New insights into the etiology, risk factors, and pathogenesis of pancreatitis in dogs: Potential impacts on clinical practice

Review of spontaneous lesions in the exocrine pancreas of domestic ferrets (Mustela furo)

Large-scale retrospective studies allow for identification of disease trends, such as predisposing factors, typical clinical signs, and range of histologic lesions, which cannot be determined in individual case reports. Lesions of the endocrine pancreas of ferrets are extensively reported; however, there are no in-depth investigations of lesions in the exocrine pancreas. This retrospective analysis presents the histologic features, clinical signs, and concurrent diseases of lesions in the exocrine pancreas of ferrets. Seventy-seven lesions were reported and included acinar cell hyperplasia (n = 32), chronic pancreatitis (n = 16), acute pancreatitis (n = 13), acinar cell adenoma (n = 5), acinar cell carcinoma (n = 4), acinar cell atrophy (n = 3), presumptive acinar cell hypoplasia (n = 2), and lymphoma (n = 2). Our results demonstrate that acinar cell hyperplasia and chronic pancreatitis can both cause grossly visible pancreatic nodules. Hyperplasia was not associated with neoplastic transformation. In addition, acinar cell adenoma was slightly more common than carcinoma, which is contrary to most reports of neoplasia in ferrets. Our findings also suggest that acute pancreatitis can be a sequela to pancreatic biopsy and that there may be an association between chronic pancreatitis and diabetes mellitus in ferrets. Finally, zinc toxicosis was found to be an unlikely cause of pancreatitis in these ferrets based on zinc tissue concentration testing in a subset of cases.

Is pancreatitis associated with meglumine antimoniate treatment for canine leishmaniosis? A multicentric prospective study

BACKGROUND

Meglumine antimoniate is used to treat canine leishmaniosis. In humans, it has been associated with pancreatitis. Although a few case reports have described acute pancreatitis secondary to antimonial treatment in dogs, some studies have concluded that pancreatitis is not an adverse effect of this medication. The objective was to evaluate whether treatment with meglumine antimoniate could induce pancreatitis in dogs with leishmaniosis, on the basis of clinical signs, canine serum specific quantitative pancreatic lipase immunoreactivity (cPLI) concentration, and ultrasonographic abnormalities.

METHODS

A prospective, observational, longitudinal, and multicentric study was conducted from April 2021 through February 2023.

RESULTS

A total of 33 dogs with leishmaniosis were included and classified into LeishVet clinical stages; 13 (39.4%) were included in stage II, 11 (33.3%) in stage III, and 9 in stage IV (27.3%). and 14 (42.4%) developed pancreatitis, 10 during treatment with meglumine antimoniate, and 4 at the end of the treatment. Advanced LeishVet clinical stage was statistically associated with development of pancreatitis. In addition, nine dogs received prednisone at the beginning of treatment, but it was not statistically associated with the prevention of pancreatitis.

CONCLUSIONS

Meglumine antimoniate remains the first line leishmanicidal treatment option for canine leishmaniosis, but it appears to induce pancreatitis in a significant percentage of dogs. Monitoring serum cPLI levels and performing an abdominal ultrasound should be considered when pancreatitis-associated clinical signs are observed, or when there is a high suspicion of circulating immune complexes in dogs with advanced LeishVet clinical stage.

Exocrine pancreatic inflammation in canine diabetes mellitus - An active offender?

The purpose of this review is to examine the current scientific literature regarding the interplay between the exocrine and endocrine pancreas, specifically the role of the exocrine pancreas in the pathogenesis of canine diabetes mellitus. β-cell death caused by exocrine pancreatic inflammation is thought to be an under-recognised contributor to diabetes mellitus in dogs, with up to 30 % of canine diabetic patients with concurrent evidence of pancreatitis at post-mortem examination. Current diagnostics for pancreatitis are imprecise, and treatments for both diseases individually have their own limitations: diabetes through daily insulin injections, which has both welfare and financial implications for the stakeholders, and pancreatitis through treatment of clinical signs, such as analgesia and anti-emetics, rather than targeted treatment of the underlying cause. This review will consider the evidence for exocrine pancreatic inflammation making an active contribution to pancreatic β-cell loss and insulin-deficiency diabetes in the dog and explore current and potential future diagnostic and treatment avenues to improve outcomes for these patients.

