Mechanism of angiogenic effects of saponin from ginseng Radix rubra in human umbilical vein endothelial cells

Biomaterials-Based Strategies to Enhance Angiogenesis in Diabetic Wound Healing

Amidst the present healthcare issues, diabetes is unique as an emerging class of affliction with chronicity in a majority of the population. To check and control its effects, there have been huge turnover and constant development of management strategies, and though a bigger part of the health care area is involved in achieving its control and the related issues such as the effect of diabetes on wound healing and care and many of the works have reached certain successful outcomes, still there is a huge lack in managing it, with maximum effect yet to be attained. Studying pathophysiology and involvement of various treatment options, such as tissue engineering, application of hydrogels, drug delivery methods, and enhancing angiogenesis, are at constantly developing stages either direct or indirect. In this review, we have gathered a wide field of information and different new therapeutic methods and targets for the scientific community, paving the way toward more settled ideas and research advances to cure diabetic wounds and manage their outcomes.

Hormesis: wound healing and fibroblasts

Hormetic dose responses are reported here to occur commonly in the dermal wound healing process, with the particular focus on cell viability, proliferation, migration and collagen deposition of human and murine fibroblasts with in vitro studies. Hormetic responses were induced by a wide range of substances, including endogenous agents, pharmaceutical preparations, plant-derived extracts including many well-known dietary supplements, as well as physical stressor agents such as low-level laser treatments. Detailed mechanistic studies have identified common signaling pathways and their cross-pathway communications that mediate the hormetic dose responses. These findings complement and extend a similar comprehensive assessment concerning the occurrence of hormetic dose responses in keratinocytes. These findings demonstrate the generality of the hormetic dose response for key wound healing endpoints, suggesting that the hormesis concept has a fundamental role in wound healing, with respect to guiding strategies for experimental evaluation as well as therapeutic applications.

Ginseng in vascular dysfunction: A review of therapeutic potentials and molecular mechanisms

Vascular dysfunction can lead to a variety of fatal diseases, including cardiovascular and cerebrovascular diseases, metabolic syndrome, and cancer. Although a large number of studies have reported the therapeutic effects of natural compounds on vascular-related diseases, ginseng is still the focus of research. Ginseng and its active substances have bioactive effects against different diseases with vascular dysfunction. In this review, we summarized the key molecular mechanisms and signaling pathways of ginseng, its different active ingredients or formula in the prevention and treatment of vascular-related diseases, including cardiac-cerebral vascular diseases, hypertension, diabetes complications, and cancer. Moreover, the bidirectional roles of ginseng in promoting or inhibiting angiogenesis have been highlighted. We systematically teased out the relationship between ginseng and vascular dysfunction, which could provide a basis for the clinical application of ginseng in the future.

Combination of Ginsenosides Rb2 and Rg3 Promotes Angiogenic Phenotype of Human Endothelial Cells via PI3K/Akt and MAPK/ERK Pathways

Shexiang Baoxin Pill (SBP) is an oral formulation of Chinese materia medica for the treatment of angina pectoris. It displays pleiotropic roles in protecting the cardiovascular system. However, the mode of action of SBP in promoting angiogenesis, and in particular the synergy between its constituents is currently not fully understood. The combination of ginsenosides Rb2 and Rg3 were studied in human umbilical vein endothelial cells (HUVECs) for their proangiogenic effects. To understand the mode of action of the combination in more mechanistic detail, RNA-Seq analysis was conducted, and differentially expressed genes (DEGs), pathway analysis and Weighted Gene Correlation Network Analysis (WGCNA) were applied to further identify important genes that a play pivotal role in the combination treatment. The effects of pathway-specific inhibitors were observed to provide further support for the hypothesized mode of action of the combination. Ginsenosides Rb2 and Rg3 synergistically promoted HUVEC proliferation and tube formation under defined culture conditions. Also, the combination of Rb2/Rg3 rescued cells from homocysteine-induced damage. mRNA expression of CXCL8, CYR61, FGF16 and FGFRL1 was significantly elevated by the Rb2/Rg3 treatment, and representative signaling pathways induced by these genes were found. The increase of protein levels of phosphorylated-Akt and ERK42/44 by the Rb2/Rg3 combination supports the notion that it promotes endothelial cell proliferation via the PI3K/Akt and MAPK/ERK signaling pathways. The present study provides the hypothesis that SBP, via ginsenosides Rb2 and Rg3, involves the CXCR1/2 CXCL8 (IL8)-mediated PI3K/Akt and MAPK/ERK signaling pathways in achieving its proangiogenic effects.

Hormesis and Ginseng: Ginseng Mixtures and Individual Constituents Commonly Display Hormesis Dose Responses, Especially for Neuroprotective Effects

This paper demonstrates that ginseng mixtures and individual ginseng chemical constituents commonly induce hormetic dose responses in numerous biological models for endpoints of biomedical and clinical relevance, typically providing a mechanistic framework. The principal focus of ginseng hormesis-related research has been directed toward enhancing neuroprotection against conditions such as Alzheimer's and Parkinson's Diseases, stroke damage, as well as enhancing spinal cord and peripheral neuronal damage repair and reducing pain. Ginseng was also shown to reduce symptoms of diabetes, prevent cardiovascular system damage, protect the kidney from toxicities due to immune suppressant drugs, and prevent corneal damage, amongst other examples. These findings complement similar hormetic-based chemoprotective reports for other widely used dietary-type supplements such as curcumin, ginkgo biloba, and green tea. These findings, which provide further support for the generality of the hormetic dose response in the biomedical literature, have potentially important public health and clinical implications.

Wound Healing and the Use of Medicinal Plants

Cutaneous wound healing is the process by which skin repairs itself. It is generally accepted that cutaneous wound healing can be divided into 4 phases: haemostasis, inflammation, proliferation, and remodelling. In humans, keratinocytes re-form a functional epidermis (reepithelialization) as rapidly as possible, closing the wound and reestablishing tissue homeostasis. Dermal fibroblasts migrate into the wound bed and proliferate, creating “granulation tissue” rich in extracellular matrix proteins and supporting the growth of new blood vessels. Ultimately, this is remodelled over an extended period, returning the injured tissue to a state similar to that before injury. Dysregulation in any phase of the wound healing cascade delays healing and may result in various skin pathologies, including nonhealing, or chronic ulceration. Indigenous and traditional medicines make extensive use of natural products and derivatives of natural products and provide more than half of all medicines consumed today throughout the world. Recognising the important role traditional medicine continues to play, we have undertaken an extensive survey of literature reporting the use of medical plants and plant-based products for cutaneous wounds. We describe the active ingredients, bioactivities, clinical uses, formulations, methods of preparation, and clinical value of 36 medical plant species. Several species stand out, including Centella asiatica, Curcuma longa, and Paeonia suffruticosa, which are popular wound healing products used by several cultures and ethnic groups. The popularity and evidence of continued use clearly indicates that there are still lessons to be learned from traditional practices. Hidden in the myriad of natural products and derivatives from natural products are undescribed reagents, unexplored combinations, and adjunct compounds that could have a place in the contemporary therapeutic inventory.

