg reduction via cytolysis and cccDNA decay in long-term entecavir-treated patients switching to peginterferon alfa-2a. J Viral Hepat 2018; 25:1352-1362. [PMID: 29888839 DOI: 10.1111/jvh.12946] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/18/2017] [Accepted: 04/30/2018] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
HBV surface antigen (HBsAg) reduction is well observed in chronic hepatitis B (CHB) patients treated with pegylated interferon alpha-2a (PegIFNα). However, the mechanism of HBsAg suppression has not been fully elucidated. Twenty-seven of 55 entecavir-treated CHB e antigen positive patients were switched to PegIFNα treatment (Group A) whereas 28 patients continued entecavir treatment (Group B). The percentage or absolute number of CD56bright /CD56dim NK cells, expression of receptors and cytokines were evaluated by flow cytometry for 48 weeks and correlated with treatment efficacy. In vitro, purified NK cells were co-cultured with HepAD38 cells for measurement of HBsAg, apoptosis and covalently closed circular DNA (cccDNA). In association with a reduction of HBsAg, the percentage and absolute number of CD56bright NK cells was significantly elevated in patients in group A, especially in Virologic Responders (VRs, HBsAg decreased). Furthermore, the percentage of NKp30+ , NKp46+ , TRAIL+ , TNF-α+ and IFNγ+ CD56bright NK cells were significantly expanded in Group A, which were positively correlated with the decline of HBsAg at week 48. In vitro, peripheral NK cells from Group A induced a decline of HBsAg in comparison with NK cells from Group B which was significantly inhibited by anti-TRAIL, anti-TNF-α and anti-IFNγ antibodies. Furthermore, apoptosis of HepAD38 cells and levels of cccDNA, were significantly reduced by TRAIL+ and TNF-α+ /IFNγ+ NK cells from Group A, respectively. A functional restoration of CD56bright NK cells in entecavir-treated patients who were switched to PegIFNα contributes to HBsAg and cccDNA clearance through TRAIL-induced cytolysis and TNF-α/IFNγ-mediated noncytolytic pathways.
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Affiliation(s)
- A Shi
- Department and Institute of Infectious Disease, Tongji Hospital, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, China
| | - X Zhang
- Department and Institute of Infectious Disease, Tongji Hospital, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, China
| | - F Xiao
- Department and Institute of Infectious Disease, Tongji Hospital, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, China
| | - L Zhu
- Department and Institute of Infectious Disease, Tongji Hospital, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, China
| | - W Yan
- Department and Institute of Infectious Disease, Tongji Hospital, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, China
| | - M Han
- Department and Institute of Infectious Disease, Tongji Hospital, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, China
| | - X Luo
- Department of Pediatric Disease, Tongji Hospital, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, China
| | - T Chen
- Department and Institute of Infectious Disease, Tongji Hospital, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, China
| | - Q Ning
- Department and Institute of Infectious Disease, Tongji Hospital, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, China
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10
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Deng G, Ge J, Liu C, Pang J, Huang Z, Peng J, Sun J, Hou J, Zhang X. Impaired expression and function of TLR8 in chronic HBV infection and its association with treatment responses during peg-IFN-α-2a antiviral therapy. Clin Res Hepatol Gastroenterol 2017; 41:386-398. [PMID: 28236535 DOI: 10.1016/j.clinre.2016.12.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/15/2016] [Revised: 12/12/2016] [Accepted: 12/21/2016] [Indexed: 02/04/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND AND AIM Toll-like receptor 8 (TLR8) plays an important role in controlling chronic viral infections. However, the role of TLR8 in chronic hepatitis B virus (HBV) infection is poorly understood. In this study, we aimed to investigate the expression and function of TLR8 in peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs) of chronic hepatitis B (CHB) patients and its alteration during peg-IFN-α-2a therapy. METHODS We evaluated TLR8 expression and antiviral function in vitro by real-time RT-PCR and flow cytometry analysis using fresh PBMCs obtained from CHB patients compared to healthy controls. We also employed clinical cohorts to investigate TLR8 expression in response to peg-IFN-α-2a therapy. RESULTS TLR8 was mainly expressed in monocytes, and simulation with its ligand resulted in high levels of IFN-γ and TNF-α production. Compared with healthy controls, PBMCs obtained from CHB patients displayed reduced levels of TLR8 expression and IFN-γ, TNF-α and IL-12 induction. The exposure of HepG2.2.15 cells to conditioned medium from PBMCs stimulated by ssRNA40 strongly reduced the levels of HBV DNA, HBsAg and HBeAg, whereas the addition of IFN-γ or TNF-α neutralizing antibodies could block the antiviral effect. NK cells and T cells were the principal IFN-γ-producing lymphocytes after ssRNA40 stimulation, whereas monocytes were the primary source of TNF-α. Analysis of the temporal dynamics showed that patients who achieved a complete response sustained a significant higher level of TLR8 mRNA than those who did not achieve a complete response beginning at week 12 of peg-IFN-α-2a therapy. CONCLUSIONS TLR8 expression and function in PBMCs were impaired by chronic HBV infection. Higher TLR8 expression after treatment week 12 could potentially predict complete response to peg-IFN-α-2a therapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Guangying Deng
- State key laboratory of organ failure research, Guangdong provincial key laboratory of viral hepatitis research, department of hepatology unit and infectious diseases, Nanfang hospital, Southern medical university, No. 1838, North Guangzhou avenue, 510515 Guangzhou, China
| | - Jun Ge
- State key laboratory of organ failure research, Guangdong provincial key laboratory of viral hepatitis research, department of hepatology unit and infectious diseases, Nanfang hospital, Southern medical university, No. 1838, North Guangzhou avenue, 510515 Guangzhou, China
| | - Chao Liu
- State key laboratory of organ failure research, Guangdong provincial key laboratory of viral hepatitis research, department of hepatology unit and infectious diseases, Nanfang hospital, Southern medical university, No. 1838, North Guangzhou avenue, 510515 Guangzhou, China
| | - Jinke Pang
- State key laboratory of organ failure research, Guangdong provincial key laboratory of viral hepatitis research, department of hepatology unit and infectious diseases, Nanfang hospital, Southern medical university, No. 1838, North Guangzhou avenue, 510515 Guangzhou, China
| | - Zuxiong Huang
- State key laboratory of organ failure research, Guangdong provincial key laboratory of viral hepatitis research, department of hepatology unit and infectious diseases, Nanfang hospital, Southern medical university, No. 1838, North Guangzhou avenue, 510515 Guangzhou, China; Department of hepatology, affiliated infectious disease hospital, Fujian medical university, Fuzhou, China
| | - Jie Peng
- State key laboratory of organ failure research, Guangdong provincial key laboratory of viral hepatitis research, department of hepatology unit and infectious diseases, Nanfang hospital, Southern medical university, No. 1838, North Guangzhou avenue, 510515 Guangzhou, China
| | - Jian Sun
- State key laboratory of organ failure research, Guangdong provincial key laboratory of viral hepatitis research, department of hepatology unit and infectious diseases, Nanfang hospital, Southern medical university, No. 1838, North Guangzhou avenue, 510515 Guangzhou, China
| | - Jinlin Hou
- State key laboratory of organ failure research, Guangdong provincial key laboratory of viral hepatitis research, department of hepatology unit and infectious diseases, Nanfang hospital, Southern medical university, No. 1838, North Guangzhou avenue, 510515 Guangzhou, China; Collaborative innovation center for diagnosis and treatment of infectious diseases, Zhejiang university, Hangzhou, China.
| | - Xiaoyong Zhang
- State key laboratory of organ failure research, Guangdong provincial key laboratory of viral hepatitis research, department of hepatology unit and infectious diseases, Nanfang hospital, Southern medical university, No. 1838, North Guangzhou avenue, 510515 Guangzhou, China; Collaborative innovation center for diagnosis and treatment of infectious diseases, Zhejiang university, Hangzhou, China.
