Functional and molecular analysis of transient voltage-dependent K+ currents in rat hippocampal granule cells

Chemically-induced epileptic seizures in zebrafish: A systematic review

The use of zebrafish as a model organism is gaining evidence in the field of epilepsy as it may help to understand the mechanisms underlying epileptic seizures. As zebrafish assays became popular, the heterogeneity between protocols increased, making it hard to choose a standard protocol to conduct research while also impairing the comparison of results between studies. We conducted a systematic review to comprehensively profile the chemically-induced seizure models in zebrafish. Literature searches were performed in PubMed, Scopus, and Web of Science, followed by a two-step screening process based on inclusion/exclusion criteria. Qualitative data were extracted, and a sample of 100 studies was randomly selected for risk of bias assessment. Out of the 1058 studies identified after removing duplicates, 201 met the inclusion criteria. We found that the most common chemoconvulsants used in the reviewed studies were pentylenetetrazole (n = 180), kainic acid (n = 11), and pilocarpine (n = 10), which increase seizure severity in a dose-dependent manner. The main outcomes assessed were seizure scores and locomotion. Significant variability between the protocols was observed for administration route, duration of exposure, and dose/concentration. Of the studies subjected to risk of bias assessment, most were rated as low risk of bias for selective reporting (94%), baseline characteristics of the animals (67%), and blinded outcome assessment (54%). Randomization procedures and incomplete data were rated unclear in 81% and 68% of the studies, respectively. None of the studies reported the sample size calculation. Overall, these findings underscore the need for improved methodological and reporting practices to enhance the reproducibility and reliability of zebrafish models for studying epilepsy. Our study offers a comprehensive overview of the current state of chemically-induced seizure models in zebrafish, highlighting the common chemoconvulsants used and the variability in protocol parameters. This may be particularly valuable to researchers interested in understanding the underlying mechanisms of epileptic seizures and screening potential drug candidates in zebrafish models.

Effects of potassium channel modulators on the responses of mammalian slowly adapting mechanoreceptors

Introduction

slowly adapting mechanoreceptors in the skin provide vital tactile information to animals. The ionic channels that underlie their functioning is the subject of intense research. Previous work suggests that potassium channels may play particular roles in the activation and firing of these mechanoreceptors.

Objective

We used a range of potassium channel blockers and openers to observe their effects on different phases of mechanoreceptor responses.

Methods

Extracellular recording of neural activity of slowly adapting mechanoreceptors was carried out in an in vitro preparation of the sinus hair follicles taken from rat whisker pads. A range of potassium (K⁺) channel modulators were tested on these mechanoreceptor responses. The channel blockers tested were: tetraethylammonium (TEA), barium chloride (BaCl₂), dequalinium, 4-aminopyridine (4-AP), paxilline, XE 991, apamin, and charybdotoxin.

Results

Except for charybdotoxin and apamin, these drugs increased the activity of both types of slowly adapting units, St I and St II. Generally, both spontaneous and evoked (dynamic and static) activities increased. The channel opener NS1619 was also tested. NS1619 clearly decreased evoked activity (both dynamic and static) while leaving spontaneous activity relatively unaffected, with no clear discrimination of effects on the two types of St receptor

Conclusion

These findings are consistent with the targets of the drugs suggesting that K⁺ channels play an important role in the maintenance of spontaneous firing and in the production of and persistence of mechanoreceptor activity.

Similar nicotinic excitability responses across the developing hippocampal formation are regulated by small-conductance calcium-activated potassium channels

The hippocampal formation forms a cognitive circuit that is critical for learning and memory. Cholinergic input to nicotinic acetylcholine receptors plays an important role in the normal development of principal neurons within the hippocampal formation. However, the ability of nicotinic receptors to stimulate principal neurons across all regions of the developing hippocampal formation has not been determined. We show in this study that heteromeric nicotinic receptors mediate direct inward current and depolarization responses in principal neurons across the hippocampal formation of the young postnatal mouse. These responses were found in principal neurons of the CA1, CA3, dentate gyrus, subiculum, and entorhinal cortex layer VI, and they varied in magnitude across regions with the greatest responses occurring in the subiculum and entorhinal cortex. Despite this regional variation in the magnitude of passive responses, heteromeric nicotinic receptor stimulation increased the excitability of active principal neurons by a similar amount in all regions. Pharmacological experiments found this similar excitability response to be regulated by small-conductance calcium-activated potassium (SK) channels, which exhibited regional differences in their influence on neuron activity that offset the observed regional differences in passive nicotinic responses. These findings demonstrate that SK channels play a role to coordinate the magnitude of heteromeric nicotinic excitability responses across the hippocampal formation at a time when nicotinic signaling drives the development of this cognitive brain region. This coordinated input may contribute to the normal development, synchrony, and maturation of the hippocampal formation learning and memory network. NEW & NOTEWORTHY This study demonstrates that small-conductance calcium-activated potassium channels regulate similar-magnitude excitability responses to heteromeric nicotinic acetylcholine receptor stimulation in active principal neurons across multiple regions of the developing mouse hippocampal formation. Given the importance of nicotinic neurotransmission for the development of principal neurons within the hippocampal formation, this coordinated excitability response is positioned to influence the normal development, synchrony, and maturation of the hippocampal formation learning and memory network.

β-Secretase BACE1 Promotes Surface Expression and Function of Kv3.4 at Hippocampal Mossy Fiber Synapses

The β-secretase β-site APP-cleaving enzyme 1 (BACE1) is deemed a major culprit in Alzheimer's disease, but accumulating evidence indicates that there is more to the enzyme than driving the amyloidogenic processing of the amyloid precursor protein. For example, BACE1 has emerged as an important regulator of neuronal activity through proteolytic and, most unexpectedly, also through nonproteolytic interactions with several ion channels. Here, we identify and characterize the voltage-gated K⁺ channel 3.4 (Kv3.4) as a new and functionally relevant interaction partner of BACE1. Kv3.4 gives rise to A-type current with fast activating and inactivating kinetics and serves to repolarize the presynaptic action potential. We found that BACE1 and Kv3.4 are highly enriched and remarkably colocalized in hippocampal mossy fibers (MFs). In BACE1^-/- mice of either sex, Kv3.4 surface expression was significantly reduced in the hippocampus and, in synaptic fractions thereof, Kv3.4 was specifically diminished, whereas protein levels of other presynaptic K⁺ channels such as K_Ca1.1 and K_Ca2.3 remained unchanged. The apparent loss of presynaptic Kv3.4 affected the strength of excitatory transmission at the MF-CA3 synapse in hippocampal slices of BACE1^-/- mice when probed with the Kv3 channel blocker BDS-I. The effect of BACE1 on Kv3.4 expression and function should be bidirectional, as predicted from a heterologous expression system, in which BACE1 cotransfection produced a concomitant upregulation of Kv3.4 surface level and current based on a physical interaction between the two proteins. Our data show that, by targeting Kv3.4 to presynaptic sites, BACE1 endows the terminal with a powerful means to regulate the strength of transmitter release.SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT The β-secretase β-site APP-cleaving enzyme 1 (BACE1) is infamous for its crucial role in the pathogenesis of Alzheimer's disease, but its physiological functions in the intact nervous system are only gradually being unveiled. Here, we extend previous work implicating BACE1 in the expression and function of voltage-gated Na⁺ and K⁺ channels. Specifically, we characterize voltage-gated K⁺ channel 3.4 (Kv3.4), a presynaptic K⁺ channel required for action potential repolarization, as a novel interaction partner of BACE1 at the mossy fiber (MF)-CA3 synapse of the hippocampus. BACE1 promotes surface expression of Kv3.4 at MF terminals, most likely by physically associating with the channel protein in a nonenzymatic fashion. We advance the BACE1-Kv3.4 interaction as a mechanism to strengthen the temporal control over transmitter release from MF terminals.

T2N as a new tool for robust electrophysiological modeling demonstrated for mature and adult-born dentate granule cells

Compartmental models are the theoretical tool of choice for understanding single neuron computations. However, many models are incomplete, built ad hoc and require tuning for each novel condition rendering them of limited usability. Here, we present T2N, a powerful interface to control NEURON with Matlab and TREES toolbox, which supports generating models stable over a broad range of reconstructed and synthetic morphologies. We illustrate this for a novel, highly detailed active model of dentate granule cells (GCs) replicating a wide palette of experiments from various labs. By implementing known differences in ion channel composition and morphology, our model reproduces data from mouse or rat, mature or adult-born GCs as well as pharmacological interventions and epileptic conditions. This work sets a new benchmark for detailed compartmental modeling. T2N is suitable for creating robust models useful for large-scale networks that could lead to novel predictions. We discuss possible T2N application in degeneracy studies.