Effect of Panax ginseng extract on the activity of diabetic fibroblasts in vitro

Numerous studies have demonstrated the various medicinal properties of Panax ginseng, including angiogenic, immuno-stimulating, antimicrobial, and anti-inflammatory activities, which can be helpful in chronic wound healing. However, a direct role for P. ginseng in chronic wound healing has not been demonstrated. The present study was designed to evaluate the effects of P. ginseng extract on diabetic fibroblasts in vitro. Human diabetic fibroblasts were cultured in the presence of Ginsenoside Rb1 (G-Rb1), the active component in P. ginseng (10 ng/mL), and untreated diabetic fibroblasts were used as controls. Cell proliferation, collagen synthesis, the production of various growth factors (basic fibroblast growth factor [bFGF]; vascular endothelial growth factor [VEGF]; and transforming growth factor-β1 [TGF-β1]), and the synthesis of matrix metalloproteinase 1 (MMP-1) and tissue inhibitor of metalloproteinases 1 (TIMP-1) were compared using enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay and immunofluorescence staining. Compared with the control group, G-Rb1-treated fibroblasts showed significantly (P < 0.05) higher levels of cell proliferation, collagen synthesis, VEGF, TGF-β1, and TIMP-1. However, no significant differences in bFGF and MMP-1 levels were observed between the two groups. These results suggest that P. ginseng treatment may stimulate the wound-healing activity of diabetic fibroblasts in vitro.

The effect of Korean Red Ginseng on full-thickness skin wound healing in rats

Background

Panax ginseng is regarded as one of the best compounds for promoting health, and it has been used traditionally as a medicinal herb. Recently, Korean Red Ginseng (RG) has been shown to protect skin from aging and wrinkling; it can also relieve atopic dermatitis and allergy symptoms. This study aimed to evaluate RG's effects on the regeneration of the full-thickness skin wounds in rat.

Methods

Full-thickness skin wounds were generated in rats, and then RG was administered either orally or topically. The wound-healing effects of RG were investigated by assessing wound size, mRNA expression patterns of genes related to wound healing, histological staining, and measurements of lipid, moisture, and elasticity in skin tissues.

Results

The wound size was smaller, and tissue regeneration rate was faster in the RG-treated group than that in the control group on days 15 and 20 after initiating treatment. On postoperative day 20, skin lipid and moisture content had increased significantly in the RG-treated group. Significant increases in the gene expression levels of transforming growth factor-β1 and vascular endothelial growth factor were found in the RG group during the early stages of wound healing. Matrix metalloproteinase-1 and matrix metalloproteinase-9 showed significant increases in gene expression levels on day 20.

Conclusion

The results suggested that RG may promote healing of full-thickness skin wounds in rats. They also provided basic insights into the effects of RG on skin regeneration, supporting its use as a dressing material for wound treatment and its development as a functional food.

Polyphenol-based nutraceuticals for the control of angiogenesis: Analysis of the critical issues for human use

Angiogenesis, the formation of new blood-vessel, is crucial in the pathogenesis of several diseases, and thus represents a druggable target for the prevention and treatment of different disorders. It is nowadays well kwon how diet can control cancer development and progression, and how the use of certain diet components can prevent cancer development. Several studies, also from our lab, now indicate that natural plant products including nutraceuticals modulate tumor angiogenesis. In this review, it is reported how phytochemicals, comprising hydroxytyrosol, resveratrol, genistein, curcumin, and the green tea component epigallocatechin-3-gallate among the others, negatively regulate angiogenesis. A single plant-derived compound may affect both endothelial and tumor cells, with the common denominator of anti-inflammatory and radical scavenger activities. Beside these positive features, documented in cellular and animal models, a series of critical issues should be considered from a pharmacological point of view as: what is the best source of bioactive compounds: food and beverages, extracted phytocomplexes, isolated nutraceuticals or synthetic analogues? How is the bioavailability of the compounds of interest in relation to the above source? Is there any biological activity by circulating metabolic derivatives? What is the best formulation, administration route and posology? How safe are in humans? How strong and reliable are the clinical trials designed for their use alone or in combination with conventional chemotherapy? After a dissertation of these critical points, the conclusion can be drawn that novel and effective strategies should be optimized to improve their bioavailability and efficacy, considering their exploitation as chemopreventive and/or curative approaches.

Anti-inflammatory and Wound Healing Activities of Aloe vera, Honey and Milk Ointment on Second-Degree Burns in Rats

The aim of the present study was morphological and morphometric investigation of burn healing impacts of an honey, milk, and Aloe vera (HMA) ointment on experimentally induced second-degree burns, to approve the medicinal basis of its use in Iranian traditional medicine. A total of 21 male Albino rats weighing 200 to 300 g were divided into 3 groups of 7, including (1) control group, (2) positive control group, and (3) the treatment group that were treated with eucerin, silver sulfadiazine 3% and HMA ointment 5% respectively.After anesthetizing, the second-degree burns (1 cm2 areas) were made on the back of the animals using a digital controlled hot plaque, and each group was treated topically, based on the time scheduled. Then, skin punch biopsies were obtained on the 1st, 14th, and 28th days of post–burn induction; processed; and stained using hematoxylin and eosin and Masson’s trichrome methods. The results showed that HMA ointment induces cell proliferation, increasing the wound closure rate, blood vessel counts, and collagen fiber density in treated animals. It also reduced the wound secretions, inflammation, and scar formation. According to the obtained morphological, morphometric results, we concluded that the traditional HMA ointment, which is rich in therapeutic biomaterials and minerals, has multiple healing effects on burn wounds in rats.

Plants and their active compounds: natural molecules to target angiogenesis

Angiogenesis, or new blood vessel formation, is an important process in the pathogenesis of several diseases and thus has been targeted for the prevention and treatment for many disorders. However, the anti-angiogenic agents that are currently in use are mainly synthetic compounds and humanized monoclonal antibodies, which are either expensive or toxic, thereby limiting their use in many patients. Therefore, it is necessary to identify less toxic, inexpensive, novel and effective anti-angiogenic molecules. Several studies have indicated that natural plant products can meet these criteria. In this review, we discuss the anti-angiogenic properties of natural compounds isolated from plants and the molecular mechanisms by which these molecules act. Finally, we summarize the advantages of using plant products as anti-angiogenic agents. Compared with currently available anti-angiogenic drugs, plant products may not only have similar therapeutic potential but are also inexpensive, less toxic, and easy to administer. However, novel and effective strategies are necessary to improve their bioavailability for clinical use.