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11
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Vaillant A. Nucleic acid polymers: Broad spectrum antiviral activity, antiviral mechanisms and optimization for the treatment of hepatitis B and hepatitis D infection. Antiviral Res 2016; 133:32-40. [PMID: 27400989 DOI: 10.1016/j.antiviral.2016.07.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 76] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/26/2016] [Revised: 07/04/2016] [Accepted: 07/06/2016] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
Antiviral polymers are a well-studied class of broad spectrum viral attachment/entry inhibitors whose activity increases with polymer length and with increased amphipathic (hydrophobic) character. The newest members of this class of compounds are nucleic acid polymers whose activity is derived from the sequence independent properties of phosphorothioated oligonucleotides as amphipathic polymers. Although the antiviral mechanisms and broad spectrum antiviral activity of nucleic acid polymers mirror the functionality of other members of this class, they exert in addition a unique post entry activity in hepatitis B infection which inhibits the release of HBsAg from infected hepatocytes. This review provides a general overview of the antiviral polymer class with a focus on nucleic acid polymers and their development as therapeutic agents for the treatment of hepatitis B/hepatitis D. This article forms part of a symposium in Antiviral Research on ''An unfinished story: from the discovery of the Australia antigen to the development of new curative therapies for hepatitis B.''.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrew Vaillant
- Replicor Inc., 6100 Royalmount Avenue, Montreal, Quebec, H4P 2R2, Canada.
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Safety and Efficacy of Nucleic Acid Polymers in Monotherapy and Combined with Immunotherapy in Treatment-Naive Bangladeshi Patients with HBeAg+ Chronic Hepatitis B Infection. PLoS One 2016; 11:e0156667. [PMID: 27257978 PMCID: PMC4892580 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0156667] [Citation(s) in RCA: 144] [Impact Index Per Article: 18.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/06/2016] [Accepted: 05/16/2016] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Previous in vivo studies have suggested that nucleic acid polymers (NAPs) may reduce circulating levels of HBsAg in the blood by blocking its release from infected hepatocytes and that this effect may have clinical benefit. NAP treatment, was evaluated in two clinical studies in patients with HBeAg positive chronic HBV infection. The REP 101 study examined REP 2055 monotherapy in 8 patients and the REP 102 study examined REP 2139-Ca, in monotherapy in 12 patients, 9 of which transitioned to short term combined treatment with pegylated interferon alpha 2a or thymosin alpha 1. In both studies NAP monotherapy was accompanied by 2–7 log reductions of serum HBsAg, 3–9 log reductions in serum HBV DNA and the appearance of serum anti-HBsAg antibodies (10–1712 mIU / ml). Eight of the 9 patients transitioning to combined treatment with immunotherapy (pegylated interferon or thymosin alpha 1) in the REP 102 study experienced HBsAg loss and all 9 patients experienced substantial increases in serum anti-HBsAg antibody titers before withdrawal of therapy. For 52 weeks after removal of REP 2055 therapy, rebound of serum viremia (HBV DNA > 1000 copies / ml, HBsAg > 1IU / ml) was not observed in 3 / 8 patients. Suppression of serum virema was further maintained for 290 and 231 weeks in 2 of these patients. After withdrawal of all therapy in the 9 patients that transitioned to combination therapy in the REP 102 study, 8 patients achieved HBV DNA < 116 copies / ml after treatment withdrawal. Viral rebound occurred over a period of 12 to 123 weeks in 7 patients but was still absent in two patients at 135 and 137 weeks of follow-up. Administration tolerability issues observed with REP 2055 were rare with REP 2139-Ca but REP 2139-Ca therapy was accompanied by hair loss, dysphagia and dysgeusia which were considered related to heavy metal exposure endemic at the trial site. These preliminary studies suggest that NAP can elicit important antiviral responses during treatment which may improve the effect of immunotherapy. NAPs may be a potentially useful component of future combination therapies for the treatment of chronic hepatitis B. Trial Registration: ClinicalTrials.gov NCT02646163 and NCT02646189
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Luangsay S, Gruffaz M, Isorce N, Testoni B, Michelet M, Faure-Dupuy S, Maadadi S, Ait-Goughoulte M, Parent R, Rivoire M, Javanbakht H, Lucifora J, Durantel D, Zoulim F. Early inhibition of hepatocyte innate responses by hepatitis B virus. J Hepatol 2015. [PMID: 26216533 DOI: 10.1016/j.jhep.2015.07.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 106] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND & AIMS The outcome of hepatitis B virus (HBV) infection may be influenced by early interactions between the virus and hepatocyte innate immune responses. To date, the study of such interactions during the very early step of infection has not been adequately investigated. METHODS We used the HepaRG cell line, as well as primary human hepatocytes to analyze, within 24h of exposure to HBV, either delivered by a physiologic route or baculovirus vector (Bac-HBV), the early modulation of the expression of selected antiviral/pro-inflammatory cytokines and interferon stimulated genes. Experiments were also performed in the presence or absence of innate receptor agonists to investigate early HBV-induced blockade of innate responses. RESULTS We show that hepatocytes themselves could detect HBV, and express innate genes when exposed to either HBV virions or Bac-HBV. Whereas Bac-HBV triggered a strong antiviral cytokine secretion followed by the clearance of replicative intermediates, a physiologic HBV exposure led to an abortive response. The early inhibition of innate response by HBV was mainly evidenced on Toll-like receptor 3 and RIG-I/MDA5 signaling pathways upon engagement with exogenous agonist, leading to a decreased expression of several pro-inflammatory and antiviral cytokine genes. Finally, we demonstrate that this early inhibition of dsRNA-mediated response is due to factor(s) present in the HBV inoculum, but not being HBsAg or HBeAg themselves, and does not require de novo viral protein synthesis and replication. CONCLUSIONS Our data provide strong evidence that HBV viral particles themselves can readily inhibit host innate immune responses upon virion/cell interactions, and may explain, at least partially, the "stealthy" character of HBV.
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Affiliation(s)
- Souphalone Luangsay
- INSERM U1052, Cancer Research Center of Lyon (CRCL), Lyon 69008, France; University of Lyon, UMR_S1052, UCBL, 69008 Lyon, France
| | - Marion Gruffaz
- INSERM U1052, Cancer Research Center of Lyon (CRCL), Lyon 69008, France; University of Lyon, UMR_S1052, UCBL, 69008 Lyon, France
| | - Nathalie Isorce
- INSERM U1052, Cancer Research Center of Lyon (CRCL), Lyon 69008, France; University of Lyon, UMR_S1052, UCBL, 69008 Lyon, France
| | - Barbara Testoni
- INSERM U1052, Cancer Research Center of Lyon (CRCL), Lyon 69008, France; University of Lyon, UMR_S1052, UCBL, 69008 Lyon, France
| | - Maud Michelet
- INSERM U1052, Cancer Research Center of Lyon (CRCL), Lyon 69008, France; University of Lyon, UMR_S1052, UCBL, 69008 Lyon, France
| | - Suzanne Faure-Dupuy
- INSERM U1052, Cancer Research Center of Lyon (CRCL), Lyon 69008, France; University of Lyon, UMR_S1052, UCBL, 69008 Lyon, France
| | - Sarah Maadadi
- INSERM U1052, Cancer Research Center of Lyon (CRCL), Lyon 69008, France; University of Lyon, UMR_S1052, UCBL, 69008 Lyon, France
| | - Malika Ait-Goughoulte
- INSERM U1052, Cancer Research Center of Lyon (CRCL), Lyon 69008, France; University of Lyon, UMR_S1052, UCBL, 69008 Lyon, France
| | - Romain Parent
- INSERM U1052, Cancer Research Center of Lyon (CRCL), Lyon 69008, France; University of Lyon, UMR_S1052, UCBL, 69008 Lyon, France
| | - Michel Rivoire
- Centre Léon Bérard (CLB), Lyon 69008, France; INSERM U1032, 69003 Lyon, France
| | - Hassan Javanbakht
- Hoffmann-La Roche Ltd, Roche Pharmaceutical Research and Early Development, 4070 Basel, Switzerland
| | - Julie Lucifora
- INSERM U1052, Cancer Research Center of Lyon (CRCL), Lyon 69008, France; University of Lyon, UMR_S1052, UCBL, 69008 Lyon, France
| | - David Durantel
- INSERM U1052, Cancer Research Center of Lyon (CRCL), Lyon 69008, France; University of Lyon, UMR_S1052, UCBL, 69008 Lyon, France.
| | - Fabien Zoulim
- INSERM U1052, Cancer Research Center of Lyon (CRCL), Lyon 69008, France; University of Lyon, UMR_S1052, UCBL, 69008 Lyon, France; Hospices Civils de Lyon (HCL), 69002 Lyon, France; Institut Universitaire de France (IUF), 75005 Paris, France.