Oxidative Stress in Canine Diseases: A Comprehensive Review

Oxidative stress (OS), defined as a disruption in redox balance favoring oxidants, has emerged as a major contributor to numerous diseases in human and veterinary medicine. While several reviews have explored the implication of OS in human pathology, an exhaustive review of the canine species is lacking. This comprehensive review aims to summarize the existing literature on the role of OS in canine diseases, highlighting its potentially detrimental effect on various organs and systems. Some inconsistencies among studies exist, likely due to varying biomarkers and sample types. However, there is substantial evidence supporting the involvement of OS in the development or progression of numerous canine disorders, such as cardiovascular, oncologic, endocrine, gastrointestinal, hematologic, renal, neurologic, infectious, and parasitic diseases, among others. Additionally, this review discusses the efficacy of antioxidant and pro-oxidant therapeutic agents for these conditions. Dietary interventions to counteract OS in dogs have gained significant attention in recent years, although further research on the topic is needed. This review aims to serve as a foundational resource for future investigations in this promising field.

Prognostic role of suPAR in acute pancreatitis: A protocol for systematic review

BACKGROUND

Acute pancreatitis (AP) is a common emergency condition with high morbidity, mortality, and socio-economic impact. Soluble urokinase plasminogen activator receptor (suPAR) is a potential biomarker for AP prognosis. This study systematically reviews the literature on suPAR's prognostic roles in assessing AP severity, organ failure, mortality, and other pathological markers.

METHODS

A comprehensive search of 5 databases up to March 19, 2023, was conducted, selecting cohort studies that examined suPAR's relationship with AP outcomes. Outcome variables included AP severity, organ failure, mortality, hospital stay length, and suPAR's association with other inflammatory markers. Our paper has been registered on Prospero (ID: CRD42023410628).

RESULTS

Nine prospective observational studies with 1033 AP patients were included. Seven of eight studies found suPAR significantly elevated in severe acute pancreatitis (P < .05). Four studies showed suPAR effectively predicted organ failure risk, and 4 studies concluded suPAR significantly predicted mortality (P < .05). The review had no high-risk studies, enhancing credibility.

CONCLUSION

suPAR is a valuable prognostic marker in AP, significantly predicting severity, organ failure, hospital stay length, and mortality. Further large-scale studies are needed to explore suPAR's role in other clinical outcomes related to AP disease course, to establish it as a mainstay of AP prognosis.

An Association between Pancreatic and Cholestatic Biliary Disorders in Dogs

Canine chronic biliary tree disease (CBTD) is a suspected risk factor for pancreatic injury. The aim of this study was to evaluate the frequency and features of pancreatic involvement in canine CBTD, and their relationship with hyperlipemia and its severity. CBTD was defined as the increase in at least two of ALP, GGT, total bilirubin, cholesterol, and a biliary tree abnormal abdominal ultrasound (graded mild to severe). Pancreatic ultrasound appearance was recorded and classified as acute/chronic. Dogs were divided into a PBD group (pancreatic and biliary disease) and BD group (only biliary tree disease). PBD group was subgraded into a "pancreatic injury" and "pancreatitis" group. Eighty-one dogs were retrospectively included: 56 in the PBD group and 25 in the BD group. Of the PBD group, 20 had pancreatitis (15 chronic and 5 dogs acute). US score was mild in 64 dogs and moderate in 17 dogs, and it was not associated with evidence of pancreopathy. Sixty-six dogs had hyperlipemia (mild = 27 dogs; moderate-to-severe = 39 dogs) and no association with pancreopathy was found. Pancreatic injury was more frequent than pancreatitis in CBTD dogs. Although both acute and chronic pancreatic injury may be present, chronic forms were more frequent. Pancreatic injury should be considered in CBTD patients due its possible clinical significance.