Effects of gintonin on the proliferation, migration, and tube formation of human umbilical-vein endothelial cells: involvement of lysophosphatidic-acid receptors and vascular-endothelial-growth-factor signaling

Background

Ginseng extracts are known to have angiogenic effects. However, to date, only limited information is available on the molecular mechanism underlying the angiogenic effects and the main components of ginseng that exert these effects. Human umbilical-vein endothelial cells (HUVECs) are used as an in vitro model for screening therapeutic agents that promote angiogenesis and wound healing. We recently isolated gintonin, a novel ginseng-derived lysophosphatidic acid (LPA) receptor ligand, from ginseng. LPA plays a key role in angiogenesis and wound healing.

Methods

In the present study, we investigated the in vitro effects of gintonin on proliferation, migration, and tube formation of HUVECs, which express endogenous LPA1/3 receptors.

Results

Gintonin stimulated proliferation and migration of HUVECs. The LPA1/3 receptor antagonist, Ki16425, short interfering RNA against LPA1 or LPA3 receptor, and the Rho kinase inhibitor, Y-27632, significantly decreased the gintonin-induced proliferation, migration, and tube formation of HUVECs, which indicates the involvement of LPA receptors and Rho kinase activation. Further, gintonin increased the release of vascular endothelial growth factors from HUVECs. The cyclooxygenase-2 inhibitor NS-398, nuclear factor kappa B inhibitor BAY11-7085, and c-Jun N-terminal kinase inhibitor SP600125 blocked the gintonin-induced migration, which shows the involvement of cyclooxygenase-2, nuclear factor kappa B, and c-Jun N-terminal kinase signaling.

Conclusion

The gintonin-mediated proliferation, migration, and vascular-endothelial-growth-factor release in HUVECs via LPA-receptor activation may be one of in vitro mechanisms underlying ginseng-induced angiogenic and wound-healing effects.

Effects of Panax ginseng extract on human dermal fibroblast proliferation and collagen synthesis

Current studies of Panax ginseng (or Korean ginseng) have demonstrated that it has various biological effects, including angiogenesis, immunostimulation, antimicrobial and anti-inflammatory effects. Therefore, we hypothesised that P. ginseng may also play an important role in wound healing. However, few studies have been conducted on the wound-healing effects of P. ginseng. Thus, the purpose of this in vitro pilot study was to determine the effects of P. ginseng on the activities of fibroblasts, which are key wound-healing cells. Cultured human dermal fibroblasts were treated with one of six concentrations of P. ginseng: 0, 1, 10 and 100 ng/ml and 1 and 10 µg/ml. Cell proliferation was determined 3 days post-treatment using the 3-(4, 5-dimethylthiazol-2-yl)-2, 5-diphenyl tetrazolium bromide assay, and collagen synthesis was evaluated by the collagen type I carboxy-terminal propeptide method. Cell proliferation levels and collagen synthesis were compared among the groups. The 10 ng/ml to 1 µg/ml P. ginseng treatments significantly increased cell proliferation, and the 1 ng/ml to 1 µg/ml concentrations significantly increased collagen synthesis. The maximum effects for both parameters were observed at 10 ng/ml. P. ginseng stimulated human dermal fibroblast proliferation and collagen synthesis at an optimal concentration of 10 ng/ml.

Effect of Korean Red Ginseng treatment on the gene expression profile of diabetic rat retina

Background

Korean Red Ginseng (KRG) is a herbal medicine used in Asian countries and is very popular for its beneficial biological properties. Diabetes mellitus (DM) and its complications are rapidly becoming a global public health concern. The literature on transcriptional changes induced by KRG in rat models of diabetic retinopathy is limited. Considering these facts, we designed this study to determine whether retinopathy-associated genes are altered in retinas of rats with DM and whether the induced changes are reversed by KRG.

Methods

Male Sprague–Dawley rats were intravenously injected with streptozotocin (50 mg/kg body weight) to induce DM, following which, KRG powder (200 mg/kg body weight) was orally administered to the KRG-treated DM rat group for 10 wks. The rats were then sacrificed, and their retinas were harvested for total RNA extraction. Microarray gene expression profiling was performed on the extracted RNA samples.

Results

From among > 31,000 genes investigated, the expression of 268 genes was observed to be upregulated and that of 58 genes was downregulated, with twofold altered expression levels in the DM group compared with those in the control group. Moreover, 39 genes were upregulated more than twofold and 84 genes were downregulated in the KRG-treated group compared to the DM group. The expression of the genes was significantly reversed by KRG treatment; some of these genes were analyzed further to verify the results of the microarray experiments.

Conclusion

Taken together, our data suggest that reversed changes in the gene expression may mediate alleviating activities of KRG in rats with diabetic retinopathy.

Momordica charantia ointment accelerates diabetic wound healing and enhances transforming growth factor-β expression

OBJECTIVE

Transforming growth factor-β (TGF-β) plays an important role in wound healing. Delayed wound healing is a consequence of diabetes, leading to high morbidity and poor quality of life. Momordica charantia (MC) fruit possesses anti-diabetic and wound healing properties. This study aimed to explore the changes in TGF-β expression in diabetic wounds treated with topical MC fruit extract.

METHODS

Fifty-six male Sprague-Dawley rats were divided into a normal control group and five diabetic groups of ten rats each. Intravenous streptozotocin (50mg/kg) was given to induce diabetes in the diabetic groups. Full thickness excision wounds were created on the thoracodorsal region of the animals, and these wounds were then treated with vehicle, MC powder, MC ointment and povidone ointment or ointment base for ten days. Wound healing was determined by the rate of wound closure, total protein content and TGF-β expression in the wounds, and histological observation.

RESULTS

Diabetic groups showed delayed wound closure rates compared to the control group. The wound closure rate in the MC ointment group was significantly faster than that of the untreated diabetic group (p<0.05). The MC ointment group also showed intense TGF-β expression and a high level of total protein content.

CONCLUSION

MC ointment has a promising potential for use as an alternative topical medication for diabetic wounds. This work has shown that it accelerates wound healing in diabetic rats, and it is suggested here that this occurs by enhancing TGF-β expression. Further work is recommended to explore this effect.