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14
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Noordeen F, Scougall CA, Grosse A, Qiao Q, Ajilian BB, Reaiche-Miller G, Finnie J, Werner M, Broering R, Schlaak JF, Vaillant A, Jilbert AR. Therapeutic Antiviral Effect of the Nucleic Acid Polymer REP 2055 against Persistent Duck Hepatitis B Virus Infection. PLoS One 2015; 10:e0140909. [PMID: 26560490 PMCID: PMC4641618 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0140909] [Citation(s) in RCA: 58] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/04/2015] [Accepted: 10/01/2015] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Previous studies have demonstrated that nucleic acid polymers (NAPs) have both entry and post-entry inhibitory activity against duck hepatitis B virus (DHBV) infection. The inhibitory activity exhibited by NAPs prevented DHBV infection of primary duck hepatocytes in vitro and protected ducks from DHBV infection in vivo and did not result from direct activation of the immune response. In the current study treatment of primary human hepatocytes with NAP REP 2055 did not induce expression of the TNF, IL6, IL10, IFNA4 or IFNB1 genes, confirming the lack of direct immunostimulation by REP 2055. Ducks with persistent DHBV infection were treated with NAP 2055 to determine if the post-entry inhibitory activity exhibited by NAPs could provide a therapeutic effect against established DHBV infection in vivo. In all REP 2055-treated ducks, 28 days of treatment lead to initial rapid reductions in serum DHBsAg and DHBV DNA and increases in anti-DHBs antibodies. After treatment, 6/11 ducks experienced a sustained virologic response: DHBsAg and DHBV DNA remained at low or undetectable levels in the serum and no DHBsAg or DHBV core antigen positive hepatocytes and only trace amounts of DHBV total and covalently closed circular DNA (cccDNA) were detected in the liver at 9 or 16 weeks of follow-up. In the remaining 5/11 REP 2055-treated ducks, all markers of DHBV infection rapidly rebounded after treatment withdrawal: At 9 and 16 weeks of follow-up, levels of DHBsAg and DHBcAg and DHBV total and cccDNA in the liver had rebounded and matched levels observed in the control ducks treated with normal saline which remained persistently infected with DHBV. These data demonstrate that treatment with the NAP REP 2055 can lead to sustained control of persistent DHBV infection. These effects may be related to the unique ability of REP 2055 to block release of DHBsAg from infected hepatocytes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Faseeha Noordeen
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Biology, School of Biological Sciences, University of Adelaide, Adelaide, SA, Australia
- Department of Microbiology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Peradeniya, Peradeniya, Sri Lanka
| | - Catherine A. Scougall
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Biology, School of Biological Sciences, University of Adelaide, Adelaide, SA, Australia
| | - Arend Grosse
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Biology, School of Biological Sciences, University of Adelaide, Adelaide, SA, Australia
| | - Qiao Qiao
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Biology, School of Biological Sciences, University of Adelaide, Adelaide, SA, Australia
| | - Behzad B. Ajilian
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Biology, School of Biological Sciences, University of Adelaide, Adelaide, SA, Australia
| | - Georget Reaiche-Miller
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Biology, School of Biological Sciences, University of Adelaide, Adelaide, SA, Australia
| | - John Finnie
- SA Pathology, Hanson Institute, Centre For Neurological Diseases, Adelaide, SA, Australia
| | - Melanie Werner
- Department of Gastroenterology and Hepatology, University Hospital, University of Duisburg-Essen, Essen, Germany
| | - Ruth Broering
- Department of Gastroenterology and Hepatology, University Hospital, University of Duisburg-Essen, Essen, Germany
| | - Joerg F. Schlaak
- Department of Gastroenterology and Hepatology, University Hospital, University of Duisburg-Essen, Essen, Germany
| | | | - Allison R. Jilbert
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Biology, School of Biological Sciences, University of Adelaide, Adelaide, SA, Australia
- * E-mail: (AJ); (AV)
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15
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Old and new adjuvants for hepatitis B vaccines. Med Microbiol Immunol 2014; 204:69-78. [PMID: 25523196 DOI: 10.1007/s00430-014-0375-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/04/2014] [Accepted: 09/14/2014] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
The safety and immunogenicity profiles of currently available recombinant hepatitis B vaccines are excellent. However, it remains a real challenge to induce protective immunity in the target groups that respond poorly or not at all to conventional vaccines. Ideally, a hepatitis B vaccine can be developed that conveys lifelong protection against infection rapidly after the injection of a single dose. Although this goal is far from being reached, important improvements have been made. Novel vaccine adjuvants have been developed that enhance the immunogenicity of recombinant hepatitis B vaccines while maintaining a good safety profile. The different adjuvants and adjuvant systems that are discussed herein have all been thoroughly evaluated in clinical trials and some have reached or are close to reach the market.
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16
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Yang P, Markowitz GJ, Wang XF. The hepatitis B virus-associated tumor microenvironment in hepatocellular carcinoma. Natl Sci Rev 2014; 1:396-412. [PMID: 25741453 DOI: 10.1093/nsr/nwu038] [Citation(s) in RCA: 64] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
In contrast to a majority of cancer types, the initiation of hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) is intimately associated with a chronically diseased liver tissue, with one of the most prevalent etiological factors being hepatitis B virus (HBV). Transformation of the liver in HBV-associated HCC often follows from or accompanies long-term symptoms of chronic hepatitis, inflammation and cirrhosis, and viral load is a strong predictor for both incidence and progression of HCC. Besides aiding in transformation, HBV plays a crucial role in modulating the accumulation and activation of both cellular components of the microenvironment, such as immune cells and fibroblasts, and non-cellular components of the microenvironment, such as cytokines and growth factors, markedly influencing disease progression and prognosis. This review will explore some of these components and mechanisms to demonstrate both underlying themes and the inherent complexity of these interacting systems in the initiation, progression, and metastasis of HBV-positive HCC.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pengyuan Yang
- Department of Pharmacology and Cancer Biology, Duke University Medical Center, Durham, NC 27710, USA ; CAS Key Laboratory of Infection and Immunity, Institute of Biophysics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100101, China
| | - Geoffrey J Markowitz
- Department of Pharmacology and Cancer Biology, Duke University Medical Center, Durham, NC 27710, USA
| | - Xiao-Fan Wang
- Department of Pharmacology and Cancer Biology, Duke University Medical Center, Durham, NC 27710, USA
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17
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Xu YB, Yang L, Wang GF, Tong XK, Wang YJ, Yu Y, Jing JF, Feng CL, He PL, Lu W, Tang W, Zuo JP. Benzimidazole derivative, BM601, a novel inhibitor of hepatitis B virus and HBsAg secretion. Antiviral Res 2014; 107:6-15. [DOI: 10.1016/j.antiviral.2014.04.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/25/2014] [Revised: 03/13/2014] [Accepted: 04/06/2014] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
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18
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Boltjes A, Groothuismink ZM, van Oord GW, Janssen HLA, Woltman AM, Boonstra A. Monocytes from chronic HBV patients react in vitro to HBsAg and TLR by producing cytokines irrespective of stage of disease. PLoS One 2014; 9:e97006. [PMID: 24824830 PMCID: PMC4019549 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0097006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/22/2013] [Accepted: 04/14/2014] [Indexed: 01/04/2023] Open
Abstract
Individuals who are chronically infected with the hepatitis B virus (HBV) are highly heterogenous with respect to serum levels of HBV DNA, HBV particles and viral proteins. Since circulating leukocytes, such as monocytes, are constantly exposed to these viral components, it is likely that the functionality of these cells is affected. However, at present, little information is available on the consequences of the interaction between monocytes and viral components. Therefore, we examined the in vitro effects of HBV surface antigen (HBsAg) on monocytes and evaluated whether these effects were reflected in vivo. We observed that in vitro HBsAg exposure of monocytes induced robust production of IL-6 and TNF. However, between chronic HBV patients with distinct levels of serum HBsAg, HBV early antigen (HBeAg), and HBV DNA, TLR-induced monocyte cytokine production did not differ. Importantly, HBsAg-induced cytokine production by monocytes was similar between patients and healthy controls showing that earlier in vivo exposure to HBsAg does not affect the in vitro response. Additionally, we show that IL-10 is able to inhibit cytokine production by HBsAg-induced monocytes. In conclusion, we demonstrate that monocytes can recognize and respond to HBsAg, resulting in vigorous pro-inflammatory cytokine production in vitro. However, phenotype and function of the monocyte compartment in chronic HBV patients are not influenced by differences in levels of serum viral components, suggesting that regulatory mechanisms are active to avoid excessive in vivo monocyte activation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Arjan Boltjes
- Department of Gastroenterology and Hepatology, Erasmus MC University Medical Center, Rotterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Zwier M. Groothuismink
- Department of Gastroenterology and Hepatology, Erasmus MC University Medical Center, Rotterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Gertine W. van Oord
- Department of Gastroenterology and Hepatology, Erasmus MC University Medical Center, Rotterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Harry L. A. Janssen
- Department of Gastroenterology and Hepatology, Erasmus MC University Medical Center, Rotterdam, The Netherlands
- Liver Clinic University Health Network, Division of Gastroenterology, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON, Canada
| | - Andrea M. Woltman
- Department of Gastroenterology and Hepatology, Erasmus MC University Medical Center, Rotterdam, The Netherlands
| | - André Boonstra
- Department of Gastroenterology and Hepatology, Erasmus MC University Medical Center, Rotterdam, The Netherlands
- * E-mail:
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Bility MT, Cheng L, Zhang Z, Luan Y, Li F, Chi L, Zhang L, Tu Z, Gao Y, Fu Y, Niu J, Wang F, Su L. Hepatitis B virus infection and immunopathogenesis in a humanized mouse model: induction of human-specific liver fibrosis and M2-like macrophages. PLoS Pathog 2014; 10:e1004032. [PMID: 24651854 PMCID: PMC3961374 DOI: 10.1371/journal.ppat.1004032] [Citation(s) in RCA: 172] [Impact Index Per Article: 17.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/03/2013] [Accepted: 02/12/2014] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
The mechanisms of chronic HBV infection and immunopathogenesis are poorly understood due to a lack of a robust small animal model. Here we report the development of a humanized mouse model with both human immune system and human liver cells by reconstituting the immunodeficient A2/NSG (NOD.Cg-Prkdc(scid) Il2rg(tm1Wjl)/SzJ mice with human HLA-A2 transgene) with human hematopoietic stem cells and liver progenitor cells (A2/NSG-hu HSC/Hep mice). The A2/NSG-hu HSC/Hep mouse supported HBV infection and approximately 75% of HBV infected mice established persistent infection for at least 4 months. We detected human immune responses, albeit impaired in the liver, chronic liver inflammation and liver fibrosis in infected animals. An HBV neutralizing antibody efficiently inhibited HBV infection and associated liver diseases in humanized mice. In addition, we found that the HBV mediated liver disease was associated with high level of infiltrated human macrophages with M2-like activation phenotype. Importantly, similar M2-like macrophage accumulation was confirmed in chronic hepatitis B patients with liver diseases. Furthermore, gene expression analysis showed that induction of M2-like macrophage in the liver is associated with accelerated liver fibrosis and necrosis in patients with acute HBV-induced liver failure. Lastly, we demonstrate that HBV promotes M2-like activation in both M1 and M2 macrophages in cell culture studies. Our study demonstrates that the A2/NSG-hu HSC/Hep mouse model is valuable in studying HBV infection, human immune responses and associated liver diseases. Furthermore, results from this study suggest a critical role for macrophage polarization in hepatitis B virus-induced immune impairment and liver pathology.