The Use of Diets in the Diagnosis and Treatment of Common Gastrointestinal Diseases in Dogs and Cats

The nutritional health of dogs and cats is important to pet owners around the world. Nutrition is inextricably linked to the health of the gastrointestinal system and vice versa. Gastrointestinal signs, such as vomiting, diarrhea, anorexia, or weight loss, are one of the most common reasons that dog and cat owners make non-routine appointments with veterinarians. Those patients are evaluated systematically to identify and/or rule out the causes of the symptoms. Some causes of chronic diarrhea are within the gastrointestinal tract while others are secondary to pathogenic factors outside the digestive system. Some useful biomarkers of chronic intestinal disease (enteropathy) exist in serum and feces. After determination that the clinical signs are due to primary gastrointestinal disease and that there is no parasitism, specific diets are used for at least two weeks. There are several types of diets for pets with chronic enteropathies. There are limited ingredient diets and hydrolyzed protein diets with reduced levels of allergens. There are also highly digestible and fiber-enhanced diets. Some diets contain probiotics and/or prebiotics. If symptoms do not improve and the patient is stable, a diet from a different class may be tried. For chronic enteropathies, the prognosis is generally good for symptom resolution or at least improvement. However, if interventions with novel diets do not ameliorate the symptoms of chronic enteropathy, then antibiotic, anti-inflammatory, or immunosuppressant therapy or further, more invasive diagnostics such as taking an intestinal biopsy, may be indicated. Pancreatitis is a common gastrointestinal disease in dogs and cats and patients may present with mild to severe disease. Many patients with mild to moderate disease can be successfully treated with early supportive care, including feeding a low-fat diet. A novel pharmaceutical, fuzapladib (Panoquell-CA1) looks very promising for treating more severe forms of acute pancreatitis in dogs. Maintenance on a low-fat diet may prevent pancreatitis in at-risk dogs. Future advances in medicine will allow pet owners and veterinarians to use dietary management to maximize the health of their dogs and cats.

Fuzapladib reduces postsurgical inflammation in the intestinal muscularis externa

Postoperative ileus (POI) is a surgical complication that induces emesis and anorexia. Fuzapladib (FUZ), an inhibitor of leukocyte-function-associated antigen type 1 (LFA-1) activation, a leukocyte adhesion molecule, exerts anti-inflammatory effects by inhibiting leukocyte migration into the inflammatory site. In this study, we examined the prophylactic impact of FUZ on POI in a mouse model. POI model mice were generated by intestinal manipulation, and the effect of FUZ on intestinal transit and the infiltration of inflammatory cells into the ileal muscularis externa was assessed. The increased number of macrophages was significantly suppressed by FUZ, whereas the infiltration of neutrophils into the ileal muscularis externa was not sufficiently inhibited in the POI model mice. Additionally, FUZ did not ameliorate delayed gastrointestinal transit in POI model mice. In conclusion, our results suggest that FUZ does not improve delayed gastrointestinal transit but partially inhibits inflammation in the ileal muscularis externa in POI model mice. FUZ may be a potential anti-inflammatory agent for the management of post-surgical inflammation.

Fuzapladib in a randomized controlled multicenter masked study in dogs with presumptive acute onset pancreatitis

BACKGROUND

Currently, no specific treatment is available for acute onset pancreatitis (AP), and management relies on symptomatic and supportive standard of care (SOC). Fuzapladib is a novel leukocyte function-associated antigen type-1 (LFA-1) activation inhibitor, blocking activation and subsequent adhesion and migration of neutrophils, potentially decreasing the risk of pancreatitis progression and systemic inflammation.

OBJECTIVE

Evaluate the safety and clinical response of dogs with AP after 3 days of administration of fuzapladib.

ANIMALS

Sixty-one client-owned dogs with presumptive AP.

METHODS

Randomized, masked, and placebo controlled multicenter study. Sixty-one dogs with AP were included for safety assessment, whereas 35 evaluable cases (fuzapladib, n = 16; placebo, n = 19) were included for clinical evaluation. Clinical improvement was assessed based on the change in the modified clinical activity index (MCAI) score on Day 3 compared to Day 0. Secondary variables included canine acute pancreatitis clinical severity index (CAPCSI) scores and serum concentrations of canine pancreatic lipase immunoreactivity, cytokines, and C-reactive protein.