Kv3 Channels: Enablers of Rapid Firing, Neurotransmitter Release, and Neuronal Endurance

The intrinsic electrical characteristics of different types of neurons are shaped by the K+ channels they express. From among the more than 70 different K+ channel genes expressed in neurons, Kv3 family voltage-dependent K+ channels are uniquely associated with the ability of certain neurons to fire action potentials and to release neurotransmitter at high rates of up to 1,000 Hz. In general, the four Kv3 channels Kv3.1-Kv3.4 share the property of activating and deactivating rapidly at potentials more positive than other channels. Each Kv3 channel gene can generate multiple protein isoforms, which contribute to the high-frequency firing of neurons such as auditory brain stem neurons, fast-spiking GABAergic interneurons, and Purkinje cells of the cerebellum, and to regulation of neurotransmitter release at the terminals of many neurons. The different Kv3 channels have unique expression patterns and biophysical properties and are regulated in different ways by protein kinases. In this review, we cover the function, localization, and modulation of Kv3 channels and describe how levels and properties of the channels are altered by changes in ongoing neuronal activity. We also cover how the protein-protein interaction of these channels with other proteins affects neuronal functions, and how mutations or abnormal regulation of Kv3 channels are associated with neurological disorders such as ataxias, epilepsies, schizophrenia, and Alzheimer's disease.

K+ Channel Kv3.4 Is Essential for Axon Growth by Limiting the Influx of Ca2+ into Growth Cones

Membrane excitability in the axonal growth cones of embryonic neurons influences axon growth. Voltage-gated K⁺ (Kv) channels are key factors in controlling membrane excitability, but whether they regulate axon growth remains unclear. Here, we report that Kv3.4 is expressed in the axonal growth cones of embryonic spinal commissural neurons, motoneurons, dorsal root ganglion neurons, retinal ganglion cells, and callosal projection neurons during axon growth. Our in vitro (cultured dorsal spinal neurons of chick embryos) and in vivo (developing chick spinal commissural axons and rat callosal axons) findings demonstrate that knockdown of Kv3.4 by a specific shRNA impedes axon initiation, elongation, pathfinding, and fasciculation. In cultured dorsal spinal neurons, blockade of Kv3.4 by blood depressing substance II suppresses axon growth via an increase in the amplitude and frequency of Ca²⁺ influx through T-type and L-type Ca²⁺ channels. Electrophysiological results show that Kv3.4, the major Kv channel in the axonal growth cones of embryonic dorsal spinal neurons, is activated at more hyperpolarized potentials and inactivated more slowly than it is in postnatal and adult neurons. The opening of Kv3.4 channels effectively reduces growth cone membrane excitability, thereby limiting excessive Ca²⁺ influx at subthreshold potentials or during Ca²⁺-dependent action potentials. Furthermore, excessive Ca²⁺ influx induced by an optogenetic approach also inhibits axon growth. Our findings suggest that Kv3.4 reduces growth cone membrane excitability and maintains [Ca²⁺]_i at an optimal concentration for normal axon growth.SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT Accumulating evidence supports the idea that impairments in axon growth contribute to many clinical disorders, such as autism spectrum disorders, corpus callosum agenesis, Joubert syndrome, Kallmann syndrome, and horizontal gaze palsy with progressive scoliosis. Membrane excitability in the growth cone, which is mainly controlled by voltage-gated Ca²⁺ (Cav) and K⁺ (Kv) channels, modulates axon growth. The role of Cav channels during axon growth is well understood, but it is unclear whether Kv channels control axon outgrowth by regulating Ca²⁺ influx. This report shows that Kv3.4, which is transiently expressed in the axonal growth cones of many types of embryonic neurons, acts to reduce excessive Ca²⁺ influx through Cav channels and thus permits normal axon outgrowth.

Potassium Channels in Epilepsy

This review attempts to give a concise and up-to-date overview on the role of potassium channels in epilepsies. Their role can be defined from a genetic perspective, focusing on variants and de novo mutations identified in genetic studies or animal models with targeted, specific mutations in genes coding for a member of the large potassium channel family. In these genetic studies, a demonstrated functional link to hyperexcitability often remains elusive. However, their role can also be defined from a functional perspective, based on dynamic, aggravating, or adaptive transcriptional and posttranslational alterations. In these cases, it often remains elusive whether the alteration is causal or merely incidental. With ∼80 potassium channel types, of which ∼10% are known to be associated with epilepsies (in humans) or a seizure phenotype (in animals), if genetically mutated, a comprehensive review is a challenging endeavor. This goal may seem all the more ambitious once the data on posttranslational alterations, found both in human tissue from epilepsy patients and in chronic or acute animal models, are included. We therefore summarize the literature, and expand only on key findings, particularly regarding functional alterations found in patient brain tissue and chronic animal models.

Kv3.4 channel function and dysfunction in nociceptors

Recently, we reported the isolation of the Kv3.4 current in dorsal root ganglion (DRG) neurons and described dysregulation of this current in a spinal cord injury (SCI) model of chronic pain. These studies strongly suggest that rat Kv3.4 channels are major regulators of excitability in DRG neurons from pups and adult females, where they help determine action potential (AP) repolarization and spiking properties. Here, we characterized the Kv3.4 current in rat DRG neurons from adult males and show that it transfers 40–70% of the total repolarizing charge during the AP across all ages and sexes. Following SCI, we also found remodeling of the repolarizing currents during the AP. In the light of these studies, homomeric Kv3.4 channels expressed in DRG nociceptors are emerging novel targets that may help develop new approaches to treat neuropathic pain.

Subcellular localization of K+ channels in mammalian brain neurons: remarkable precision in the midst of extraordinary complexity

Potassium channels (KChs) are the most diverse ion channels, in part due to extensive combinatorial assembly of a large number of principal and auxiliary subunits into an assortment of KCh complexes. Their structural and functional diversity allows KChs to play diverse roles in neuronal function. Localization of KChs within specialized neuronal compartments defines their physiological role and also fundamentally impacts their activity, due to localized exposure to diverse cellular determinants of channel function. Recent studies in mammalian brain reveal an exquisite refinement of KCh subcellular localization. This includes axonal KChs at the initial segment, and near/within nodes of Ranvier and presynaptic terminals, dendritic KChs found at sites reflecting specific synaptic input, and KChs defining novel neuronal compartments. Painting the remarkable diversity of KChs onto the complex architecture of mammalian neurons creates an elegant picture of electrical signal processing underlying the sophisticated function of individual neuronal compartments, and ultimately neurotransmission and behavior.

TWIK-1 contributes to the intrinsic excitability of dentate granule cells in mouse hippocampus

BACKGROUND

Two-pore domain K(+) (K2P) channels have been shown to modulate neuronal excitability. However, physiological function of TWIK-1, the first identified member of the mammalian K2P channel family, in neuronal cells is largely unknown.

RESULTS

We found that TWIK-1 proteins were expressed and localized mainly in the soma and proximal dendrites of dentate gyrus granule cells (DGGCs) rather than in distal dendrites or mossy fibers. Gene silencing demonstrates that the outwardly rectifying K(+) current density was reduced in TWIK-1-deficient granule cells. TWIK-1 deficiency caused a depolarizing shift in the resting membrane potential (RMP) of DGGCs and enhanced their firing rate in response to depolarizing current injections. Through perforant path stimulation, TWIK-1-deficient granule cells showed altered signal input-output properties with larger EPSP amplitude values and increased spiking compared to control DGGCs. In addition, supra-maximal perforant path stimulation evoked a graded burst discharge in 44% of TWIK-1-deficient cells, which implies impairment of EPSP-spike coupling.

CONCLUSIONS

These results showed that TWIK-1 is functionally expressed in DGGCs and contributes to the intrinsic excitability of these cells. The TWIK-1 channel is involved in establishing the RMP of DGGCs; it attenuates sub-threshold depolarization of the cells during neuronal activity, and contributes to EPSP-spike coupling in perforant path-to-granule cell synaptic transmission.

Kv4 channels underlie A-currents with highly variable inactivation time courses but homogeneous other gating properties in the nucleus tractus solitarii

In the nucleus of the tractus solitarii (NTS), a large proportion of neurones express transient A-type potassium currents (I KA) having deep influence on the fidelity of the synaptic transmission of the visceral primary afferent inputs to second-order neurones. Up to now, the strong impact of I KA within the NTS was considered to result exclusively from its variation in amplitude, and its molecular correlate(s) remained unknown. In order to identify which Kv channels underlie I KA in NTS neurones, the gating properties and the pharmacology of this current were determined using whole cell patch clamp recordings in slices. Complementary information was brought by immunohistochemistry. Strikingly, two neurone subpopulations characterized by fast or slow inactivation time courses (respectively about 50 and 200 ms) were discriminated. Both characteristics matched those of the Kv4 channel subfamily. The other gating properties, also matching the Kv4 channel ones, were homogeneous through the NTS. The activation and inactivation occurred at membrane potentials around the threshold for generating action potentials, and the time course of recovery from inactivation was rapid. Pharmacologically, I KA in NTS neurones was found to be resistant to tetraethylammonium (TEA), sea anemone toxin blood-depressing substance (BDS) and dendrotoxin (DTX), whereas Androctonus mauretanicus mauretanicus toxin 3 (AmmTX3), a scorpion toxin of the α-KTX 15 family that has been shown to block all the members of the Kv4 family, inhibited 80 % of I KA irrespectively of its inactivation time course. Finally, immunohistochemistry data suggested that, among the Kv4 channel subfamily, Kv4.3 is the prevalent subunit expressed in the NTS.