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Affiliation(s)
- Moses T. Bility
- Lineberger Comprehensive Cancer Center, Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, North Carolina, United States of America
- * E-mail: (MTB); (LS)
| | - Liang Cheng
- Lineberger Comprehensive Cancer Center, Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, North Carolina, United States of America
| | - Zheng Zhang
- Center of Infectious Disease, Beijing 302 Hospital, Beijing, China
| | - Yan Luan
- Lineberger Comprehensive Cancer Center, Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, North Carolina, United States of America
- Center for Infection and Immunity, Institute of Biophysics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
- Department of Pathology, University of Chicago, Chicago, Illinois, United States of America
| | - Feng Li
- Lineberger Comprehensive Cancer Center, Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, North Carolina, United States of America
| | - Liqun Chi
- Lineberger Comprehensive Cancer Center, Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, North Carolina, United States of America
| | - Liguo Zhang
- Center for Infection and Immunity, Institute of Biophysics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Zhengkun Tu
- Lineberger Comprehensive Cancer Center, Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, North Carolina, United States of America
- Department of Translational Medicine, Department of Surgery, Department of Medicine, the First Hospital, Jilin University, Changchun, Jilin, China
| | - Yanhang Gao
- Department of Translational Medicine, Department of Surgery, Department of Medicine, the First Hospital, Jilin University, Changchun, Jilin, China
| | - Yangxin Fu
- Center for Infection and Immunity, Institute of Biophysics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
- Department of Pathology, University of Chicago, Chicago, Illinois, United States of America
| | - Junqi Niu
- Department of Translational Medicine, Department of Surgery, Department of Medicine, the First Hospital, Jilin University, Changchun, Jilin, China
| | - Fusheng Wang
- Center of Infectious Disease, Beijing 302 Hospital, Beijing, China
| | - Lishan Su
- Lineberger Comprehensive Cancer Center, Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, North Carolina, United States of America
- Center for Infection and Immunity, Institute of Biophysics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
- Department of Translational Medicine, Department of Surgery, Department of Medicine, the First Hospital, Jilin University, Changchun, Jilin, China
- * E-mail: (MTB); (LS)
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20
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Revill P, Yuan Z. New insights into how HBV manipulates the innate immune response to establish acute and persistent infection. Antivir Ther 2013; 18:1-15. [PMID: 23363957 DOI: 10.3851/imp2542] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 05/25/2012] [Indexed: 10/27/2022]
Abstract
The mechanisms by which HBV establishes and maintains chronic infection are poorly understood. Although adult acquired HBV is generally cleared by a robust immune response, most individuals infected at childbirth or in very early childhood develop lifelong chronic infection. In addition, acute infections are unresolved in approximately 5% of individuals infected in adulthood. The host cell mechanisms that ensure establishment and resolution of acute infection and persistent infection remain unclear. Currently, two schools of thought suggest that either HBV is a 'stealth' virus, which initially establishes infection by avoiding host innate immune responses, or that HBV facilitates initial infection and progression to persistence by actively manipulating the host innate immune response to its advantage. There is increasing evidence that activation of innate host cell signalling pathways plays a major role in limiting adult acquired HBV infection and that, in turn, HBV has evolved numerous strategies to counteract these defence mechanisms. In this review, we summarize current knowledge regarding innate immune responses to HBV infection and discuss how HBV regulates cell signalling pathways to its advantage, particularly in the setting of chronic HBV infection. In turn, we show how an intimate knowledge of innate immune responses is driving development of novel therapeutic agents to treat chronic HBV infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Peter Revill
- Victorian Infectious Diseases Reference Laboratory, North Melbourne, Victoria, Australia.
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21
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The hepatitis B virus ribonuclease H is sensitive to inhibitors of the human immunodeficiency virus ribonuclease H and integrase enzymes. PLoS Pathog 2013; 9:e1003125. [PMID: 23349632 PMCID: PMC3551811 DOI: 10.1371/journal.ppat.1003125] [Citation(s) in RCA: 87] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/11/2012] [Accepted: 11/27/2012] [Indexed: 12/26/2022] Open
Abstract
Nucleos(t)ide analog therapy blocks DNA synthesis by the hepatitis B virus (HBV) reverse transcriptase and can control the infection, but treatment is life-long and has high costs and unpredictable long-term side effects. The profound suppression of HBV by the nucleos(t)ide analogs and their ability to cure some patients indicates that they can push HBV to the brink of extinction. Consequently, more patients could be cured by suppressing HBV replication further using a new drug in combination with the nucleos(t)ide analogs. The HBV ribonuclease H (RNAseH) is a logical drug target because it is the second of only two viral enzymes that are essential for viral replication, but it has not been exploited, primarily because it is very difficult to produce active enzyme. To address this difficulty, we expressed HBV genotype D and H RNAseHs in E. coli and enriched the enzymes by nickel-affinity chromatography. HBV RNAseH activity in the enriched lysates was characterized in preparation for drug screening. Twenty-one candidate HBV RNAseH inhibitors were identified using chemical structure-activity analyses based on inhibitors of the HIV RNAseH and integrase. Twelve anti-RNAseH and anti-integrase compounds inhibited the HBV RNAseH at 10 µM, the best compounds had low micromolar IC50 values against the RNAseH, and one compound inhibited HBV replication in tissue culture at 10 µM. Recombinant HBV genotype D RNAseH was more sensitive to inhibition than genotype H. This study demonstrates that recombinant HBV RNAseH suitable for low-throughput antiviral drug screening has been produced. The high percentage of compounds developed against the HIV RNAseH and integrase that were active against the HBV RNAseH indicates that the extensive drug design efforts against these HIV enzymes can guide anti-HBV RNAseH drug discovery. Finally, differential inhibition of HBV genotype D and H RNAseHs indicates that viral genetic variability will be a factor during drug development. Current therapy for HBV blocks DNA synthesis by the viral reverse transcriptase and can control the infection indefinitely, but treatment rarely cures patients. More patients could be cured by suppressing HBV replication further using a new drug in combination with the existing ones. The HBV RNAseH is a logical drug target because it is the second of only two viral enzymes that are essential for viral replication, but it has not been exploited, primarily because it is very difficult to produce active enzyme. We expressed active recombinant HBV RNAseHs and demonstrated that it was suitable for antiviral drug screening. Twenty-one candidate HBV RNAseH inhibitors were identified based on antagonists of the HIV RNAseH and integrase enzymes. Twelve of these compounds inhibited the HBV RNAseH in enzymatic assays, and one inhibited HBV replication in cell-based assays. The high percentage of compounds developed against the HIV RNAseH and integrase that were also active against the HBV RNAseH indicates that the extensive drug design efforts against these HIV enzymes can be used to guide anti-HBV RNAseH drug discovery.