RESULTS

Fuzapladib was well tolerated by all treated dogs. Mean change in MCAI scores was significantly higher in the fuzapladib-treated (-7.75) than the placebo group (-5.68; P = .02, 95% confidence interval [CI] for the difference, -4.33, -0.35), suggesting clinical improvement in fuzapladib-treated dogs. No significant difference was found in any of the secondary variables between groups.

CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE

Administration of fuzapladib to dogs was safe, and a favorable response was detected in 2 clinical activity scores. Effects of fuzapladib on survival and duration of hospitalization were not studied.

Expression of vitamin D receptor, CYP24A1, and CYP27B1 in normal and inflamed canine pancreases

Vitamin D plays a role in anti-inflammatory processes, and the alteration of its metabolism is associated with the inflammatory processes of pancreatitis. This study was performed to evaluate the expression of the vitamin D receptor (VDR) and the two major enzymes that regulate vitamin D metabolism, 1α-hydroxylase (CYP27B1) and 24-hydroxylase (CYP24A1), in the canine pancreas and to compare their degrees of immunoreactivity between normal and inflamed pancreases. Five normal and inflamed pancreatic tissues each were obtained from six dogs. The expression of VDR, CYP24A1, and CYP27B1 were determined immunohistochemically, and the degree of immunostaining was assessed semiquantitatively. The VDR was expressed in the ducts, acini, and islets of Langerhans of normal pancreases and in the ducts and acini of inflamed ones. There was a significant difference in the immunoreactivity score for VDR in the islets of Langerhans between normal (median, 3 [interquartile range, 2-7.5] score) and inflamed pancreatic tissues (0 [0-0.5] score, p = 0.03). CYP24A1 was expressed in the ducts and islets of Langerhans in both normal and inflamed pancreases, whereas CYP27B1 was expressed in the ducts and acini in only some normal and inflamed pancreatic tissues. This study showed that VDR expression decreased in inflamed pancreases and demonstrated CYP24A1 and CYP27B1 expression in the canine pancreas for the first time. These findings indicate that the pancreas could regulate the metabolism and biological activity of vitamin D and suggest that a decrease in these might be related to the pathophysiology of pancreatitis.

Association between Hyperglycemia and Canine Serum Pancreatic Lipase Immunoreactivity Concentration in Diabetic Dogs

It has been reported that hypertriglyceridemia can partially mediate between diabetes mellitus (DM) and pancreatitis in dogs, implying that another mediator, such as chronic hyperglycemia, might exist. Therefore, this study aimed to evaluate the relationship between hyperglycemia and serum canine pancreatic lipase immunoreactivity (cPLI) concentration in diabetic dogs. This retrospective cohort study included 26 client-owned diabetic dogs, divided according to their serum fructosamine levels (<500 μmol/L = well-controlled DM group; ≥500 μmol/L = untreated or poorly controlled DM group). Five of the 26 DM dogs (19.2%) had serum cPLI concentrations consistent with pancreatitis, among which two showed ultrasonographic evidence of pancreatitis without clinical signs. The serum cPLI concentrations (median [interquartile range]) were significantly higher in the untreated or poorly controlled group (520 μg/L [179.76-1000 μg/L]) than in the well-controlled group (77 μg/L [32.22-244.6 μg/L], P = 0.0147). The serum fructosamine concentration was positively correlated with the serum cPLI concentration (r = 0.4816; P = 0.0127). Multivariate analysis revealed serum triglyceride and fructosamine concentrations were associated with the serum cPLI concentration. In conclusion, this study suggests that chronic hyperglycemia may induce pancreatic inflammation in diabetic dogs; however, the clinical significance of increased cPLI concentration is unknown.