Regulation of action potential delays via voltage-gated potassium Kv1.1 channels in dentate granule cells during hippocampal epilepsy

Action potential (AP) responses of dentate gyrus granule (DG) cells have to be tightly regulated to maintain hippocampal function. However, which ion channels control the response delay of DG cells is not known. In some neuron types, spike latency is influenced by a dendrotoxin (DTX)-sensitive delay current (ID) mediated by unidentified combinations of voltage-gated K(+) (Kv) channels of the Kv1 family Kv1.1-6. In DG cells, the ID has not been characterized and its molecular basis is unknown. The response phenotype of mature DG cells is usually considered homogenous but intrinsic plasticity likely occurs in particular in conditions of hyperexcitability, for example during temporal lobe epilepsy (TLE). In this study, we examined response delays of DG cells and underlying ion channel molecules by employing a combination of gramicidin-perforated patch-clamp recordings in acute brain slices and single-cell reverse transcriptase quantitative polymerase chain reaction (SC RT-qPCR) experiments. An in vivo mouse model of TLE consisting of intrahippocampal kainate (KA) injection was used to examine epilepsy-related plasticity. Response delays of DG cells were DTX-sensitive and strongly increased in KA-injected hippocampi; Kv1.1 mRNA was elevated 10-fold, and the response delays correlated with Kv1.1 mRNA abundance on the single cell level. Other Kv1 subunits did not show overt changes in mRNA levels. Kv1.1 immunolabeling was enhanced in KA DG cells. The biophysical properties of ID and a delay heterogeneity within the DG cell population was characterized. Using organotypic hippocampal slice cultures (OHCs), where KA incubation also induced ID upregulation, the homeostatic reversibility and neuroprotective potential for DG cells were tested. In summary, the AP timing of DG cells is effectively controlled via scaling of Kv1.1 subunit transcription. With this antiepileptic mechanism, DG cells delay their responses during hyperexcitation.

Saikosaponin a Enhances Transient Inactivating Potassium Current in Rat Hippocampal CA1 Neurons

Saikosaponin a (SSa), a main constituent of the Chinese herb Bupleurum chinense DC., has been demonstrated to have antiepileptic activity. Recent studies have shown that SSa could inhibit NMDA receptor current and persistent sodium current. However, the effects of SSa on potassium (K⁺) currents remain unclear. In this study, we tested the effect of SSa on 4AP-induced epileptiform discharges and K⁺ currents in CA1 neurons of rat hippocampal slices. We found that SSa significantly inhibited epileptiform discharges frequency and duration in hippocampal CA1 neurons in the 4AP seizure model in a dose-dependent manner with an IC₅₀ of 0.7 μM. SSa effectively increased the amplitude of I_Total and I_A, significantly negative-shifted the activation curve, and positive-shifted steady-state curve of I_A. However, SSa induced no significant changes in the amplitude and activation curve of I_K. In addition, SSa significantly increased the amplitude of 4AP-sensitive K⁺ current, while there was no significant change in the amplitude of TEA-sensitive K⁺ current. Together, our data indicate that SSa inhibits epileptiform discharges induced by 4AP in a dose-dependent manner and that SSa exerts selectively enhancing effects on I_A. These increases in I_A may contribute to the anticonvulsant mechanisms of SSa.

Modulation of Kv3.4 channel N-type inactivation by protein kinase C shapes the action potential in dorsal root ganglion neurons

Fast inactivation of heterologously expressed Kv3.4 channels is dramatically slowed upon phosphorylation of the channel's N-terminal (N-type) inactivation gate by protein kinase C (PKC). However, the presence and physiological importance of this exquisite modulation in excitable tissues were unknown. Here, we employed minimally invasive cell-attached patch-clamping, single-cell qPCR and specific siRNAs to unambiguously demonstrate that fast-inactivating Kv3.4 channels underlie a robust high voltage-activated A-type K(+) current (I(AHV)) in nociceptive dorsal root ganglion neurons from 7-day-old rats. We also show that PKC activation with phorbol 12,13-dibutyrate (PDBu) causes a 4-fold slowing of Kv3.4 channel inactivation and, consequently, accelerates the repolarization of the action potential (AP) by 22%, which shortens the AP duration by 14%. G-protein coupled receptor (GPCR) agonists eliminate I(AHV) fast inactivation in a membrane-delimited manner, suggesting a Kv3.4 channel signalling complex. Preincubation of the neurons with the PKC inhibitor bisindolylmaleimide II inhibits the effect of GPCR agonists and PDBu. Furthermore, activation of PKC via GPCR agonists recapitulates the effects of PDBu on the AP. Finally, transfection of the neurons with Kv3.4 siRNA prolongs the AP by 25% and abolishes the GPCR agonist-induced acceleration of the AP repolarization. These results show that Kv3.4 channels help shape the repolarization of the nociceptor AP, and that modulation of Kv3.4 channel N-type inactivation by PKC regulates AP repolarization and duration. We propose that the dramatic modulation of I(AHV) fast inactivation by PKC represents a novel mechanism of neural plasticity with potentially significant implications in the transition from acute to chronic pain.

KCNE1 and KCNE2 inhibit forward trafficking of homomeric N-type voltage-gated potassium channels

Potassium currents generated by voltage-gated potassium (Kv) channels comprising α-subunits from the Kv1, 2, and 3 subfamilies facilitate high-frequency firing of mammalian neurons. Within these subfamilies, only three α-subunits (Kv1.4, Kv3.3, and Kv3.4) generate currents that decay rapidly in the open state because an N-terminal ball domain blocks the channel pore after activation-a process termed N-type inactivation. Despite its importance to shaping cellular excitability, little is known of the processes regulating surface expression of N-type α-subunits, versus their slowly inactivating (delayed rectifier) counterparts. Here we found that currents generated by homomeric Kv1.4, Kv3.3, and Kv3.4 channels are all strongly suppressed by the single transmembrane domain ancillary (β) subunits KCNE1 and KCNE2. A combination of electrophysiological, biochemical, and immunofluorescence analyses revealed this suppression is due to KCNE1 and KCNE2 retaining Kv1.4 and Kv3.4 intracellularly, early in the secretory pathway. The retention is specific, requires α-β coassembly, and does not involve the dynamin-dependent endocytosis pathway. However, the small fraction of Kv3.4 that escapes KCNE-dependent retention is regulated by dynamin-dependent endocytosis. The findings illustrate two contrasting mechanisms controlling surface expression of N-type Kv α-subunits and therefore, potentially, cellular excitability and refractory periods.

Sparse but highly efficient Kv3 outpace BKCa channels in action potential repolarization at hippocampal mossy fiber boutons

Presynaptic elements of axons, in which action potentials (APs) cause release of neurotransmitter, are sites of high densities and complex interactions of proteins. We report that the presence of K(v)3 channels in addition to K(v)1 at glutamatergic mossy fiber boutons (MFBs) in rat hippocampal slices considerably limits the number of fast, voltage-activated potassium channels necessary to achieve basal presynaptic AP repolarization. The ∼ 10-fold higher repolarization efficacy per K(v)3 channel compared with presynaptic K(v)1 results from a higher steady-state availability at rest, a better recruitment by the presynaptic AP as a result of faster activation kinetics, and a larger single-channel conductance. Large-conductance calcium- and voltage-activated potassium channels (BK(Ca)) at MFBs give rise to a fast activating/fast inactivating and a slowly activating/sustained K(+) current component during long depolarizations. However, BK(Ca) contribute to MFB-AP repolarization only after presynaptic K(v)3 have been disabled. The calcium chelators EGTA and BAPTA are equally effective in preventing BK(Ca) activation, suggesting that BK(Ca) are not organized in nanodomain complexes with presynaptic voltage-gated calcium channels. Thus, the functional properties of K(v)3 channels at MFBs are tuned to both promote brevity of presynaptic APs limiting glutamate release and at the same time keep surface protein density of potassium channels low. Presynaptic BK(Ca) channels are restricted to limit additional increases of the AP half-duration in case of K(v)3 hypofunction, because rapid membrane repolarization by K(v)3 combined with distant calcium sources prevent BK(Ca) activation during basal APs.