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22
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Hepatitis B surface antigen could contribute to the immunopathogenesis of hepatitis B virus infection. ISRN GASTROENTEROLOGY 2013; 2013:935295. [PMID: 23401786 PMCID: PMC3562682 DOI: 10.1155/2013/935295] [Citation(s) in RCA: 62] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/11/2012] [Accepted: 12/24/2012] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
Various findings concerning the clinical significance of quantitative changes in hepatitis B surface antigen (HBsAg) during the acute and chronic phase of hepatitis B virus (HBV) infection have been reported. In addition to being a biomarker of HBV-replication activity, it has been reported that HBsAg could contribute to the immunopathogenesis of HBV persistent infection. Moreover, HBsAg could become an attractive target for immune therapy, since the cellular and humeral immune response against HBsAg might be able to control the HBV replication and life cycle. However, several reports have described the immune suppressive function of HBsAg. HBsAg might suppress monocytes, dendritic cells (DCs), natural killer (NK), and natural killer T (NK-T) cells by direct interaction. On the other hand, cytotoxic T lymphocytes (CTLs) and helper T (Th) cells were exhausted by high amounts of HBsAg. In this paper, we focused on the immunological aspects of HBsAg, since better understanding of the interaction between HBsAg and immune cells could contribute to the development of an immune therapy as well as a biomarker of the state of HBV persistent infection.
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Zhang WJ, Xie HY, Duan X, Wan YL, Peng CH, Shi SH, Su R, Zheng ZH, Pan LL, Zhou L, Zheng SS. Study of human B7 homolog 1 expression in patients with hepatitis B virus infection. World J Gastroenterol 2012; 18:3681-95. [PMID: 22851860 PMCID: PMC3406420 DOI: 10.3748/wjg.v18.i28.3681] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/12/2011] [Revised: 03/28/2012] [Accepted: 04/12/2012] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
AIM: To further investigate the role of human B7 homolog 1 (B7-H1) in the mechanism of persistent hepatitis B virus (HBV) infection.
METHODS: Peripheral and intra-hepatic B7-H1 expression were compared by flow cytometry and immunochemical staining between two 2 distinct groups, one being chronic HBV tolerance patients (CHB-T) and the other being acute hepatitis B patients (AHB). B7-H1 mRNA expression level was also compared by real time polymerase chain reaction between CHB-T and AHB patients. The location of intra-hepatic B7-H1 and CD40 expression were analyzed by immunofluorescence. The levels of B7-H1 and CD40 expression on cultured myeloid dendritic cells (mDCs) with or without hepatitis B surface antigen (HBsAg) treatment were analyzed dynamically by flow cytometry. Intracellular interferon-γ (IFN-γ) staining and the stimulatory capacity of mDC of cultured mDC with or without HBsAg treatment were also compared by flow cytometry.
RESULTS: Peripheral B7-H1 expression on mDCs was increased significantly in AHB compared to CHB-T patients (P < 0.05). In the liver tissues from CHB-T patients, B7-H1 positive cells were almost absent despite a persistently elevated serum HBsAg load. In contrast, there were indeed increased B7-H1-positive cells in situ in the liver tissue from AHB. In vitro analysis showed the parallel upregulation of B7-H1 and CD40 on CD11c+ mDCs after the onset of stimulation. Addition of recombinant hepatitis B surface antigen (rHBsAg) significantly decreased CD40 expression (P < 0.05 at 16 h, 20 h and 24 h time points). B7-H1 expression was also inhibited by rHBsAg, and the inhibition rate of CD40 was greater than that of B7-H1. This preferential inhibition of CD40 expression on mDCs by rHBsAg resulted in the dysfunction of mDCs and T cells in the mixed leucocyte reaction (MLR) system. With rHBsAg pretreatment, in a carboxyfluorescein diacetate succinimidyl ester (CFSE) labeled MLR system at a ratio of 1:5 responder cell-stimulator cell (R/S), the CFSEdim percentage of T cells decreased from 85.1% to 25.4% and decreased from 30.3% to 12.0% at 1:10 R/S. IFN-γ production by CD8+ T cells, in the MLR system, was reduced significantly by HBsAg pretreatment. At ratios of 1:5 R/S, the percentage of IFN-γ and CD8 dual positive T cells decreased from 55.2% ± 5.3% to 15.1% ± 3.1% (P < 0.001), and decreased from 35.0% ± 5.1% to 7.3% ± 2.7% at ratios of 1:10 R/S (P < 0.001).
CONCLUSION: B7-H1 is not a signature of immune dysfunction, but an inflammation marker. HBsAg regulate immune response by tipping the balance between B7-H1 and CD40.
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Hepatitis B virus lacks immune activating capacity, but actively inhibits plasmacytoid dendritic cell function. PLoS One 2011. [PMID: 21246041 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0015324.] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Chronic hepatitis B virus (HBV) infection is caused by inadequate anti-viral immunity. Activation of plasmacytoid dendritic cells (pDC) leading to IFNα production is important for effective anti-viral immunity. Hepatitis B virus (HBV) infection lacks IFNα induction in animal models and patients and chronic HBV patients display impaired IFNα production by pDC. Therefore, HBV and HBV-derived proteins were examined for their effect on human pDC in vitro. In addition, the in vitro findings were compared to the function of pDC derived from chronic HBV patients ex vivo. In contrast to other viruses, HBV did not activate pDC. Moreover, HBV and HBsAg abrogated CpG-A/TLR9-induced, but not Loxoribine/TLR7-induced, mTOR-mediated S6 phosphorylation, subsequent IRF7 phosphorylation and IFNα gene transcription. HBV/HBsAg also diminished upregulation of co-stimulatory molecules, production of TNFα, IP-10 and IL-6 and pDC-induced NK cell function, whereas TLR7-induced pDC function was hardly affected. In line, HBsAg preferentially bound to TLR9-triggered pDC demonstrating that once pDC are able to bind HBV/HBsAg, the virus exerts its immune regulatory effect. HBV not only directly interfered with pDC function, but also indirectly by interfering with monocyte-pDC interaction. Also HBeAg diminished pDC function to a certain extent, but via another unknown mechanism. Interestingly, patients with HBeAg-positive chronic hepatitis B displayed impaired CpG-induced IFNα production by pDC without significant alterations in Loxoribine-induced pDC function compared to HBeAg-negative patients and healthy controls. The lack of activation and the active inhibition of pDC by HBV may both contribute to HBV persistence. The finding that the interaction between pDC and HBV may change upon activation may aid in the identification of a scavenging receptor supporting immunosuppressive effects of HBV and also in the design of novel treatment strategies for chronic HBV.
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Woltman AM, Op den Brouw ML, Biesta PJ, Shi CC, Janssen HLA. Hepatitis B virus lacks immune activating capacity, but actively inhibits plasmacytoid dendritic cell function. PLoS One 2011; 6:e15324. [PMID: 21246041 PMCID: PMC3016396 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0015324] [Citation(s) in RCA: 116] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/06/2010] [Accepted: 11/07/2010] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Chronic hepatitis B virus (HBV) infection is caused by inadequate anti-viral immunity. Activation of plasmacytoid dendritic cells (pDC) leading to IFNα production is important for effective anti-viral immunity. Hepatitis B virus (HBV) infection lacks IFNα induction in animal models and patients and chronic HBV patients display impaired IFNα production by pDC. Therefore, HBV and HBV-derived proteins were examined for their effect on human pDC in vitro. In addition, the in vitro findings were compared to the function of pDC derived from chronic HBV patients ex vivo. In contrast to other viruses, HBV did not activate pDC. Moreover, HBV and HBsAg abrogated CpG-A/TLR9-induced, but not Loxoribine/TLR7-induced, mTOR-mediated S6 phosphorylation, subsequent IRF7 phosphorylation and IFNα gene transcription. HBV/HBsAg also diminished upregulation of co-stimulatory molecules, production of TNFα, IP-10 and IL-6 and pDC-induced NK cell function, whereas TLR7-induced pDC function was hardly affected. In line, HBsAg preferentially bound to TLR9-triggered pDC demonstrating that once pDC are able to bind HBV/HBsAg, the virus exerts its immune regulatory effect. HBV not only directly interfered with pDC function, but also indirectly by interfering with monocyte-pDC interaction. Also HBeAg diminished pDC function to a certain extent, but via another unknown mechanism. Interestingly, patients with HBeAg-positive chronic hepatitis B displayed impaired CpG-induced IFNα production by pDC without significant alterations in Loxoribine-induced pDC function compared to HBeAg-negative patients and healthy controls. The lack of activation and the active inhibition of pDC by HBV may both contribute to HBV persistence. The finding that the interaction between pDC and HBV may change upon activation may aid in the identification of a scavenging receptor supporting immunosuppressive effects of HBV and also in the design of novel treatment strategies for chronic HBV.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrea M Woltman
- Department of Gastroenterology and Hepatology, Erasmus MC-University Medical Center, Rotterdam, The Netherlands.