Parenteral administration of GnRH constructs and adjuvants: immune responses and effects on reproductive tissues of male mice

Two gonadotrophin releasing hormone (GnRH) constructs prepared by either chemical conjugation to keyhole limpet hemocyanin (GnRH-KLH) or as an expressed recombinant fusion protein (Multimer) were evaluated with or without adjuvants (immunostimulating complexes, ISCOMs, or cytosine-phosphate-guanosine oligodeoxynucleotides, CpG ODNs). After subcutaneous administration to Balb/c male mice at Weeks 0, 2 and 4, these preparations were assessed for induction of immune responses and effects on reproductive organs. GnRH-KLH plus ISCOMs formulation induced strong IgG immune responses from Week 4 through Week 12 resulting in consistent reproductive organ atrophy by Week 12 after subcutaneous administration. GnRH-KLH plus CpG ODNs generated immune responses but no atrophy of reproductive tissues by Week 12. Multimer plus ISCOMs induced poor immune responses and no effects on reproductive tissues by Week 12. In the absence of additional adjuvant, none of the GnRH constructs induced reproductive organ atrophy. GnRH-KLH induced stronger immune responses when formulated with ISCOMs or CpG ODN compared to Multimer. GnRH-KLH with ISCOMs could be an effective colloidal alternative for emulsion GnRH vaccine formulations.

Protective effect of Korean Red Ginseng against glucocorticoid-induced osteoporosis in vitro and in vivo

Background

Glucocorticoids (GCs) are commonly used in many chemotherapeutic protocols and play an important role in the normal regulation of bone remodeling. However, the prolonged use of GCs results in osteoporosis, which is partially due to apoptosis of osteoblasts and osteocytes. In this study, effects of Korean Red Ginseng (KRG) on GC-treated murine osteoblastic MC3T3-E1 cells and a GC-induced osteoporosis mouse model were investigated.

Methods

MC3T3-E1 cells were exposed to dexamethasone (Dex) with or without KRG and cell viability was measured by the 3-(4, 5-dimethylthiazol-2-yl)-2, 5-diphenyltetrazolium bromide (MTT) assay. Real-time polymerase chain reaction was performed to evaluate the apoptotic gene expression; osteogenic gene expression and alkaline phosphatase (ALP) activity were also measured. Western blotting was performed to evaluate the mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) proteins. A GC-induced osteoporosis animal model was used for in vivo study.

Results and conclusion

The MTT assay revealed that Korean Red Ginseng (KRG) prevents loss of cell viability caused by Dex-induced apoptosis in MC3T3E1 cells. Real-time polymerase chain reaction data showed that groups treated with both Dex and KRG exhibited lower mRNA levels of caspase-3 and -9, whereas the mRNA levels of Bcl2, IAPs, and XIAP increased. Moreover, groups treated with both Dex and KRG demonstrated increased mRNA levels of ALP, RUNX2, and bone morphogenic proteins as well as increased ALP activity in MC3T3-E1 cells, compared to cells treated with Dex only. In addition, KRG increased protein kinase B (AKT) phosphorylation and decreased c-Jun N-terminal kinase (JNK) phosphorylation. Moreover, microcomputed tomography analysis of the femurs showed that GC implantation caused trabecular bone loss. However, a significant reduction of bone loss was observed in the KRG-treated group. These results suggest that the molecular mechanism of KRG in the GC-induced apoptosis may lead to the development of therapeutic strategies to prevent and/or delay osteoporosis.

The efficacy of combined herbal extracts gel preparation in the prevention of postsurgical hypertrophic scar formation

Introduction

The objective of preventing surgical scar formation is to improve the quality of life for patients. Many medical products have been used in preventing hypertrophic scarring but an optimal treatment method has not been established yet. At the present, there are several studies demonstrating the potential of herbs in scar prevention. The purpose of this study was to evaluate the efficacy of combined herbal extracts gel (CHG) in the prevention of surgical scar formation.

Methods

All the patients who underwent bilaterally symmetric surgical procedures were selected using inclusion and exclusion criteria and were then treated with both the CHG (CHG group) and placebo gel. Each gel was applied on separate scars twice daily for 12 weeks. The scars were photographed and evaluated using Patient and Observer Scar Assessment Scale (PSAS and OSAS, respectively).

Results

The CHG-treated scars showed lower median PSAS scores than the placebo group in color, stiffness, thickness, irregularity, and overall scores, with statistically significant difference at 12 weeks. For OSAS, the scars in the CHG group showed lower median scores than the placebo group in pigmentation, thickness, and overall scores at 12 weeks. The median OSAS scores in vascularity, relief, and pliability differed from placebo group and were statistically significant at 8 weeks. No side effects were observed in either group.

Conclusion

The CHG might be effective in the prevention of surgical scarring.

Electronic supplementary material

The online version of this article (doi:10.1007/s13555-014-0055-0) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

Jaceosidin, a natural flavone, promotes angiogenesis via activation of VEGFR2/FAK/PI3K/AKT/NF-κB signaling pathways in endothelial cells

Angiogenesis, the growth of new blood vessels from pre-existing vasculature, plays an important role in physiological and pathological processes such as embryonic development wound healing and revascularization of tissues after exposure to ischemia. We investigated the effects of jaceosidin, a main constituent of medicinal herbs of the genus Artemisia, on angiogenesis and signaling pathways in endothelial cells. Jaceosidin stimulated proliferation, migration and tubulogenesis of ECs as well as ex vivo sprouting from aorta rings, which are phenomena typical of angiogenesis. Jaceosidin activated vascular endothelial growth factor receptor 2 (VEGFR2, FLk-1/KDR) and angiogenic signaling molecules such as focal adhesion kinase, phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase, and its downstream target, the serine-threonine kinase AKTWe also demonstrated that jaceosidin activated the NF-κB-driven expression of a luciferase reporter gene and NF-κB binding to DNA. Jaceosidin-induced proliferation and migration of human umbilical vascular endothelial cells were strongly inhibited by the phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase inhibitor LY294002 and NF-κB inhibitor BAY11-7082, indicating that the PI3K/AKT/NF-κB signaling pathway is involved in jaceosidin-induced angiogenesis. Our results suggest that jaceosidin stimulates angiogenesis by activating the VEGFR2/FAK/PI3K/AKT/NF-κB signaling pathway and that it may be useful in developing angiogenic agents to promote the growth of collateral blood vessels in ischemic tissues.

Effects of Korean Red Ginseng extract on tissue plasminogen activator and plasminogen activator inhibitor-1 expression in cultured rat primary astrocytes

Korean Red Ginseng (KRG) is an oriental herbal preparation obtained from Panax ginseng Meyer (Araliaceae). To expand our understanding of the action of KRG on central nervous system (CNS) function, we examined the effects of KRG on tissue plasminogen activator (tPA)/plasminogen activator inhibitor-1 (PAI-1) expression in rat primary astrocytes. KRG extract was treated in cultured rat primary astrocytes and neuron in a concentration range of 0.1 to 1.0 mg/mL and the expression of functional tPA/PAI-1 was examined by casein zymography, Western blot and reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction. KRG extracts increased PAI-1 expression in rat primary astrocytes in a concentration dependent manner (0.1 to 1.0 mg/mL) without affecting the expression of tPA itself. Treatment of 1.0 mg/mL KRG increased PAI-1 protein expression in rat primary astrocytes to 319.3±65.9% as compared with control. The increased PAI-1 expression mediated the overall decrease in tPA activity in rat primary astrocytes. Due to the lack of PAI-1 expression in neuron, KRG did not affect tPA activity in neuron. KRG treatment induced a concentration dependent activation of PI3K, p38, ERK1/2, and JNK in rat primary astrocytes and treatment of PI3K or MAPK inhibitors such as LY294002, U0126, SB203580, and SP600125 (10 μM each), significantly inhibited 1.0 mg/mL KRG-induced expression of PAI- 1 and down-regulation of tPA activity in rat primary astrocytes. Furthermore, compound K but not other ginsenosides such as Rb1 and Rg1 induced PAI-1 expression. KRG-induced up-regulation of PAI-1 in astrocytes may play important role in the regulation of overall tPA activity in brain, which might underlie some of the beneficial effects of KRG on CNS such as neuroprotection in ischemia and brain damaging condition as well as prevention or recovery from addiction.