Chronic deficit in the expression of voltage-gated potassium channel Kv3.4 subunit in the hippocampus of pilocarpine-treated epileptic rats

Voltage gated K(+) channels (Kv) are a highly diverse group of channels critical in determining neuronal excitability. Deficits of Kv channel subunit expression and function have been implicated in the pathogenesis of epilepsy. In this study, we investigate whether the expression of the specific subunit Kv3.4 is affected during epileptogenesis following pilocarpine-induced status epilepticus. For this purpose, we used immunohistochemistry, Western blotting assays and comparative analysis of gene expression using TaqMan-based probes and delta-delta cycle threshold (ΔΔCT) method of quantitative real-time polymerase chain reaction (qPCR) technique in samples obtained from age-matched control and epileptic rats. A marked down-regulation of Kv3.4 immunoreactivity was detected in the stratum lucidum and hilus of dentate gyrus in areas corresponding to the mossy fiber system of chronically epileptic rats. Correspondingly, a 20% reduction of Kv3.4 protein levels was detected in the hippocampus of chronic epileptic rats. Real-time quantitative PCR analysis of gene expression revealed that a significant 33% reduction of transcripts for Kv3.4 (gene Kcnc4) occurred after 1 month of pilocarpine-induced status epilepticus and persisted during the chronic phase of the model. These data indicate a reduced expression of Kv3.4 channels at protein and transcript levels in the epileptic hippocampus. Down-regulation of Kv3.4 in mossy fibers may contribute to enhanced presynaptic excitability leading to recurrent seizures in the pilocarpine model of temporal lobe epilepsy.

The locus coeruleus and central chemosensitivity

The locus coeruleus (LC) lies in the dorsal pons and supplies noradrenergic (NA) input to many regions of the brain, including respiratory control areas. The LC may provide tonic input for basal respiratory drive and is involved in central chemosensitivity since focal acidosis of the region stimulates ventilation and ablation reduces CO(2)-induced increased ventilation. The output of LC is modulated by both serotonergic and glutamatergic inputs. A large percentage of LC neurons are intrinsically activated by hypercapnia. This percentage and the magnitude of their response are highest in young neonates and decrease dramatically after postnatal day P10. The cellular bases for intrinsic chemosensitivity of LC neurons are comprised of multiple factors, primary among them being reduced extracellular and intracellular pH, which inhibit inwardly rectifying and voltage-gated K(+) channels, and activate L-type Ca(2+) channels. Activation of K(Ca) channels in LC neurons may limit their ultimate response to hypercapnia. Finally, the LC mediates central chemosensitivity and contains pH-sensitive neurons in amphibians, suggesting that the LC has a long-standing phylogenetic role in respiratory control.

CO2 chemoreception in cardiorespiratory control

Considerable progress has been made elucidating the cellular signals and ion channel targets involved in the response to increased CO2/H+ of brain stem neurons from chemosensitive regions. Intracellular pH (pHi) does not exhibit recovery from an acid load when extracellular pH (pHo) is also acid. This lack of pHi recovery is an essential but not unique feature of all chemosensitive neurons. These neurons have pH-regulating transporters, especially Na+/H+ exchangers, but some may also contain HCO3--dependent transporters as well. Studies in locus ceruleus (LC) neurons have shown that firing rate will increase in response to decreased pHi or pHo but not in response to increased CO2 alone. A number of K+ channels, as well as other channels, have been suggested to be targets of these pH changes with a fall of pH inhibiting these channels. In neurons from some regions it appears that multiple signals and multiple channels are involved in their chemosensitive response while in neurons from other regions a single signal and/or channel may be involved. Despite the progress, a number of key issues remain to be studied. A detailed study of chemosensitive signaling needs to be done in neurons from more brain stem regions. Fully describing the chemosensitive signaling pathways in brain stem neurons will offer new targets for therapies to alter the strength of central chemosensitivity and will yield new insights into the reason why there are multiple central chemoreceptive sites.

Mitochondria, oxidative stress, and temporal lobe epilepsy

Mitochondrial oxidative stress and dysfunction are contributing factors to various neurological disorders. Recently, there has been increasing evidence supporting the association between mitochondrial oxidative stress and epilepsy. Although certain inherited epilepsies are associated with mitochondrial dysfunction, little is known about its role in acquired epilepsies such as temporal lobe epilepsy (TLE). Mitochondrial oxidative stress and dysfunction are emerging as key factors that not only result from seizures, but may also contribute to epileptogenesis. The occurrence of epilepsy increases with age, and mitochondrial oxidative stress is a leading mechanism of aging and age-related degenerative disease, suggesting a further involvement of mitochondrial dysfunction in seizure generation. Mitochondria have critical cellular functions that influence neuronal excitability including production of adenosine triphosphate (ATP), fatty acid oxidation, control of apoptosis and necrosis, regulation of amino acid cycling, neurotransmitter biosynthesis, and regulation of cytosolic Ca(2+) homeostasis. Mitochondria are the primary site of reactive oxygen species (ROS) production making them uniquely vulnerable to oxidative stress and damage which can further affect cellular macromolecule function, the ability of the electron transport chain to produce ATP, antioxidant defenses, mitochondrial DNA stability, and synaptic glutamate homeostasis. Oxidative damage to one or more of these cellular targets may affect neuronal excitability and increase seizure susceptibility. The specific targeting of mitochondrial oxidative stress, dysfunction, and bioenergetics with pharmacological and non-pharmacological treatments may be a novel avenue for attenuating epileptogenesis.

FGF2 modulates the voltage-dependent K+ current and changes excitability of rat dentate gyrus granule cells

Fibroblast growth factor 2 (FGF2) is involved in hippocampus-dependent learning. In this study, the effects of FGF2 on the excitability were investigated in granule cells of rat dentate gyrus. Hippocampal slices were used to perform patch clamp recordings in granule cells. Extracellularly applied FGF2 early quenched the depolarization-induced repetitive firing, suggesting a decreased excitability under these conditions. Consistently, transient and sustained voltage-gated K(+) currents decreased in a dose-dependent manner, repolarization phase of action potential was slowed down, afterhyperpolarization was reduced, and membrane resistance was decreased. These effects were not mediated by tyrosine kinase FGF2 receptors. Moreover, an involvement of G protein signaling was ruled out, as well as an intracellular action of FGF2. Considering the relationship between FGF2 and hippocampal functions, the modulation of neuron excitability by activity-driven FGF2 release may be regarded as a part of a homeostatic mechanism of self-regulation of hippocampal activity.

Ionic channel function in action potential generation: current perspective

Over 50 years ago, Hodgkin and Huxley laid down the foundations of our current understanding of ionic channels. An impressive progress has been made during the following years that culminated in the revelation of the details of potassium channel structure. Nevertheless, even today, we cannot separate well currents recorded in central mammalian neurons. Many modern concepts about the function of sodium and potassium currents are based on experiments performed in nonmammalian cells. The recent recognition of the fast delayed rectifier current indicates that we need to reevaluate the biophysical role of sodium and potassium currents. This review will consider high quality voltage clamp data obtained from the soma of central mammalian neurons in the view of our current knowledge about proteins forming ionic channels. Fast sodium currents and three types of outward potassium currents, the delayed rectifier, the subthreshold A-type, and the D-type potassium currents, are discussed here. An updated current classification with biophysical role of each current subtype is provided. This review shows that details of kinetics of both sodium and outward potassium currents differ significantly from the classical descriptions and these differences may be of functional significance.

Ternary Kv4.2 channels recapitulate voltage-dependent inactivation kinetics of A-type K+ channels in cerebellar granule neurons

Kv4 channels mediate most of the somatodendritic subthreshold operating A-type current (I(SA)) in neurons. This current plays essential roles in the regulation of spike timing, repetitive firing, dendritic integration and plasticity. Neuronal Kv4 channels are thought to be ternary complexes of Kv4 pore-forming subunits and two types of accessory proteins, Kv channel interacting proteins (KChIPs) and the dipeptidyl-peptidase-like proteins (DPPLs) DPPX (DPP6) and DPP10. In heterologous cells, ternary Kv4 channels exhibit inactivation that slows down with increasing depolarization. Here, we compared the voltage dependence of the inactivation rate of channels expressed in heterologous mammalian cells by Kv4.2 proteins with that of channels containing Kv4.2 and KChIP1, Kv4.2 and DPPX-S, or Kv4.2, KChIP1 and DPPX-S, and found that the relation between inactivation rate and membrane potential is distinct for these four conditions. Moreover, recordings from native neurons showed that the inactivation kinetics of the I(SA) in cerebellar granule neurons has voltage dependence that is remarkably similar to that of ternary Kv4 channels containing KChIP1 and DPPX-S proteins in heterologous cells. The fact that this complex and unique behaviour (among A-type K(+) currents) is observed in both the native current and the current expressed in heterologous cells by the ternary complex containing Kv4, DPPX and KChIP proteins supports the hypothesis that somatically recorded native Kv4 channels in neurons include both types of accessory protein. Furthermore, quantitative global kinetic modelling showed that preferential closed-state inactivation and a weakly voltage-dependent opening step can explain the slowing of the inactivation rate with increasing depolarization. Therefore, it is likely that preferential closed-state inactivation is the physiological mechanism that regulates the activity of both ternary Kv4 channel complexes and native I(SA)-mediating channels.