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Zhou XL, Sun PN, Huang TH, Xie QD, Kang XJ, Liu LM. Effects of hepatitis B virus S protein on human sperm function. Hum Reprod 2009; 24:1575-83. [PMID: 19279032 DOI: 10.1093/humrep/dep050] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/05/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Hepatitis B virus (HBV) has been determined to exist in semen and male germ cells from patients with chronic HBV infection, but no data are yet available on the impact of HBV S protein (HBs), the main component of HBV envelop protein, on the human reproductive system. The purpose of this article was to investigate the effect of HBs on human sperm function. METHODS Sperm motility analyses, sperm penetration assays, mitochondrial membrane potential assays, immunolocalizations with confocal microscopy and flow cytometry analyses were performed. RESULTS HBs reduced sperm motility in a dose- and time-dependent manner and caused the loss of sperm mitochondrial membrane potential. HBs-HBs monoclonal antibody (MAb) complex apparently aggravated such impairments. After 4 h incubation with HBs at concentrations of 25, 50, 100 microg/ml, the percentages of sperm motility a+b significantly decreased compared with the control (P < 0.01). The fertilization rate and the fertilizing index in HBs-treated group were 40% and 0.57, respectively, which were significantly lower than 90% and 1.6, respectively, in the control (P < 0.01). The asialoglycoprotein receptor (ASGP-R) and HBs were found to localize mainly on the postacrosomal region. Both ASGP-R MAb and asialofoetuin, a high-affinity ligand of ASGP-R, inhibited the HBs-caused loss of sperm motility and mitochondrial membrane potential. CONCLUSIONS HBs had adverse effects on human sperm function, and ASGP-R may play a role in the uptake of HBs into sperm cells, as demonstrated by the competitive inhibition of ASGP-R MAb or asialofoetuin, resulting in diminished impairment caused by HBs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiao-Ling Zhou
- Research Center for Reproductive Medicine, Shantou University Medical College, Shantou 515041, People's Republic of China
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Op den Brouw ML, Binda RS, van Roosmalen MH, Protzer U, Janssen HLA, van der Molen RG, Woltman AM. Hepatitis B virus surface antigen impairs myeloid dendritic cell function: a possible immune escape mechanism of hepatitis B virus. Immunology 2008; 126:280-9. [PMID: 18624732 DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-2567.2008.02896.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 169] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Chronic hepatitis B virus (HBV) infection is the result of an inadequate immune response towards the virus. Myeloid dendritic cells (mDC) of patients with chronic HBV are impaired in their maturation and function, resulting in more tolerogenic rather than immunogenic responses, which may contribute to viral persistence. The mechanism responsible for altered mDC function remains unclear. The HBV-infected patients display large amounts of HBV particles and viral proteins in their circulation, especially the surface antigen HBsAg, which allows multiple interactions between the virus, its viral proteins and DC. To assess whether HBV directly influences mDC function, the effects of HBV and HBsAg on human mDC maturation and function were investigated in vitro. As already described for internalization of HBV by DC, the present study shows that peripheral blood-derived mDC of healthy controls also actively take up HBsAg in a time-dependent manner. Cytokine-induced maturation in the presence of HBV or HBsAg resulted in a significantly more tolerogenic mDC phenotype as demonstrated by a diminished up-regulation of costimulatory molecules and a decreased T-cell stimulatory capacity, as assessed by T-cell proliferation and interferon-gamma production. In addition, the presence of HBV significantly reduced interleukin-12 production by mDC. These results show that both HBV particles and purified HBsAg have an immune modulatory capacity and may directly contribute to the dysfunction of mDC in patients with chronic HBV. The direct immune regulatory effect of HBV and circulating HBsAg particles on the function of DC can be considered as part of the mechanism by which HBV escapes immunity.
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Steyaert S, Verhoye L, Beirnaert E, Donners H, Fransen K, Heyndrickx L, Vanham G, Leroux-Roels G, Vanlandschoot P. The intraspleen huPBL NOD/SCID model to study the human HIV-specific antibody response selected in the course of natural infection. J Immunol Methods 2007; 320:49-57. [PMID: 17258763 PMCID: PMC7125539 DOI: 10.1016/j.jim.2006.12.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/04/2006] [Revised: 11/23/2006] [Accepted: 12/01/2006] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Abstract
The intrasplenic injection of human peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs) into severely immune deficient NOD/SCID mice, causes a massive and transient dominant expansion of human B cells in the spleen. This permits the easy isolation of human monoclonal antibodies specific for different antigens by a Kohler and Milstein-based method. Here we studied the human HIV-specific antibody response in the circulation of mice after intrasplenic transfer of PBMC from untreated HIV-infected patients with detectable to high viral load as well as from HAART-treated and from untreated patients, who kept an undetectable viral load (the latter referred to as “natural suppressors”). Excellent B cell expansion was obtained for all PBMC. High level replication of virus was observed after transfer of PBMC of untreated viremic patients only. A strong and multispecific HIV-specific antibody response was observed after transfer of PBMC of untreated viremic patients and natural suppressors. In contrast, only a weak and pauci-specific antibody response was detected in mice reconstituted with PBMC from successfully treated patients. Based on these observations we conclude that the use of the intraspleen mouse model confirmed a) the presence of HIV-specific circulating memory B cells in untreated patients and natural suppressors; b) the nearly complete absence of circulating memory B cells in patients receiving highly active antiretroviral therapy. Using the intraspleen model we generated large numbers of immortalized B cells and isolated two anti-p24 human monoclonal antibodies. We further conclude that the intraspleen huPBL NOD/SCID model is a small animal model useful for the analysis of the antibody response against HIV found in patients.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sophia Steyaert
- Ghent University and Hospital, Department of Clinical Chemistry, Microbiology and Immunology, Centre for Vaccinology, De Pintelaan 185, 9000 Ghent, Belgium
| | - Lieven Verhoye
- Ghent University and Hospital, Department of Clinical Chemistry, Microbiology and Immunology, Centre for Vaccinology, De Pintelaan 185, 9000 Ghent, Belgium
| | - Els Beirnaert
- Institute of Tropical Medicine, Nationalestraat 155, 2000 Antwerp, Belgium
| | - Helen Donners
- Institute of Tropical Medicine, Nationalestraat 155, 2000 Antwerp, Belgium
| | - Katrien Fransen
- Institute of Tropical Medicine, Nationalestraat 155, 2000 Antwerp, Belgium
| | - Leo Heyndrickx
- Institute of Tropical Medicine, Nationalestraat 155, 2000 Antwerp, Belgium
| | - Guido Vanham
- Institute of Tropical Medicine, Nationalestraat 155, 2000 Antwerp, Belgium
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, University of Antwerp, Universiteitsplein 1, 2610 Wilrijk, Belgium
| | - Geert Leroux-Roels
- Ghent University and Hospital, Department of Clinical Chemistry, Microbiology and Immunology, Centre for Vaccinology, De Pintelaan 185, 9000 Ghent, Belgium
| | - Peter Vanlandschoot
- Ghent University and Hospital, Department of Clinical Chemistry, Microbiology and Immunology, Centre for Vaccinology, De Pintelaan 185, 9000 Ghent, Belgium
- Corresponding author. Ghent University and Hospital, Centre for Vaccinology, Building A, 1st floor, De Pintelaan 185, 9000 Ghent, Belgium. Tel.: +32 9 240 60 39; fax: +32 9 240 63 11.