Effects of ginsenoside Rb₁ on skin changes

Ginseng roots (Panax ginseng CA Meyer) have been used traditionally for the treatment, especially prevention, of various diseases in China, Korea, and Japan. Both experimental and clinical studies suggest ginseng roots to have pharmacological effects in patients with life-style-related diseases such as non-insulin-dependent diabetic mellitus, atherosclerosis, hyperlipidemia, and hypertension. The topical use of ginseng roots to treat skin complaints including atopic suppurative dermatitis, wounds, and inflammation is also described in ancient Chinese texts; however, there have been relatively few studies in this area. In the present paper, we describe introduce the biological and pharmacological effects of ginsenoside Rb₁ isolated from Red ginseng roots on skin damage caused by burn-wounds using male Balb/c mice (in vivo) and by ultraviolet B irradiation using male C57BL/6J and albino hairless (HR-1) mice (in vivo). Furthermore, to clarify the mechanisms behind these pharmacological actions, human primary keratinocytes and the human keratinocyte cell line HaCaT were used in experiments in vitro.

Therapeutic potential of ginseng in the management of cardiovascular disorders

Although employed in Asian societies for thousands of years, the use of ginseng as an herbal medication for a variety of disorders has increased tremendously worldwide in recent years. Ginseng belongs to the genus Panax, of which there exists a variety, generally reflecting their geographic origin. North American ginseng (Panax quinquefolius) and Asian ginseng (Panax ginseng) are two such varieties possessing a plethora of pharmacological properties, which are attributed primarily to the presence of different ginsenosides that bestow these ginsengs with distinct pharmacodynamic profiles. The many cardiovascular benefits attributed to ginseng include cardioprotection, antihypertensive effects, and attenuation of myocardial hypertrophy and heart failure. Experimental studies have revealed a number of beneficial properties of ginseng, particularly in the area of cardiac protection, where ginseng and ginsenosides have been shown to protect the ischaemic and reperfused heart in a variety of experimental models. Emerging evidence also suggests that ginseng attenuates myocardial hypertrophy, thus blunting the remodelling and heart failure processes. However, clinical evidence of efficacy is not convincing, likely owing primarily to the paucity of well designed, randomized, controlled clinical trials. Adding to the complexity in understanding the cardiovascular effects of ginseng is the fact that each of the different ginseng varieties possesses distinct cardiovascular properties, as a result of their respective ginsenoside composition, rendering it difficult to assign a general, common cardiovascular effect to ginseng. Additional challenges include the identification of mechanisms (likely multifaceted) that account for the effects of ginseng and determining which ginsenoside(s) mediate these cardiovascular properties. These concerns notwithstanding, the potential cardiovascular benefit of ginseng is worthy of further studies in view of its possible development as a cardiovascular therapeutic agent, particularly as adjunctive therapy to existing medications.

Protective effects of a gastrointestinal agent containing Korean red ginseng on gastric ulcer models in mice

Background

Korean red ginseng (KRG) is a ginseng that has been cultivated and aged for 4-6 years or more, and goes through an extensive cleaning, steaming and drying process. KRG contains more than 30 kinds of saponin components and has been reported as having various biological properties, such as anti-fatigue action, immune restoration, and neurovegetative effect. The purpose of this study was to assess the effects of a KRG-containing drug (KRGCD) on gastric ulcer models in mice.

Methods

Stomach ulcers were induced by oral ingestion of hydrochloride (HCl)/ethanol or indomethacin. Treatment with KRGCD (30, 100, and 300 mg/kg, p.o.) occurred 1 hr before the ulcer induction. Effect of KRGCD on anti-oxidant activity and gastric mucosal blood flow with a laser Doppler flowmeter in mice stomach tissue was evaluated.

Results

KRGCD (100 and 300 mg/kg, p.o.) significantly decreased ethanol- and indomethacin-induced gastric ulcer compared with the vehicle-treated (control) group. KRGCD (100 and 300 mg/kg) also decreased the level of thiobarbituric acid reactive substance (TBARS) and increased gastric mucosal blood flow compared with the control group.

Conclusions

These results suggest that the gastroprotective effects of KRGCD on mice ulcer models can be attributed to its ameliorating effect on oxidative damage and improving effect of gastric mucosal blood flow.

Water extract of Korean red ginseng stimulates angiogenesis by activating the PI3K/Akt-dependent ERK1/2 and eNOS pathways in human umbilical vein endothelial cells

Angiogenesis is important for promoting cardiovascular disease, wound healing, and tissue regeneration. We investigated the effects of Korean red ginseng water extract (KRGE) on angiogenesis and its underlying signal mechanism. KRGE increased in vitro proliferation, migration, and tube formation of human umbilical vein endothelial cells, as well as stimulated in vivo angiogenesis without increasing VEGF expression. KRGE-induced angiogenesis was accompanied by phosphorylation of ERK1/2, phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase (Akt), and endothelial nitric oxide synthase (eNOS) as well as an increase in NO production. Inhibition of PI3K activity by wortmannin completely inhibited KRGE-induced angiogenesis and phosphorylation of Akt, ERK1/2, and eNOS, indicating that PI3K/Akt activation is an upstream event of the KRGE-mediated angiogenic pathway. The MEK inhibitor PD98059 blocked KRGE-induced ERK1/2 phosphorylation without affecting Akt and eNOS activation. However, the eNOS inhibitor N(G)-monomethyl-L-arginine effectively inhibited tube formation, but partially blocked proliferation and migration as well as ERK phosphorylation, without altering Akt and eNOS activation, revealing that the eNOS/NO pathway is partially involved in ERK1/2 activation. This study demonstrated that KRGE stimulates in vitro and in vivo angiogenesis through the activation of the PI3K/Akt-dependent ERK1/2 and eNOS signal pathways and their cross talk.