Voltage-gated potassium currents within the dorsal vagal nucleus: inhibition by BDS toxin

Voltage-gated potassium (Kv) channels are essential components of neuronal excitability. The Kv3.4 channel protein is widely distributed throughout the central nervous system (CNS), where it can form heteromeric or homomeric Kv3 channels. Electrophysiological studies reported here highlight a functional role for this channel protein within neurons of the dorsal vagal nucleus (DVN). Current clamp experiments revealed that blood depressing substance (BDS) and intracellular dialysis of an anti-Kv3.4 antibody prolonged the action potential duration. In addition, a BDS sensitive, voltage-dependent, slowly inactivating outward current was observed in voltage clamp recordings from DVN neurons. Electrical stimulation of the solitary tract evoked EPSPs and IPSPs in DVN neurons and BDS increased the average amplitude and decreased the paired pulse ratio, consistent with a presynaptic site of action. This presynaptic modulation was action potential dependent as revealed by ongoing synaptic activity. Given the role of the Kv3 proteins in shaping neuronal excitability, these data highlight a role for homomeric Kv3.4 channels in spike timing and neurotransmitter release in low frequency firing neurons of the DVN.

Loss of metabotropic glutamate receptor-dependent long-term depression via downregulation of mGluR5 after status epilepticus

Synaptic plasticity is thought to be a key mechanism of information storage in the CNS. Different forms of synaptic long-term potentiation have been shown to be impaired in neurological disorders. Here, we show that metabotropic glutamate receptor (mGluR)-dependent long-term depression (LTD), but not NMDA receptor-dependent LTD at Schaffer collateral-CA1 synapses, is profoundly impaired after status epilepticus. Brief application of the group I mGluR agonist (R,S)-3,5-dihydroxyphenylglycine (100 microM; 5 min) induced mGluR LTD in control, but not in pilocarpine-treated rats. Experiments in the presence of selective inhibitors of either mGluR5 [2-methyl-6-(phenylethynyl)-pyridine] or mGluR1 [7-(hydroxyimino)cyclopropachromen-carboxylate ethyl ester and (S)-(+)-alpha-amino-4-carboxy-2-methylbenzeneacetic acid] demonstrate that loss of mGluR LTD is most likely attributable to a loss of mGluR5 function. Quantitative real-time reverse transcription PCR revealed a specific downregulation of mGluR5 mRNA, but not of mGluR1 mRNA in the CA1 region. Furthermore, we detected a strong reduction in mGluR5 protein expression by immunofluorescence and quantitative immunoblotting. Additionally, the scaffolding protein Homer that mediates coupling of mGluR5 to downstream signaling cascades was downregulated. Thus, we conclude that the reduction of mGluR LTD after pilocarpine-induced status epilepticus is the result of the subtype-specific downregulation of mGluR5 and associated downstream signaling components.

Characterization of slowly inactivating KV{alpha} current in rabbit pulmonary neuroepithelial bodies: effects of hypoxia and nicotine

Pulmonary neuroepithelial bodies (NEB) form innervated cell clusters that express voltage-activated currents and function as airway O(2) sensors. We investigated A-type K(+) currents in NEB cells using neonatal rabbit lung slice preparation. The whole cell K(+) current was slowly inactivating with activation threshold of approximately -30 mV. This current was blocked approximately 27% by blood-depressing substance I (BDS-I; 3 microM), a selective blocker of Kv3.4 subunit, and reduced approximately 20% by tetraethylammonium (TEA; 100 microM). The BDS-I-sensitive component had an average peak value of 189 +/- 14 pA and showed fast inactivation kinetics that could be fitted by one-component exponential function with a time constant of (tau1) 77 +/- 10 ms. This Kv slowly inactivating current was also blocked by heteropodatoxin-2 (HpTx-2; 0.2 microM), a blocker of Kv4 subunit. The HpTx-2-sensitive current had an average peak value of 234 +/- 23 pA with a time constant (tau) 82 +/- 11 ms. Hypoxia (Po(2) = 15-20 mmHg) inhibited the slowly inactivating K(+) current by approximately 47%, during voltage steps from -30 to +30 mV, and no further inhibition occurred when TEA was combined with hypoxia. Nicotine at concentrations of 50 and 100 microM suppressed the slowly inactivating K(+) current by approximately 24 and approximately 40%, respectively. This suppression was not reversed by mecamylamine suggesting a direct effect of nicotine on these K(+) channels. In situ hybridization experiments detected expression of mRNAs for Kv3.4 and Kv4.3 subunits, while double-label immunofluorescence confirmed membrane localization of respective channel proteins in NEB cells. These studies suggest that the hypoxia-sensitive current in NEB cells is carried by slowly inactivating A-type K(+) channels, which underlie their oxygen-sensitive potassium currents, and that exposure to nicotine may directly affect their function, contributing to smoking-related lung disease.

The action potential in mammalian central neurons

The action potential of the squid giant axon is formed by just two voltage-dependent conductances in the cell membrane, yet mammalian central neurons typically express more than a dozen different types of voltage-dependent ion channels. This rich repertoire of channels allows neurons to encode information by generating action potentials with a wide range of shapes, frequencies and patterns. Recent work offers an increasingly detailed understanding of how the expression of particular channel types underlies the remarkably diverse firing behaviour of various types of neurons.

Developmental changes in potassium currents at the rat calyx of Held presynaptic terminal

During early postnatal development, the calyx of Held synapse in the auditory brainstem of rodents undergoes a variety of morphological and functional changes. Among ionic channels expressed in the calyx, voltage-dependent K+ channels regulate transmitter release by repolarizing the nerve terminal. Here we asked whether voltage-dependent K+ channels in calyceal terminals undergo developmental changes, and whether they contribute to functional maturation of this auditory synapse. From postnatal day (P) 7 to P14, K+ currents became larger and faster in activation kinetics, but did not change any further to P21. Likewise, presynaptic action potentials became shorter in duration from P7 to P14 and remained stable thereafter. The density of presynaptic K+ currents, assessed from excised patch recording and whole-cell recordings with reduced [K+]i, increased by 2-3-fold during the second postnatal week. Pharmacological isolation of K+ current subtypes using tetraethylammonium (1 mM) and margatoxin (10 nM) revealed that the density of Kv3 and Kv1 currents underwent a parallel increase, and their activation kinetics became accelerated by 2-3-fold. In contrast, BK currents, isolated using iberiotoxin (100 nM), showed no significant change during the second postnatal week. Pharmacological block of Kv3 or Kv1 channels at P7 and P14 calyceal terminals indicated that the developmental changes of Kv3 channels contribute to the establishment of reliable action potential generation at high frequency, whereas those of Kv1 channels contribute to stabilizing the nerve terminal. We conclude that developmental changes in K+ currents in the nerve terminal contribute to maturation of high-fidelity fast synaptic transmission at this auditory relay synapse.

Voltage-dependent potassium currents during fast spikes of rat cerebellar Purkinje neurons: inhibition by BDS-I toxin

We characterized the kinetics and pharmacological properties of voltage-activated potassium currents in rat cerebellar Purkinje neurons using recordings from nucleated patches, which allowed high resolution of activation and deactivation kinetics. Activation was exceptionally rapid, with 10-90% activation in about 400 mus at +30 mV, near the peak of the spike. Deactivation was also extremely rapid, with a decay time constant of about 300 mus near -80 mV. These rapid activation and deactivation kinetics are consistent with mediation by Kv3-family channels but are even faster than reported for Kv3-family channels in other neurons. The peptide toxin BDS-I had very little blocking effect on potassium currents elicited by 100-ms depolarizing steps, but the potassium current evoked by action potential waveforms was inhibited nearly completely. The mechanism of inhibition by BDS-I involves slowing of activation rather than total channel block, consistent with the effects described in cloned Kv3-family channels and this explains the dramatically different effects on currents evoked by short spikes versus voltage steps. As predicted from this mechanism, the effects of toxin on spike width were relatively modest (broadening by roughly 25%). These results show that BDS-I-sensitive channels with ultrafast activation and deactivation kinetics carry virtually all of the voltage-dependent potassium current underlying repolarization during normal Purkinje cell spikes.