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Zeng G, Aldridge ME, Tian X, Seiler D, Zhang X, Jin Y, Rao J, Li W, Chen D, Langford MP, Duggan C, Belldegrun AS, Dubinett SM. Dendritic cell surface calreticulin is a receptor for NY-ESO-1: direct interactions between tumor-associated antigen and the innate immune system. THE JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY 2006; 177:3582-9. [PMID: 16951317 DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.177.6.3582] [Citation(s) in RCA: 46] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
How the immune system recognizes endogenously arising tumors and elicits adaptive immune responses against nonmutated tumor-associated Ags is poorly understood. In search of intrinsic factors contributing to the immunogenicity of the tumor-associated Ag NY-ESO-1, we found that the NY-ESO-1 protein binds to the surface of immature dendritic cells (DC), macrophages, and monocytes, but not to that of B cells or T cells. Using immunoprecipitation coupled with tandem mass spectrometry, we isolated DC surface calreticulin as the receptor for NY-ESO-1. Calreticulin Abs blocked NY-ESO-1 binding on immature DC and its cross-presentation to CD8+ T cells in vitro. Calreticulin/NY-ESO-1 interactions provide a direct link between NY-ESO-1, the innate immune system, and, potentially, the adaptive immune response against NY-ESO-1.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gang Zeng
- Department of Urology, David Geffen School of Medicine, University of California, Los Angeles, CA 90095, USA.
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Mohammad Alizadeh AH, Ranjbar M, Hajilooi M, Fallahian F. Association of promoter polymorphism of the CD14 C (-159) T endotoxin receptor gene with chronic hepatitis B. World J Gastroenterol 2006; 12:5717-20. [PMID: 17007028 PMCID: PMC4088176 DOI: 10.3748/wjg.v12.i35.5717] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
AIM: To investigate whether single-nucleotide polymorphisms in the promoter regions of endotoxin-responsive genes CD14 C (-159) T is associated with chronic hepatitis B.
METHODS: We obtained genomic DNA from 80 patients with established diagnosis of chronic hepatitis B and 126 healthy subjects served as a control population. The CD 14 C (-159) T polymorphism was investigated using an allele specific PCR method.
RESULTS: Twenty seven percent of chronic hepatitis B patients and 75% of controls were heterozygous for CT genotype. The difference between the chronic hepatitis B and control groups was statistically significant [P < 0.0001; Odds ratio (OR) = 2.887; 95% CI: 1.609-5.178]. Twenty four point six percent of chronic hepatitis B and patients 12.3% of the control group were heterozygous for TT genotype. The difference between groups was not statistically significant (P = 0.256; OR = 0.658; 95% CI: 0.319-1.358). Forty eight point four percent of chronic hepatitis B patients and 12.7% of control were homozygote for CC genotype (P < 0.004; OR = 0.416; 95% CI: 0.229-0.755). The frequency of allele C was 61.9% and allele T was 38.1% in hepatitis B patients group. The frequency of allele C was 55.2% and allele T was 44.8% for the control group (P = 0.179; OR = 1.319; 95% CI: 0.881-1.977).
CONCLUSION: The TT heterozygous genotype was not a risk factor for chronic hepatitis B. CC homozygote genotype is protective for hepatitis B. Lack of heterozygosis of genotype CT is a risk factor for chronic hepatitis B. Alleles C or T were not risk factors for chronic hepatitis B.
These findings show the role of a single-nucleotide polymorphism at CD14/-159 on the development of chronic hepatitis B. Endotoxin susceptibility may play a role in the pathogenesis of chronic hepatitis B.
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Affiliation(s)
- Amir Houshang Mohammad Alizadeh
- Research Center for Gastroenterology and Liver Disease, Shaheed Beheshti University of Medical Sciences, 7th floor, Taleghani Hospital, Yaman Str., Evin, Tehran 19857, Iran.
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Block TM, Mehta AS, Blumberg BS, Dwek RA. Does rapid oligomerization of hepatitis B envelope proteins play a role in resistance to proteasome degradation and enhance chronicity? DNA Cell Biol 2006; 25:165-70. [PMID: 16569195 DOI: 10.1089/dna.2006.25.165] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/23/2022] Open
Abstract
This review discusses the nature of hepatitis B and C chronicity from a virological perspective. Work described in the literature and our in vitro studies of HBV polypeptide morphogenesis lead us to speculate about a role for HBsAg complex formation in immune evasion that may be especially important during the initial period of infection. Briefly, although viral structural proteins do eventually provide epitopes recognized by the host, we suggest that these HBs Ag complexes, which may themselves be refractory to proteasomal degradation, are an important way by which the virus shields its epitopes and evades early recognition by the cellular immune system. This suggests a central strategy by which the virus has evolved, structurally, to enable the establishment of persistent infection of its host. The concept offers an explanation for the nearly unidirectional and rapid kinetics whereby HBV proteins form multimers and generate a surplus of viral structures that have not been thought to serve any useful structural purpose.
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Affiliation(s)
- Timothy M Block
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Drexel Institute for Biotechnology and Virology Research, Drexel University College of Medicine, Doylestown, Pennsylvania 18901, USA.
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Cheng J, Imanishi H, Morisaki H, Liu W, Nakamura H, Morisaki T, Hada T. Recombinant HBsAg inhibits LPS-induced COX-2 expression and IL-18 production by interfering with the NFkappaB pathway in a human monocytic cell line, THP-1. J Hepatol 2005; 43:465-71. [PMID: 15963597 DOI: 10.1016/j.jhep.2005.02.033] [Citation(s) in RCA: 56] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/04/2004] [Revised: 11/28/2004] [Accepted: 02/01/2005] [Indexed: 01/12/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND/AIMS Hepatitis B virus suppresses the human immune-system and HBsAg inhibits the induction of cytokines by LPS in human macrophages, but the mechanisms involved remain unclear. COX-2 and its product, PGE2, play a role in hepatitis B and IL-18 has also been shown to inhibit HBV infection in vivo. We investigated whether rHBsAg affects induction of COX-2 and IL-18 by LPS and, if so, which signal pathways are involved in a human monocytic cell line, THP-1. METHODS Cell culture, Western blotting for COX-2, ERK and IKB-alpha, immunofluorescence for HBsAg and NFkappaB protein and ELISA for PGE2, IL-18 and IL-12 were performed. RESULTS rHBsAg inhibits LPS-induced COX-2 expression in a time- and dose-dependent manner by blocking the ERK and NFkappaB pathways. LPS-induced IL-18 production was also down-regulated by rHBsAg by interfering mainly with the NFkappaB pathway. PGE2 reversed the inhibition of LPS-induced IL-18 production by rHBsAg. rHBsAg was also found to inhibit the induction of IL-12 by LPS in THP-1 cells. CONCLUSIONS These results showed a novel anti-inflammatory property of rHBsAg which involves inhibition of COX-2 and suggested that hepatitis B virus may regulate IFN-gamma production by inhibiting IL-18 and IL-12 production.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jidong Cheng
- Division of Hepatobiliary and Pancreatic Disease, Department of Internal Medicine, Hyogo College of Medicine, 1-1 Mukogawacho, Nishinomiya, Hyogo 663, Japan.
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Steyaert S, Vanlandschoot P, Van Vlierberghe H, Diepolder H, Leroux-Roels G. Soluble CD14 levels are increased and inversely correlated with the levels of hepatitis B surface antigen in chronic hepatitis B patients. J Med Virol 2003; 71:188-94. [PMID: 12938192 DOI: 10.1002/jmv.10469] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
Abstract
Because it was observed recently that yeast-derived recombinant HBsAg interacts in a lipopolysaccharide binding protein-dependent manner with CD14 expressed on human monocytes, we investigated whether HBsAg influences the serum levels of sCD14, lipopolysaccharide binding protein and C-reactive protein in hepatitis B patients. Samples from acute and chronic hepatitis B and chronic hepatitis C patients were tested. All analytes were measured using commercial assays. HBsAg was quantified using an NIBSC titrated standard. sCD14 levels were higher in chronic hepatitis B and C patients than in healthy controls (P = 0.0006 and P < 0.0001, respectively). In chronic hepatitis B patients an inverse correlation was found between sCD14 and HBsAg (P = 0.0309). Lipopolysaccharide binding protein and C-reactive protein levels were higher in acute hepatitis B patients than in control subjects (P = 0.0217 and P = 0.0034, respectively). In chronic hepatitis B and C, sCD14 and C-reactive protein levels were higher in cirrhotic than in non-cirrhotic patients (P = 0.0072 and P = 0.0223, respectively).