Gelatin microspheres encapsulated with a nonpeptide angiogenic agent, ginsenoside Rg1, for intramyocardial injection in a rat model with infarcted myocardium

Angiogenic therapies may need to select a stable agent to be delivered. In the study, a nonpeptide angiogenic agent, ginsenoside Rg(1) (Rg(1)), was encapsulated in the gelatin microspheres (MSs) crosslinked with genipin and intramuscularly injected into a rat model with infarcted myocardium. bFGF was used as a control. After swelling in an aqueous environment, the MSs without crosslinking became collapsed and stuck together. For those crosslinked, the swollen MSs appeared to be more stable with an increasing the degree of crosslinking. After it was released from MSs in vitro, the remaining activity of bFGF on HUVEC proliferation reduced significantly, while that of Rg(1) remained constant. An inspection of the retrieved hearts revealed a large aneurysmal left ventricle (LV) with a thinned myocardium and a significant myocardial fibrosis for that treated with the Empty MSs (without drug encapsulation). However, those receiving the MSs encapsulated with bFGF or Rg(1) attenuated the enlargement of the LV cavity and the development of myocardial fibrosis. The densities of microvessels found in the border zones of the infarct treated with the bFGF or Rg(1) MSs were significantly greater than that treated with the Empty MSs. These results indicated that Rg(1), a stable angiogenic agent, successfully enhanced the myocardial perfusion and preserved the infarcted LV function.

Pharmacogenomics and the Yin/Yang actions of ginseng: anti-tumor, angiomodulating and steroid-like activities of ginsenosides

In Chinese medicine, ginseng (Panax ginseng C.A. Meyer) has long been used as a general tonic or an adaptogen to promote longevity and enhance bodily functions. It has also been claimed to be effective in combating stress, fatigue, oxidants, cancer and diabetes mellitus. Most of the pharmacological actions of ginseng are attributed to one type of its constituents, namely the ginsenosides. In this review, we focus on the recent advances in the study of ginsenosides on angiogenesis which is related to many pathological conditions including tumor progression and cardiovascular dysfunctions. Angiogenesis in the human body is regulated by two sets of counteracting factors, angiogenic stimulators and inhibitors. The 'Yin and Yang' action of ginseng on angiomodulation was paralleled by the experimental data showing angiogenesis was indeed related to the compositional ratio between ginsenosides Rg1 and Rb1. Rg1 was later found to stimulate angiogenesis through augmenting the production of nitric oxide (NO) and vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF). Mechanistic studies revealed that such responses were mediated through the PI3K-->Akt pathway. By means of DNA microarray, a group of genes related to cell adhesion, migration and cytoskeleton were found to be up-regulated in endothelial cells. These gene products may interact in a hierarchical cascade pattern to modulate cell architectural dynamics which is concomitant to the observed phenomena in angiogenesis. By contrast, the anti-tumor and anti-angiogenic effects of ginsenosides (e.g. Rg3 and Rh2) have been demonstrated in various models of tumor and endothelial cells, indicating that ginsenosides with opposing activities are present in ginseng. Ginsenosides and Panax ginseng extracts have been shown to exert protective effects on vascular dysfunctions, such as hypertension, atherosclerotic disorders and ischemic injury. Recent work has demonstrates the target molecules of ginsenosides to be a group of nuclear steroid hormone receptors. These lines of evidence support that the interaction between ginsenosides and various nuclear steroid hormone receptors may explain the diverse pharmacological activities of ginseng. These findings may also lead to development of more efficacious ginseng-derived therapeutics for angiogenesis-related diseases.

Stability of angiogenic agents, ginsenoside Rg1 and Re, isolated from Panax ginseng: In vitro and in vivo studies

The study was designed to investigate the stability of ginsenoside Rg(1) (Rg(1)) and Re (Re), two natural herbal compounds isolated from Panax ginseng, based on their activity to promote angiogenesis in vitro and in vivo. After being treated at different temperatures, pHs, and solvent species for distinct durations, the remaining activities of Rg(1) and Re on human umbilical vein endothelial cell (HUVEC) proliferation, migration, and tube formation were examined in vitro. Additionally, the remaining activity of each treated test agent, mixed in a growth factor-reduced Matrigel, in stimulating angiogenesis was evaluated subcutaneously in a mouse model. Basic fibroblast growth factor (bFGF) was used as a control. It was found in vitro that HUVEC proliferation, migration in a Transwell plate, and tube formation on Matrigel were all significantly enhanced in the presence of bFGF, Rg(1), or Re. However, after being treated at different temperatures, pHs, or solvent species, the remaining activity of bFGF on HUVEC behaviors reduced significantly. This observation was more significant with increasing the duration of treatment. In contrast, the activities of Rg(1) and Re remained unchanged throughout the entire course of the study. The in vivo results observed on day 7 after implantation showed that the blank control (Matrigel alone) was slightly vascularized. In contrast, the density of neo-vessels in the Matrigel plug mixed with bFGF, Rg(1), or Re was significantly enhanced. However, after being treated, the density of neo-vessels was significantly reduced in the Matrigel plug mixed with bFGF, while those of Rg(1) and Re remained unchanged. The aforementioned results suggested that Rg(1) and Re could be a novel group of nonpeptide angiogenic agents with a superior stability and may be used for the management of tissue regeneration.

Mesothelium regeneration on acellular bovine pericardia loaded with an angiogenic agent (ginsenoside Rg1) successfully reduces postsurgical pericardial adhesions

OBJECTIVE

Our objective was to reduce postsurgical pericardial adhesions with porous acellular bovine pericardia loaded with ginsenoside Rg1, an angiogenic agent isolated from Panax ginseng (the Acellular/Rg1 patch).

METHODS

The acellular/Rg1 patch was used as a substitute to repair a defect created in the pericardium of a rabbit model. A commercially available expanded polytetrafluoroethylene patch, the cellular pericardium (the cellular patch), and the acellular pericardium without loading Rg1 (the acellular patch) were used as controls. The implanted samples were retrieved at 1 and 3 months after surgery (n = 5 per group at each time point).

RESULTS

It was found that each side of the implanted patch could be remesothelialized provided that regeneration of neo-tissue fibrils occurred initially on its surfaces. Because remesothelialization did not take place on the surfaces of the expanded polytetrafluoroethylene and cellular patches, moderate to severe adhesions to the lung and epicardium were clearly observed. As compared with the cellular patch, the acellular patch significantly reduced postsurgical pericardial adhesions, especially on its lung side, as a result of remesothelialization. In the presence of Rg1, a faster remesothelialization was observed on each side of the acellular/Rg1 patch. Therefore, the acellular/Rg1 patch was free of any adhesions to the lung; however, there was still a filmy adhesion to the epicardium observed in 3 of the 5 studied animals at 3 months after surgery, due to incomplete remesothelialization.