Characteristics of IA currents in adult rabbit cerebellar Purkinje cells

Classical conditioning the rabbit nictitating membrane involves changes in synaptic and intrinsic membrane properties of cerebellar Purkinje cell dendrites, and a 4-aminopyridine (4-AP)-sensitive potassium channel underlies these membrane properties. We characterized I(A) currents in adult, rabbit Purkinje cells to determine whether I(A) is the target channel involved in learning. Whole-cell recordings of Purkinje cell somas and dendrites revealed a fast activating and inactivating current with half maximal activation at -27.08 +/- 3.48 mV and -25.51 +/- 1.15 mV in somas and dendrites, respectively; half maximal inactivation at -58.91 +/- 2.34 mV and -49.90 +/- 2.58 mV; and a recovery time constant of 22.81 +/- 1.92 ms and 16.60 +/- 4.26 ms. Outside-out patch recordings from cerebellar Purkinje cell somas confirmed these 4-AP-sensitive currents with half maximal activation at -13.85 +/- 1.17 mV and half maximal inactivation at -55.07 +/- 5.54 mV. More importantly, there was an overlap of activation and incomplete inactivation at potentials from -60 to -40 mV, suggesting a "window" current that was responsible for subthreshold variations of membrane potential and might underlie conditioning-specific increases in Purkinje cell excitability. The potassium current was inhibited by 4-AP and by Heteropodatoxin, a specific blocker of Kv4.2 and Kv4.3 channels, but not by Stromatoxin, a blocker of Kv4.2 channels. Mouse monoclonal antibody labeling identified both Kv4.3 and Kv4.2 subunits in the granule cell layer but only Kv4.3 subunits in the molecular layer. This is the first demonstration of A-type currents in adult, rabbit Purkinje cells that may play a role in regulating membrane potential and firing frequency and comprise the target channel mediating conditioning-specific changes of excitability in rabbit Purkinje cell dendrites.

Functional properties and oxidative modulation of A-type K currents in hippocampal granule cells of control and chronically epileptic rats

A-type K+ channels are crucial determinants of neuronal firing. For example, reducing the amplitude of A-type currents (I(A)) increases seizure susceptibility. We have therefore examined the functional and molecular properties of I(A) in dentate granule neurons following pilocarpine-induced status epilepticus (SE). We found that the levels of various A-type channel subunit mRNAs are unaltered following SE. Furthermore, current density and biophysical properties of I(A) recorded in outside-out and cell-attached patches from dentate granule cells are not modified by SE. However, I(A) in both control and epileptic rats was powerfully regulated by the cellular redox state. I(A) was recorded in outside-out patches with the recording pipette containing either reduced (GSH) or oxidized (GSSG) glutathione. In both control and epileptic rats, the presence of GSSG caused a similar, marked acceleration of recovery from inactivation. Additionally, GSSG produced a small but significant reduction of I(A) amplitudes only in control rats. The inactivation time course of I(A) during depolarizing voltage steps was not modified by GSH or GSSG. Cell-attached recordings, in which the intracellular milieu is conserved, revealed a slow time course of recovery more comparable to that with GSH. In summary, epileptic activity does not produce chronic changes in the molecular and functional properties of the somatic I(A) of dentate granule cells. However, I(A) is powerfully modulated by oxidation in both control and epileptic rats. This finding suggests that the availability of I(A) may be strongly regulated by changes in the GSH/GSSG ratio occurring during prolonged seizure activity or hypoxia.

Epileptiform activity induced by pharmacologic reduction of M-current in the developing hippocampus in vitro

PURPOSE

Benign familial neonatal convulsions (BFNCs), an inheritable epilepsy that occurs in neonates but not in adults, is caused by hypofunctional mutations in genes codifying for the M-type K+ current. In an attempt to develop an in vitro model of this disease, we tested whether blocking M-current with linopirdine induces epileptiform activity in brain slices from animals of different ages.

METHODS

Horizontal hippocampus-entorhinal cortex slices were obtained from neonatal (1-2 weeks after birth) and adult (8-9 weeks after birth) rats. Extracellular field recordings of the CA1 region were performed. After recording control conditions, linopirdine was added to the bath, and field activity was recorded continuously for 3 h. 4-Aminopyridine, a drug commonly used to induce epileptiform activity in vitro, was used as a control for our experimental conditions.

RESULTS

Bath perfusion of linopirdine induced epileptiform activity only in slices from neonatal rats. Epileptiform activity consisted of interictal-like and ictal-like activity. In slices from adult rats, linopirdine induced erratic interictal-like activity. In contrast, 4-aminopyridine was able to induce epileptiform activity in slices from both neonatal and adult rats.

CONCLUSIONS

We demonstrated that blockade of M-current in vitro produces epileptiform activity with a developmental pattern similar to that observed in BNFCs. This could be an in vitro model that can be used to study the cellular mechanisms of epileptogenesis and the developmental features of BFNCs, as well as to develop some therapeutic strategies.

Modulation of Kv3 subfamily potassium currents by the sea anemone toxin BDS: significance for CNS and biophysical studies

Kv3 potassium channels, with their ultra-rapid gating and high activation threshold, are essential for high-frequency firing in many CNS neurons. Significantly, the Kv3.4 subunit has been implicated in the major CNS disorders Parkinson's and Alzheimer's diseases, and it is claimed that selectively targeting this subunit will have therapeutic utility. Previous work suggested that BDS toxins ("blood depressing substance," from the sea anemone Anemonia sulcata) were specific blockers for rapidly inactivating Kv3.4 channels, and consequently these toxins are increasingly used as diagnostic agents for Kv3.4 subunits in central neurons. However, precisely how selective are these toxins for this important CNS protein? We show that BDS is not selective for Kv3.4 but markedly inhibits current through Kv3.1 and Kv3.2 channels. Inhibition comes about not by "pore block" but by striking modification of Kv3 gating kinetics and voltage dependence. Activation and inactivation kinetics are slowed by BDS-I and BDS-II, and V(1/2) for activation is shifted to more positive voltages. Alanine substitution mutagenesis around the S3b and S4 segments of Kv3.2 reveals that BDS acts via voltage-sensing domains, and, consistent with this, ON gating currents from nonconducting Kv3.2 are markedly inhibited. The altered kinetics and gating properties, combined with lack of subunit selectivity with Kv3 subunits, seriously affects the usefulness of BDS toxins in CNS studies. Furthermore, our results do not easily fit with the voltage sensor "paddle" structure proposed recently for Kv channels. Our data will be informative for experiments designed to dissect out the roles of Kv3 subunits in CNS function and dysfunction.

Chloride concentration affects Kv channel voltage-gating kinetics: Importance of experimental anion concentrations

Chloride concentration has been shown to have a dramatic impact on protein folding and subsequent tertiary conformation [K.D. Collins, Ions from the Hofmeister series and osmolytes: effects on proteins in solution and in the crystallization process, Methods 34 (2004) 300-311; I. Jelesarov, E. Durr, R.M. Thomas, H.R. Bosshard, Salt effects on hydrophobic interaction and charge screening in the folding of a negatively charged peptide to a coiled coil (leucine zipper), Biochemistry 37 (1998) 7539-7550]. As it is known that Kv channel gating is linked to the stability of the cytoplasmic T1 multimerization domain conformation [D.L. Minor, Y.F. Lin, B.C. Mobley, A. Avelar, Y.N. Jan, L.Y. Jan, J.M. Berger, The polar T1 interface is linked to conformational changes that open the voltage-gated potassium channel, Cell 102 (2000) 657-670; B.A. Yi, D.L. Minor Jr., Y.F. Lin, Y.N. Jan, L.Y. Jan, Controlling potassium channel activities: interplay between the membrane and intracellular factors, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 98 (2001) 11016-11023] and that intracellular chloride concentration has been linked to Kv channel kinetics [L.K. Bekar, W. Walz, Intracellular chloride modulates A-type potassium currents in astrocytes, Glia 39 (2002) 207-216; W.B. Thoreson, S.L. Stella, Anion modulation of calcium current voltage dependence and amplitude in salamander rods, Biochim. Biophys. Acta 1464 (2000) 142-150], the objective of the present study was to address how chloride concentration changes affect Kv channel kinetics more closely in an isolated expression system. Initially, no significant chloride concentration-dependent effects on channel steady-state gating kinetics were observed. Only after disruption of the cytoskeleton with cytochalasin-D did we see significant chloride concentration-dependent shifts in gating kinetics. This suggests that the shift in gating kinetics is mediated through effects of intracellular chloride concentration on cytoplasmic domain tertiary conformation as cytoskeletal interaction appears to mask the effect. Furthermore, as cytoskeletal disruption only impacts channel gating kinetics at low physiological intracellular chloride concentrations, these studies highlight the importance of paying close attention to anion concentrations used under experimental conditions.