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Affiliation(s)
- Sophia Steyaert
- Ghent University Hospital, Center for Vaccinology, Ghent, Belgium
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Abstract
The major envelope protein of the hepatitis B virus (HBV), the HBsAg, constitutes the current preventative vaccine, which represents the first subunit viral vaccine developed. The genetics of the immune response to HBsAg has been extensively studied both in humans and mice. Murine studies begun over 20 years ago indicated that at least two MHC class II and one MHC class III genes regulate anti-HBs immune responses. Additional MHC-linked genes influence the immune responses to the higher molecular weight (pre-S) components of the HBV envelope. The murine studies predicted even more complex MHC gene regulation of human immune responses to the HBsAg and that complexity certainly has been demonstrated during the ensuing years. This brief review is an attempt to summarize our current understanding of the MHC genes that influence the immune response to the HBsAg and possible mechanisms of action.
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Affiliation(s)
- David R Milich
- The Vaccine Research Institute of San Diego, Department of Immunology, San Diego, CA 92109, USA.
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Vanlandschoot P, Van Houtte F, Hoek F, Nieuwland R, Leroux-Roels G. Saccharomyces cerevisiae-derived HBsAg preparations differ in their attachment to monocytes, immune-suppressive potential, and T-cell immunogenicity. J Med Virol 2003; 70:513-9. [PMID: 12794712 DOI: 10.1002/jmv.10425] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
Expression of the hepatitis B virus S protein results in the formation of a lipoprotein particle, the hepatitis B surface antigen (HBsAg). Such particles, produced in Saccharomyces cerevisiae, bind to the cell surface of monocytes through interaction with the lipopolysaccharide binding protein and the lipopolysaccharide receptor, CD14. This attachment is suggested to depend on the presence of charged phospholipids in the particles. In addition, such particles interfere with the lipopolysaccharide and interleukin-2-induced activation of monocytes. In the present study, it is reported that of three Saccharomyces cerevisiae-derived HBsAg preparations, two have a reduced capacity to bind to monocytes. A correlation with a reduced potential to inhibit the lipopolysaccharide-induced activation of monocytes and an increased potential to stimulate HBsAg-specific T-cell proliferation is observed. Surprisingly, differences in phospholipid content that might explain these observations, were not detected.
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Affiliation(s)
- Peter Vanlandschoot
- Center for Vaccinology, Department of Clinical Biology, Microbiology and Immunology, Ghent University Hospital, Ghent, Belgium.
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Abstract
The innate immune system has a role not only in protecting the host during the initial period of virus infection, but also in shaping the nature of the adaptive immune response. In this review, we follow the kinetics of the virologic and immunologic events occurring from the time of hepatitis B virus (HBV) and hepatitis C virus (HCV) infection. We primarily discuss how the early events after infection might influence the development of the adaptive immune response in these 2 important viral infections and how new strategies for more efficient preventive and therapeutic vaccines can be derived from this knowledge.
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Affiliation(s)
- Antonio Bertoletti
- Institute of Hepatology, University College London, Royal Free and University College of London Medical School, London, UK.
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Vanlandschoot P, Leroux-Roels G. Viral apoptotic mimicry: an immune evasion strategy developed by the hepatitis B virus? Trends Immunol 2003; 24:144-7. [PMID: 12615210 DOI: 10.1016/s1471-4906(03)00026-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 48] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/10/2023]
Abstract
The co-existence of viruses and organisms for millions of years has influenced the evolution of both. Various viral strategies to enter a host and take over the control of cells to produce virus progeny have developed. Several antiviral (immune) responses have also been developed. The apoptotic death program is a conserved feature of eukaryotic cells. In multicellular organisms the binding and engulfment of apoptotic material is considered to be the end stage of the apoptotic process. Because of its importance, it seems probable that viruses have targeted this ancient removal system to suppress immune responses and to establish or maintain infection. The possibility that the hepatitis B virus has evolved such a mechanism, termed "viral apoptotic-like mimicry", is presented here.
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Affiliation(s)
- Peter Vanlandschoot
- Center for Vaccinology, Dept of Clinical Biology, Microbiology and Immunology, Ghent University Hospital, De Pintelaan 185, 9000 Ghent, Belgium.
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Vanlandschoot P, Roobrouck A, Van Houtte F, Leroux-Roels G. Recombinant HBsAg, an apoptotic-like lipoprotein, interferes with the LPS-induced activation of ERK-1/2 and JNK-1/2 in monocytes. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 2002; 297:486-91. [PMID: 12270119 DOI: 10.1016/s0006-291x(02)02243-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
Yeast expressed Hepatitis B surface antigen (rHBsAg) binds to monocytes through interaction with the LPS binding protein (LBP) and the LPS receptor CD14. Charged phospholipids of rHBsAg determine the interaction with these proteins. Although attachment of rHBsAg resembles the pro-inflammatory binding of LPS to CD14, rHBsAg does not activate monocytes and even reduces the expression of pro-inflammatory cytokines by LPS-stimulated monocytes. It is reported here that addition of rHBsAg to LPS-stimulated PBMC often results in increased secretion of IL-10, suggesting a similarity between the interaction of monocytes with apoptotic cells and rHBsAg. Using THP-1 cells, it is shown that IL-10 is not necessary to reduce TNFalpha protein levels. Addition of rHBsAg to LPS-stimulated cells reduces TNFalpha mRNA levels, but does not affect phosphorylation of p65 NF-kappaB and p38 MAP kinase. Instead, a reduced phosphorylation of ERK-1/2 and JNK-1/2 MAP kinases is observed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Peter Vanlandschoot
- Center for Vaccinology, Department of Clinical Biology, Microbiology, and Immunology, Ghent University Hospital, De Pintelaan 185, 9000 Ghent, Belgium.
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Vanlandschoot P, Van Houtte F, Roobrouck A, Farhoudi A, Stelter F, Peterson DL, Gomez-Gutierrez J, Gavilanes F, Leroux-Roels G. LPS-binding protein and CD14-dependent attachment of hepatitis B surface antigen to monocytes is determined by the phospholipid moiety of the particles. J Gen Virol 2002; 83:2279-2289. [PMID: 12185283 DOI: 10.1099/0022-1317-83-9-2279] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
It was observed recently that recombinant yeast-derived hepatitis B surface antigen (rHBsAg) particles, which contain the S protein only, bind almost exclusively to monocytes. It is shown here that binding requires the presence of the LPS receptor CD14. Furthermore, evidence is presented that a domain on CD14 that is identical to or largely overlaps with the LPS-binding pocket is instrumental for the attachment of rHBsAg. Additionally, it is shown that the heat-labile LPS-binding protein (LBP) catalyses the binding of rHBsAg to the cells. Remarkably, natural plasma-derived HBsAg (pHBsAg) does not have this property. pHBsAg devoid of its lipids and reconstituted with phosphatidylserine or phosphatidylglycerol acquires the characteristic of yeast-derived HBsAg. Clearly, the interaction of rHBsAg with the cell membrane is determined by the presence of charged phospholipids that are absent in pHBsAg. Although a lipid-receptor interaction is suggested, antibody-inhibition experiments suggest a possible involvement of the C-terminal region of the S protein in the interaction with monocytes. The possible implications of these observations for hepatitis B virus (HBV) infection and HBV vaccine efficiency are discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Peter Vanlandschoot
- Center for Vaccinology, Department of Clinical Biology, Microbiology and Immunology, Ghent University Hospital, De Pintelaan 185, 9000 Ghent, Belgium1
| | - Freya Van Houtte
- Center for Vaccinology, Department of Clinical Biology, Microbiology and Immunology, Ghent University Hospital, De Pintelaan 185, 9000 Ghent, Belgium1
| | - Annelies Roobrouck
- Center for Vaccinology, Department of Clinical Biology, Microbiology and Immunology, Ghent University Hospital, De Pintelaan 185, 9000 Ghent, Belgium1
| | - Ali Farhoudi
- Center for Vaccinology, Department of Clinical Biology, Microbiology and Immunology, Ghent University Hospital, De Pintelaan 185, 9000 Ghent, Belgium1
| | - Felix Stelter
- Institute of Immunology and Transfusion Medicine, Ernst Moritz Arndt University, Greifswald, Germany2
| | - Darell L Peterson
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biophysics, Virginia Commonwealth University, Richmond, VA, USA3
| | - Julian Gomez-Gutierrez
- Departamento de Bioquimica y Biologia Molecular, Universidad Complutense, Madrid, Spain4
| | - Francisco Gavilanes
- Departamento de Bioquimica y Biologia Molecular, Universidad Complutense, Madrid, Spain4
| | - Geert Leroux-Roels
- Center for Vaccinology, Department of Clinical Biology, Microbiology and Immunology, Ghent University Hospital, De Pintelaan 185, 9000 Ghent, Belgium1
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