CONCLUSIONS

The acellular/Rg1 patch effectively repaired pericardial defects in rabbits and successfully reduced the formation of pericardial adhesions.

20(S)-Ginsenoside Rg3 prevents endothelial cell apoptosis via inhibition of a mitochondrial caspase pathway

Ginseng, refering to the roots of the species of the genus Panax ginseng, has been widely used in traditional oriental medicine for its wide spectrum of medicinal effects, such as anti-inflammatory, anti-tumorigenic, adaptogenic, and anti-aging activities. Many of its medicinal effects are attributed to the triterpene glycosides known as ginsenosides. In this study, we report a novel anti-apoptotic activity of 20(S)-ginsenoside Rg3 ((20S)Rg3) and its underlying molecular mechanism in human endothelial cells (ECs). ECs undergo apoptosis associated with increased LEHDase (caspase-9) and DEVDase (caspase-3) activity and DNA fragmentation after 24h of serum deprivation. These apoptotic markers were suppressed by the addition of (20S)Rg3. (20S)Rg3 increased the expression of Bax and conversely decreased Bcl-2. (20S)Rg3 potently induced a rapid and sustained Akt activation and Bad phosphorylation, resulting in the inhibition of mitochondrial cytochrome c release. These anti-apoptotic activities of (20S)Rg3 were significantly abrogated in cells expressing dominant negative Akt. Taken together, our results suggest that (20S)Rg3 prevents EC apoptosis via Akt-dependent inhibition of the mitochondrial apoptotic signaling pathway. The novel property of (20S)Rg3 may be valuable for developing new pharmaceutical means that will control unwanted endothelial cell death at the site of vascular injury.

Effects of ginseng saponins isolated from Red Ginseng roots on burn wound healing in mice

1. We recently demonstrated that ginsenoside Rb1 (C54H92O23, molecular weight 1108) isolated from ginseng, when intravenously infused into rats with permanent middle cerebral artery occlusion, reduced cerebral infarct volume and ameliorated place navigation disability of the animals, through an anti-apoptotic action and possibly promotion of vascular regeneration. To investigate the ginsenoside Rb1-mediated vascular regeneration in vivo in a more easily accessible experimental systems, we made a burn wound on the backs of mice and topically applied either Vaseline (vehicle) alone or Vaseline containing low doses of ginsenoside Rb1 to the wound. 2. Surprisingly, we found that ginsenoside Rb1 at low concentrations (100 pg g(-1), 1 pg g(-1) and 10 fg g(-1) ointment) exhibited the strongest burn wound-healing action. Furthermore, ginsenoside Rb1 (100 fg-1 ng per wound) increased neovascularization in the surrounding tissue and production of vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) and interleukin (IL)-1beta from the burn wound, compared to those mice with burn wounds treated with vehicle alone. 3. In human keratinocyte cultures (HaCaT cells), ginsenoside Rb1 (100 fg ml(-1) to 1 ng ml(-1)) enhanced VEGF production induced by IL-1beta and expression of hypoxia-inducible factor (HIF)-1alpha. 4. These findings suggest that the promotion of burn wound healing by ginsenoside Rb1 might be due to the promotion of angiogenesis during skin wound repair via the stimulation of VEGF production, through the increase of HIF-1alpha expression in keratinocytes, and due to the elevation of IL-1beta resulting from the macrophage accumulation in the burn wound.

Angiogenesis: from plants to blood vessels

Angiogenesis is a major pathological component of diseases such as cancer and coronary heart disease. Although major advances have been made and encouraging clinical results obtained, safer and more effective approaches are required. The identification of new drugs from plants has a long and successful history, and certain proangiogenic and antiangiogenic plant components have been used in traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) for thousands of years. Similar to Western combination therapy, TCM uses mixtures of plant extracts, termed fufang, to maximize efficacy and minimize adverse effects or toxicity. More evidence-based research and chemical optimization of these compounds could further enhance the effectiveness of these plant-based medicines in angiotherapy.

Elucidation of the mechanisms underlying the angiogenic effects of ginsenoside Rg(1) in vivo and in vitro

The major active constituents of ginseng are ginsenosides, and Rg(1) is a predominant compound of the total extract. Recent studies have demonstrated that Rg(1) can promote angiogenesis in vivo and in vitro. In this study, we used a DNA microarray technology to elucidate the mechanisms of action of Rg(1). We report that Rg(1) induces the proliferation of HUVECs, monitored using [(3)H]-thymidine incorporation and Trypan blue exclusion assays. Furthermore, Rg(1) (150-600 nM) also showed an enhanced tube forming inducing effect on the HUVEC. Rg(1) was also demonstrated to promote angiogenesis in an in vivo Matrigel plug assay, and increase endothelial sprouting in the ex vivo rat aorta ring assay. Differential gene expression profile of HUVEC following treatment with Rg(1) revealed the expression of genes related to cell adhesion, migration and cytoskeleton, including RhoA, RhoB, IQGAP1, CALM2, Vav2 and LAMA4. Our results suggest that Rg(1) can promote angiogenesis in multiple models, and this effect is partly due to the modulation of genes that are involved in the cytoskeletal dynamics, cell-cell adhesion and migration.

A Natural Compound (Ginsenoside Re) Isolated from Panax ginseng as a Novel Angiogenic Agent for Tissue Regeneration

PURPOSE

The primary challenge for tissue engineering is to develop a vascular supply that can support the metabolic needs of the engineered tissues in an extracellular matrix. In this study, the feasibility of using a natural compound, ginsenoside Re, isolated from Panax ginseng in stimulating angiogenesis and for tissue regeneration was evaluated.

METHODS

Effects of ginsenoside Re on the proliferation, migration, and tube formation of human umbilical vein endothelial cells (HUVECs) were examined in vitro. Additionally, angiogenesis and tissue regeneration in a genipin-fixed porous acellular bovine pericardium (extracellular matrix; ECM) incorporated with ginsenoside Re implanted subcutaneously in a rat model were investigated. Basic fibroblast growth factor (bFGF) was used as a control.

RESULTS

It was found that HUVEC proliferation, migration in a Transwell plate, and tube formation on Matrigel were all significantly enhanced in the presence of bFGF or ginsenoside Re. Additionally, effects of ginsenoside Re on HUVEC proliferation, migration, and tube formation were dose-dependent and reached a maximal level at a concentration of about 30 microg/ml. The in vivo results obtained at 1 week postoperatively showed that the density of neocapillaries and the tissue hemoglobin content in the ECMs were significantly enhanced by bFGF or ginsenoside Re. These results indicated that angiogenesis in the ECMs was significantly enhanced by loading with bFGF or ginsenoside Re. At 1 month postoperatively, vascularzied neo-connective-tissue fibrils were found to fill the pores in the ECMs loaded with bFGF or ginsenoside Re.