Somatic vs. dendritic responses to hypercapnia in chemosensitive locus coeruleus neurons from neonatal rats

Cardiorespiratory control is mediated in part by central chemosensitive neurons that respond to increased CO(2) (hypercapnia). Activation of these neurons is thought to involve hypercapnia-induced decreases in intracellular pH (pH(i)). All previous measurements of hypercapnia-induced pH(i) changes in chemosensitive neurons have been obtained from the soma, but chemosensitive signaling could be initiated in the dendrites of these neurons. In this study, membrane potential (V(m)) and pH(i) were measured simultaneously in chemosensitive locus coeruleus (LC) neurons from neonatal rat brain stem slices using whole cell pipettes and the pH-sensitive fluorescent dye pyranine. We measured pH(i) from the soma as well as from primary dendrites to a distance 160 mum from the edge of the soma. Hypercapnia [15% CO(2), external pH (pH(o)) 7.00; control, 5% CO(2), pH(o) 7.45] resulted in an acidification of similar magnitude in dendrites and soma ( approximately 0.26 pH unit), but acidification was faster in the more distal regions of the dendrites. Neither the dendrites nor the soma exhibited pH(i) recovery during hypercapnia-induced acidification; but both regions contained pH-regulating transporters, because they exhibited pH(i) recovery from an NH(4)Cl prepulse-induced acidification (at constant pH(o) 7.45). Exposure of a portion of the dendrites to hypercapnic solution did not increase the firing rate, but exposing the soma to hypercapnic solution resulted in a near-maximal increase in firing rate. These data show that while the pH(i) response to hypercapnia is similar in the dendrites and soma, somatic exposure to hypercapnia plays a major role in the activation of chemosensitive LC neurons from neonatal rats.

Seizure spread through the life cycle: optical imaging in combined brain slices from immature, adult, and senile rats in vitro

The semiology of epileptic seizures changes during the lifetime. Hence, it can be assumed that age-related changes in brain plasticity influence the patterns of seizure onset, spread and propagation velocity. We employed the 4-aminopyridine model of epilepsy to study seizure-like events in vitro. Combined entorhinal cortex-hippocampus brain slices from juvenile (10-13 days), adult (2-3 months), and senile (24-27 months) rats were examined using electrophysiological recordings and imaging of intrinsic optical signals. In the juvenile group, seizure onset was multifocal in all slice regions including the hippocampus. Onset in adult animals was confined to the entorhinal cortex and to neocortical regions. In slices from senile animals, there was a preponderance of seizure onsets in the neocortex. Spread patterns were highly variable in the juvenile group and became gradually more monomorph with increasing age. Propagation velocities were highest in the adult group, with maximum values of 1.51 +/- 0.68 mm/s. In the juvenile group, they amounted to 0.97 +/- 0.39 mm/s, and to 1.18 +/- 0.42 mm/s in senile slices. The results of this study indicate that age-related changes in brain plasticity profoundly affect spread patterns, which may contribute to the clinically observed changes in seizure semiology during early childhood, adulthood and senescence.

Nuclear factor-κB activation by reactive oxygen species mediates voltage-gated K+ current enhancement by neurotoxic β-amyloid peptides in nerve growth factor-differentiated PC-12 cells and hippocampal neurones

Increased activity of plasma membrane K+ channels, leading to decreased cytoplasmic K+ concentrations, occurs during neuronal cell death. In the present study, we showed that the neurotoxic beta-amyloid peptide Abeta(25-35) caused a dose-dependent (0.1-10 microm) and time-dependent (> 12 h) enhancement of both inactivating and non-inactivating components of voltage-dependent K+ (VGK) currents in nerve growth factor-differentiated rat phaeochromocytoma (PC-12) cells and primary rat hippocampal neurones. Similar effects were exerted by Abeta(1-42), but not by the non-neurotoxic Abeta(35-25) peptide. Abeta(25-35) and Abeta(1-42) caused an early (15-20 min) increase in intracellular Ca(2+) concentration. This led to an increased production of reactive oxygen species (ROS), which peaked at 3 h and lasted for 24 h; ROS production seemed to trigger the VGK current increase as vitamin E (50 microm) blocked both the Abeta(25-35)- and Abeta(1-42)-induced ROS increase and VGK current enhancement. Inhibition of protein synthesis (cycloheximide, 1 microg/mL) and transcription (actinomycin D, 50 ng/mL) blocked Abeta(25-35)-induced VGK current enhancement, suggesting that this potentiation is mediated by transcriptional activation induced by ROS. Interestingly, the specific nuclear factor-kappaB inhibitor SN-50 (5 microm), but not its inactive analogue SN-50M (5 microm), fully counteracted Abeta(1-42)- or Abeta(25-35)-induced enhancement of VGK currents, providing evidence for a role of this family of transcription factors in regulating neuronal K+ channel function during exposure to Abeta.

Optical monitoring of progressive synchronization in dentate granule cells during population burst activities

Monitoring multiple neurons is essential for understanding neuronal network activities. While calcium imaging from a population of cells is an effective method to study the network dynamics of a neural structure, it has been difficult to image from densely packed structures, such as the granule cell layer of the dentate gyrus, due to overlap of the cells. We have developed a novel method to label multiple granule cells with a Ca(2+) indicator in rat hippocampal slices using Oregon Green 488 BAPTA-1 (OGB-1) AM. Synchronized burst activities (0.3-1.4 Hz), which were induced by applying 50 microm 4-aminopyridine, were monitored extracellularly with a glass electrode placed at the granule cell layer in the dentate gyrus. During the burst activities, spontaneously occurring action potential-induced Ca(2+) transients from multiple (4-12) granule cells were monitored with a cooled CCD camera with single-cell resolution. Temporal structures of firing patterns from the multiple neurons were determined from Ca(2+) transients. In each single-burst-event recorded from the extracellular electrode, each neuron fired synchronously within a 200 ms time window. The latency and its variance from the onset time of the single-burst-events to one of the Ca(2+) transients decreased over time (< 7.5 min). These results indicate that the synchrony of the action potentials within a single-burst-event was enhanced as the burst activities proceeded. This progressive synchronization may be a key feature in making self-organizing neuronal networks.

Complex expression and localization of inactivating Kv channels in cultured hippocampal astrocytes

Voltage-gated potassium channels are well established as critical for setting action potential frequency, membrane potential, and neurotransmitter release in neurons. However, their role in the "nonexcitable" glial cell type is yet to be fully understood. We used whole cell current kinetics, pharmacology, immunocytochemistry, and RT-PCR to characterize A-type current in hippocampal astrocyte cultures to better understand its function. Pharmacological analysis suggests that approximately 70, 10, and <5% of total A current is associated with Kv4, Kv3, and Kv1 channels, respectively. In addition, pharmacology and kinetics provide evidence for a significant contribution of KChIP accessory proteins to astrocytic A-channel composition. Localization of the Shaw Kv3.4 channel to astrocytic processes and the Shal Kv4.3 channel to soma suggest that these channels serve a specific function. Given this complex A-type channel expression pattern, we assessed the role of A currents in membrane voltage oscillations in response to current injections. Although TEA-sensitive delayed-rectifying currents are involved in the extent of repolarization, 4-AP-sensitive A currents serve to increase the rate. As in neurons, this effect may enable astrocytes to respond rapidly to high-frequency synaptic events. Our results indicate that hippocampal astrocytes in vitro express multiple A-type Kv channel alpha-subunits with accessory, possibly Ca(2+)-sensitive, cytoplasmic subunits that appear to be specifically localized to subcellular membrane compartments. Function of these channels remains to be determined in a physiological setting. However, this study suggests that they enable astrocytes to respond rapidly with membrane voltage oscillations to high-frequency incoming signals, possibly synchronizing astrocyte function to neuronal activity.

Kv3 voltage-gated potassium channels regulate neurotransmitter release from mouse motor nerve terminals

Voltage-gated potassium (Kv) channels are critical to regulation of neurotransmitter release throughout the nervous system but the roles and identity of the subtypes involved remain unclear. Here we show that Kv3 channels regulate transmitter release at the mouse neuromuscular junction (NMJ). Light- and electron-microscopic immunohistochemistry revealed Kv3.3 and Kv3.4 subunits within all motor nerve terminals of muscles examined [transversus abdominus, lumbrical and flexor digitorum brevis (FDB)]. To determine the roles of these Kv3 subunits, intracellular recordings were made of end-plate potentials (EPPs) in FDB muscle fibres evoked by electrical stimulation of tibial nerve. Tetraethylammonium (TEA) applied at low concentrations (0.05-0.5 mM), which blocks only a few known potassium channels including Kv3 channels, did not affect muscle fibre resting potential but significantly increased the amplitude of all EPPs tested. Significantly, this effect of TEA was still observed in the presence of the large-conductance calcium-activated potassium channel blockers iberiotoxin (25-150 nM) and Penitrem A (100 nM), suggesting a selective action on Kv3 subunits. Consistent with this, 15-microM 4-aminopyridine, which blocks Kv3 but not large-conductance calcium-activated potassium channels, enhanced evoked EPP amplitude. Unexpectedly, blood-depressing substance-I, a toxin selective for Kv3.4 subunits, had no effect at 0.05-1 microM. The combined presynaptic localization of Kv3 subunits and pharmacological enhancement of EPP amplitude indicate that Kv3 channels regulate neurotransmitter release from presynaptic terminals at the NMJ.