Proteomic research on new urinary biomarkers of renal disease in canine leishmaniosis: Survival and monitoring response to treatment

The objective of our study was to search for survival biomarkers (SB) and treatment response monitoring biomarkers (TRMB) in the urinary proteome of dogs with renal disease secondary to canine leishmaniosis (CanL), using UHPLC-MS/MS. The proteomic data are available via ProteomeXchange with identifier PXD042578. Initially, a group of 12 dogs was evaluated and divided into survivors (SG; n = 6) and nonsurvivors (NSG; n = 6). A total of 972 proteins were obtained from the evaluated samples. Then, bioinformatic analysis reduced them to 6 proteins like potential SB increased in the NSG, specifically, Haemoglobin subunit Alpha 1, Complement Factor I, Complement C5, Fibrinogen beta chain (fragment), Peptidase S1 domain-containing protein, and Fibrinogen gamma chain. Afterwards, SG was used to search for TRMB, studying their urine at 0, 30, and 90 days, and 9 proteins that decreased after treatment were obtained: Apolipoprotein E, Cathepsin B, Cystatin B, Cystatin-C-like, Lysozyme, Monocyte differentiation CD14, Pancreatitis-associated precursor protein, Profilin, and Protein FAM3C. Finally, enrichment analysis provided information about the biological mechanisms in which these proteins are involved. In conclusion, this study provides 15 new candidate urinary biomarkers and an improved understanding of the pathogenesis of kidney disease in CanL.

Polylysine-Containing Hydrogel Formulation of Fuzapladib, Inhibitor of Leukocyte-Function Associated Antigen-1 (LFA-1) Activation, for Sustained Release

The aim of the present study was to develop an injectable hydrogel (HG) formulation of fuzapladib sodium (FZP), an animal drug for acute pancreatitis (AP), with the use of polyethyleneoxide (PEO) and polylysine (pLys), a cationic polymer. A mixture of pLys and FZP was added to PEO to prepare an HG formulation, and the formulation was optimized by release test and viscosity measurements. Circular dichroism (CD) and infrared absorption (IR) spectral analyses were applied to clarify the intermolecular interactions between FZP and pLys. The pharmacokinetic behavior of FZP was evaluated after a subcutaneous administration of FZP samples (2.0 mg-FZP/kg) to rats. Although the immediate release of FZP was observed for the HG formulation, the addition of pLys at a 20-fold amount of FZP or higher led to the sustained release of FZP. Considering release behavior, the concentration of pLys was optimized as 100-fold that of FZP in the HG formulation. CD and IR spectroscopic analyses of FZP and/or pLys demonstrated an intermolecular interaction between FZP and pLys, as evidenced by the slight spectral transition. After a subcutaneous administration of HG formulation containing pLys to rats, compared with FZP alone, significant differences were observed in the pharmacokinetic behavior with a decrease of C_max from 2.3 to 0.9 mg/mL and slower elimination kinetics. HG formulation using pLys might be a viable dosage option for FZP for the treatment of AP in animals.

Etiology and Pathophysiology of Diabetes Mellitus in Dogs

Canine diabetes results from a wide spectrum of clinical pathophysiological processes that cause a similar set of clinical signs. Various causes of insulin deficiency and beta cell loss, insulin resistance, or both characterize the disease, with genetics and environment playing a role. Understanding the genetic and molecular causes of beta cell loss will provide future opportunities for precision medicine, both from a therapeutic and preventative perspective. This review presents current knowledge of the etiology and pathophysiology of canine diabetes, including the importance of disease classification. Examples of potential targets for future precision medicine-based approaches to therapy are discussed.

Utility of 1,2-o-dilauryl-rac-glycero glutaric acid-(6'-methylresorufin)-ester-lipase for monitoring dogs with chronic pancreatitis

BACKGROUND

The utility of 1,2-o-dilauryl-rac-glycero glutaric acid-(6'-methylresorufin)-ester-(DGGR)-lipase activity (DLA) in monitoring clinical progression of chronic pancreatitis (CP) in dogs is unknown.

OBJECTIVE

To examine the association of DLA with clinical signs of CP, as assessed by a CP clinical severity score (CPCSS).

ANIMALS

Twenty-four dogs.