CONCLUSIONS

The aforementioned results indicated that like bFGF, ginsenoside Re-associated induction of angiogenesis enhanced tissue regeneration, supporting the concept of therapeutic angiogenesis in tissue-engineering strategies.

Modulating angiogenesis: the yin and the yang in ginseng

BACKGROUND

Ginseng is a commonly used nutraceutical. Intriguingly, existing literature reports both wound-healing and antitumor effects of ginseng extract through opposing activities on the vascular system. To elucidate this perplexity, we merged a chemical fingerprinting approach with a deconstructional study of the effects of pure molecules from ginseng extract on angiogenesis.

METHODS AND RESULTS

A mass spectrometric compositional analysis of American, Chinese and Korean, and Sanqi ginseng revealed distinct "sterol ginsenoside" fingerprints, especially in the ratio between a triol, Rg1, and a diol, Rb1, the 2 most prevalent constituents. Using a Matrigel implant model and reconstituting the extracts using distinct ratios of the 2 ginsenosides, we demonstrate that the dominance of Rg1 leads to angiogenesis, whereas Rb1 exerts an opposing effect. Rg1 also promoted functional neovascularization into a polymer scaffold in vivo and the proliferation of, chemoinvasion of, and tubulogenesis by endothelial cells in vitro, an effect mediated through the expression of nitric oxide synthase and the phosphatidylinositol-3 kinase-->Akt pathway. In contrast, Rb1 inhibited the earliest step in angiogenesis, the chemoinvasion of endothelial cells.

CONCLUSIONS

The present study explains, for the first time, the ambiguity about the effects of ginseng in vascular pathophysiology based on the existence of opposing active principles in the extract. We also unraveled a speciogeographic variation impinging on the compositional fingerprint that may modulate the final phenotype. This emphasizes the need for regulations standardizing herbal therapy, currently under the Dietary Supplement and Health Education Act. Furthermore, we propose that Rg1 could be a prototype for a novel group of nonpeptide molecules that can induce therapeutic angiogenesis, such as in wound healing.

Angiogenesis and anti-angiogenesis activity of Chinese medicinal herbal extracts

The aqueous extracts of 24 herbs traditionally used as curing ischemic heart disease in clinic in China were screened for their in vitro angiogenic activity, another twenty-four traditionally used as anti-tumor or anti-inflammatory remedies in China were screened for their in vitro anti-angiogenic activity. The activity of angiogenesis was determined by quantitation of vessels on chick embryo chorioallantoic membrane (CAM) model and cell proliferation of cultured bovine aortic endothelial cells (BAECs). Among the herbal extracts examined, the aqueous extracts of Epimedium sagittatum, Trichosanthes kirilowii and Dalbergia odorifera showed the strong angiogenetic activity both in CAM and BAECs models; and the aqueous extracts of Berberis paraspecta, Catharanthus roseus, Coptis chinensis, Taxus chinensis, Scutellaria baicalensis, Polygonum cuspidatum and Scrophularia ningpoensis elicited significant inhibition at a concentration of 1g dry herb /ml.

Purification and characterization of a 28-kDa major protein from ginseng root

A major protein was isolated from ginseng root (Panax ginseng C.A. Meyer) using a combination of ammonium sulfate fractionation, gel filtration chromatography, ion-exchange FPLC, and fast performance liquid chromatofocusing. Electrophoretic and gel permeation chromatographic studies revealed that the major protein, GMP, is composed of two subunits of approximately 28 kDa. During purification, it was found that the elution profiles of GMP from gel filtration chromatography were significantly different, depending on the ionic strength of buffers used. GMP in a buffer of low ionic strength was isolated as a complex with carbohydrate, which could be only dissociated at high ionic strength. Carbohydrate composition in GMP detected by gas chromatography varied, depending on the isolation method of the protein from ginseng roots. These results suggest that carbohydrates are bound non-covalently to GMP whose amino acid composition analysis showed high amounts of acidic amino acids.

Epidermis proliferative effect of the Panax ginseng ginsenoside Rb2

Ginseng has been used as a traditional medicine with various therapeutic effects. However, it is still unknown which component of this plant is effective at promoting wound healing. Recently, ginsenoside Rb2 has been reported to improve wound healing. In this study, to investigate the reported wound healing effect of the ginsenoside Rb2, cell morphology and protein factors involved in epidermal formation were evaluated by immunochemical and immunoblotting analysis. Rb2 stimulated epidermal cell proliferation, and the cell showed a 1.5-fold increase in thymidine uptake compared to the control (p<0.05, n=3). Furtheremore, Rb2 was found to stimulate epidermis formation in a dose-dependent manner in raft culture, and to dose dependently enhance the expressions of protein factors related to cell proliferation, namely, epidermal growth factor and its receptor, fibronectin and its receptor, keratin 5/14, and collagenase I (p<0.05, n=3-9). It is believed that ginsenoside Rb2 enhances epidermal cell proliferation by upregulating the expressions of these proliferation-related factors.

Role of transforming growth factor-beta pathway in the mechanism of wound healing by saponin from Ginseng Radix rubra

1. The effects of saponin from Ginseng Radix rubra on extracellular matrix metabolism, the activation and synthesis of TGF-beta1, and the modification of TGF-beta receptor in fibroblasts were examined to elucidate the contribution of the TGF-beta pathway to the mechanism of wound healing by saponin. 2. Fibronectin synthesis was analysed by the immunoprecipitation method. Activation and synthesis of TGF-beta1 were measured by ELISA. The expressions of TGF-beta receptors in fibroblasts were examined at protein and mRNA levels by the cross-linking method and Northern blot analysis, respectively. 3. The fibronectin synthesis increased 2.3- and 3.9-fold at fibroblasts treated with 1 and 10 microg ml(-1) of saponin, respectively, compared with that in non-treated cells. Fibronectin synthesis stimulated with 10 microg ml(-1) of saponin was inhibited with 69% by 5 microg ml(-1) of an anti-TGF-beta1 antibody. mRNA of TGF-beta type I receptor increased 4.8- and 4.4-fold at fibroblasts treated with 1 and 10 microg ml(-1) of saponin, respectively, and that of TGF-beta type II receptor also increased 3.4- and 3.2-fold at fibroblasts treated with 1 and 10 microg ml(-1) of saponin, respectively. The significant increases of TGF-beta type I and II receptors and of fibronectin synthesis were observed at the same concentrations of saponin. TGF-beta content increased 1.74- and 1.87-fold at conditioned medium of fibroblasts treated with 100 and 250 microg ml(-1) of saponin, respectively, higher concentrations than those which accelerated fibronectin synthesis. Furthermore, the active TGF-beta content was below 10% of total TGF-beta at each concentration of saponin. 4. These results indicate that saponin stimulates fibronectin synthesis through the changes of TGF-beta receptor expressions in fibroblasts.