Association of potassium channel Kv3.4 subunits with pre- and post-synaptic structures in brainstem and spinal cord

Voltage-gated K+ channels (Kv) are divided into eight subfamilies (Kv1-8) and play a major role in determining the excitability of neurones. Members of the Kv3 subfamily are highly abundant in the CNS, with each Kv3 gene (Kv3.1-Kv3.4) exhibiting a unique pattern of expression, although single neurones can express more than one subtype. Of the Kv3 subunits relatively little is known of the Kv3.4 subunit distribution in the nervous system, particularly in the brainstem and spinal cord of the rat. We performed immunohistochemistry to determine both the cellular and sub-cellular distribution of the Kv3.4 subunit in these areas. Kv3.4 subunit immunoreactivity (Kv3.4-IR) was widespread, with dense, punctate staining in many regions including the intermediolateral cell column (IML) and the dorsal vagal nucleus (DVN), nucleus ambiguus (NA) and nucleus tractus solitarius (NTS). In the ventral horn a presynaptic location was confirmed by co-localization of Kv3.4-IR with the synaptic vesicle protein, SV2 and also with the glutamate vesicle markers vesicular glutamate transporter (VGluT) 1, VGluT2 or the glycine transporter GlyT2, suggesting a role for the channel in both excitatory and inhibitory neurotransmission. Electron microscopy confirmed a presynaptic terminal location of Kv3.4-IR in the VH, IML, DVN, NA and NTS. Interestingly however, patches of Kv3.4-IR were also revealed postsynaptically in dendritic and somatic structures throughout these areas. This staining was striking due to its localization at synaptic junctions at terminals with morphological features consistent with excitatory functions, suggesting an association with the postsynaptic density. Therefore the pre and postsynaptic localization of Kv3.4-IR suggests a role both in the control of transmitter release and in regulating neuronal excitability.

High-threshold, Kv3-like potassium currents in magnocellular neurosecretory neurons and their role in spike repolarization

We identified Kv3-like high-threshold K+ currents in hypothalamic supraoptic neurons using whole cell recordings in hypothalamic slices and in acutely dissociated neurons. Tetraethylammonium (TEA)-sensitive currents (< 1 mM TEA) evoked from -50 mV were characterized by a large component that inactivated in 10-30 ms, and a smaller, persistent component that inactivated in 1-2 s. I/V relations in dissociated neurons revealed TEA-subtracted currents with a slope and voltage dependency consistent with the presence of Kv3-like channels. In slices, tests with 0.01-0.7 mM TEA produced an IC50 of 200-300 nM for both fast and persistent currents. The fast transient current was similar to currents associated with the expression of Kv3.4 subunits, given that it was sensitive to BDS-I (100 nM). The persistent TEA-sensitive current appeared similar to those attributed to Kv3.1/3.2 subunits. Although qualitatively similar, oxytocin (OT) and vasopressin (VP) neurons in slices differed in the stronger presence of persistent current in VP neurons. In both cell types, the IC50 for TEA-induced spike broadening was similar to that observed for current suppression in voltage clamp. However, TEA had a greater effect on the spike width of VP neurons than of OT neurons. Immunochemical studies revealed a stronger expression of the Kv3.1b alpha-subunit in VP neurons, which may be related to the greater importance of this current type in VP spike repolarization. Because OT and VP neurons are not considered fast firing, but do exhibit frequency- and calcium-dependent spike broadening, Kv3-like currents may be important for maintaining spike width and calcium influx within acceptable limits during repetitive firing.

Localization of voltage-gated ion channels in mammalian brain

The intrinsic electrical properties of neurons are shaped in large part by the action of voltage-gated ion channels. Molecular cloning studies have revealed a large family of ion channel genes, many of which are expressed in mammalian brain. Much recent effort has focused on determining the contribution of the protein products of these genes to neuronal function. This requires knowledge of the abundance and distribution of the constituent subunits of the channels in specific mammalian central neurons. Here we review progress made in recent studies aimed at localizing specific ion channel subunits using in situ hybridization and immunohistochemistry. We then discuss the implications of these results in terms of neuronal physiology and neuronal mechanisms underlying the observed patterns of expression.

Regulation of an inactivating potassium current (IA) by the extracellular matrix protein vitronectin in embryonic mouse hippocampal neurones

Integrins are a class of intrinsic membrane receptors for extracellular matrix ligands. In the central nervous system, integrins and their ligands influence neuronal growth and synaptic function, but relatively little is known about their potential to regulate intrinsic excitability. To explore this area, we examined the effects of matrix components on potassium currents in developing mouse hippocampal neurones, using electrophysiological and immunochemical approaches. We tested the effects of three integrin ligands present in the hippocampus, fibronectin, laminin and vitronectin, on electrogenesis in late embryonic hippocampal pyramidal neurones. Explants cultured in serum-free medium were exposed to ligands (fibronectin at 3 microg ml-1, laminin at 5 microg ml-1, vitronectin at 10 microg ml-1) for 3-4 days, and voltage-gated potassium currents were recorded from presumptive CA3 pyramidal neurones. Of the three matrix components, only vitronectin affected potassium currents, selectively increasing the amplitude of the inactivating potassium current (IA, or A-current) by about 75 % over control levels, and its density (current per unit area) by about 40 % (measured after 3 day exposures from embryonic day 15.5). Other potassium currents were spared, except to the extent that membrane area was increased. The actions of vitronectin were sensitive to RGD (Arg-Gly-Asp)-sequence-containing peptide, indicating the involvement of integrins as vitronectin receptors. The kinetic properties of IA, including the voltage-dependence of activation and inactivation, inactivation rate and the rate of recovery from inactivation, were minimally affected by vitronectin and were consistent with enhanced functional expression of Kv4-family subunits. Analyses of Kv4.2 and Kv1.4 immunoreactivity also suggested a preferential increase in Kv4.2 levels, with lesser effects on Kv1.4 levels. These results indicate that vitronectin can selectively regulate IA, and together with other observations suggest that modulation of neuronal excitability by integrins and their ligands occurs commonly.

Transcriptional profiling in human epilepsy: expression array and single cell real-time qRT-PCR analysis reveal distinct cellular gene regulation

Highly parallel expression monitoring by microarrays is a powerful tool to study human brain disorders. In contrast to various nonneuronal tissues, the CNS is composed of a multitude of different cell types. Changed mRNA levels in neuropathological conditions may simply reflect altered tissue composition, rather than specific gene transcription regulation. Therefore, it is crucial, to supplement expression array data of histologically heterogeneous brain samples with a detailed analysis at the cellular level. Here, we have used a two-step approach to identify specific changes in hippocampal gene expression in patients with a hippocampal seizure focus (TLE) and marked neuronal damage. Using comparative expression array hybridization, 21 genes appeared to be differentially regulated. Expression alterations of a subset of these genes, i.e. (up-regulation of ataxin-3 and glial fibrillary acid protein (GFAP) as well as down-regulation of calmodulin) was confirmed in an extended series of individuals by real-time quantitative RT-PCR (qRT-PCR). In order to determine the cellular localization of these mRNAs, we performed real-time qRT-PCR of individual laser-microdissected neurons and glial cells. While ataxin-3 was expressed only in hippocampal neurons, GFAP was detected in reactive astrocytes. The differential calmodulin expression found on the tissue level was not observed in mRNA analyses from single neurons, suggesting that lower calmodulin mRNA levels are a consequence of segmental cell loss and do not indicate reduced cellular expression. Ataxin-3 has been related to neuronal maintenance. Its functional role for TLE has to be further evaluated.

Emerging rules for the distributions of active dendritic conductances

A key goal in neuroscience is to explain how the operations of a neuron emerge from sets of active channels with specific dendritic distributions. If general principles can be identified for these distributions, dendritic channels should reflect the computational role of a given cell type within its functional neural circuit. Here, we discuss insights from experimental and computational data on the distribution of voltage-gated channels in dendrites, and attempt to derive rules for how their interactions implement different dendritic functions. We propose that this type of analysis will be important for understanding behavioural processes in terms of single-neuron properties, and that it constitutes a step towards a 'functional proteomics' of nerve cells, which will be essential for defining neuronal phenotypes.