METHODS

This is a retrospective study. Chronic pancreatitis was diagnosed based on clinical signs and DLA > 250 U/L and monitored using CPCSS and DLA.

RESULTS

The study included 134 visits (median, 10 visits/dog; range, 2-11). Mild-moderate (CPCSS, 0-3) and severe (CPCSS, ≥4) disease were documented in 94 (70%) and 40 (30%) visits, respectively. In emergency visits (n = 44; 33%) CPCSS (median, 5; range, 0-15) and DLA (median, 534 U/L; range, 63-7133) were higher (P < .001 and P = .003, respectively) than in scheduled ones (n = 90; 67%; median, 1; range, 0-6 and median, 384 U/L; range, 49-3747, respectively). DGGR-lipase activity was associated (P = .009) with the CPCSS, with a lower activity documented in mild-moderate CPCSS (median 391 U/L; range, 49-3747), compared to severe score (median, 558 U/L; range, 63-7133). DGGR-lipase activity was significantly, but weakly, correlated with CPSS (r = 0.233, P = .007). DGGR-lipase activity inefficiently discriminated mild-moderate vs severe CP (area under the receiver operator characteristics curve, 0.64; 95% confidence interval, 0.53-0.75; P = .012), with DLA cutoff of 428 U/L corresponding to sensitivity of 65% and specificity of 63%.

CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL IMPORTANCE

Increased DLA is associated with emergency revisits in dogs with CP, possibly reflecting acute flare-ups. DGGR-lipase activity was associated with the CPCSS over the follow-ups but could not differentiate disease severity.

Risk Factors and Clinical Presentation in Dogs with Increased Serum Pancreatic Lipase Concentrations—A Descriptive Analysis

Simple Summary

Over the past several years, there has been an increasing importance placed on clinical presentation as part of a diagnosis of pancreatitis, and yet there is comparatively little data investigating the full array of clinical signs that may be seen in dogs with pancreatitis. Our study showed that dogs with increased pancreatic lipase immunoreactivity concentrations could display a wide range of clinical signs, which may be related to pancreatitis or a concurrent disease. Non-specific clinical signs, such as anorexia, were prevalent. Additionally, overt abdominal pain was infrequently reported, and veterinarians should be cautious in ruling out pancreatitis due to a lack of abdominal pain alone. Additionally, limited data is available on potential risk factors for pancreatitis in dogs; this information could be important in the development of disease prevention strategies. In our study, the most common concurrent disease was hepatobiliary abnormalities. Additional studies are needed to determine whether this is a causative or associative relationship. Drug use reflected common prescribing practices, and anti-epileptic drug use was low despite prior studies documenting clear associations between phenobarbital and potassium bromide and drug-associated pancreatitis. Adult maintenance diets, in addition to human foods and dog treats, were commonly fed prior to the development of an increased pancreatic lipase concentration.

Abstract

Limited data exist regarding the full array of clinical signs seen in dogs with pancreatitis and potential risk factors for the disease. Laboratory submissions from the Gastrointestinal Laboratory at Texas A&M University were retrospectively reviewed for dogs with an increased serum pancreatic lipase immunoreactivity (cPLI) concentration (≥400 µg/L), and an internet-based survey was distributed to the attending veterinarian and/or technician on each case. The survey contained questions related to (i) clinical signs, (ii) prior gastrointestinal upset, (iii) comorbidities, (iv) pre-existing medical therapies, and (v) dietary history. One hundred and seventy (170) survey responses were recorded. The top three clinical signs reported were inappetence (62%), diarrhea (53%), and vomiting (49%). Abdominal pain was noted in only 32% of dogs, likely associated with poor pain detection. Additionally, the majority of dogs (71%) had prior episodes of gastrointestinal upset within the past 12 months, lending support for the commonality of recurrent acute pancreatitis, or acute on chronic disease. Hepatobiliary abnormalities (24%) were the most common concurrent disease, and endocrine disorders were seen in a low proportion of respondents (5–8%). Adult maintenance diets (65%), dog treats (40%), and human foods (29%) were commonly consumed by dogs prior to the discovery of increased cPLI concentration.