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Hinrichs JB, Kreitlow A, Siekmann L, Plötz M, Kemper N, Abdulmawjood A. Changes in Hepatitis E Virus Contamination during the Production of Liver Sausage from Naturally Contaminated Pig Liver and the Potential of Individual Production Parameters to Reduce Hepatitis E Virus Contamination in the Processing Chain. Pathogens 2024; 13:274. [PMID: 38668229 PMCID: PMC11053659 DOI: 10.3390/pathogens13040274] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/26/2024] [Revised: 03/18/2024] [Accepted: 03/21/2024] [Indexed: 04/29/2024] Open
Abstract
In this study, changes in hepatitis E virus (HEV) contamination in the production of liver sausage from naturally contaminated pork liver were investigated. Furthermore, the potential effectiveness of individual production parameters in reducing viral loads was measured. When processing moderately contaminated liver (initial Cq-value 29), HEV RNA persisted in the finished sausages, even after heating for 90 min at 75 °C. A matrix-specific standard curve was created using a spiking experiment to accurately quantify HEV RNA in a particularly challenging matrix like liver sausage. Variations in product-specific production parameters, including mincing and heating times, showed some reduction in contamination levels, but even prolonged heating did not render all finished products HEV negative. The persistence of HEV contamination underscores the importance of ongoing monitoring in the pig population and raw materials to enhance food safety measures and reduce the likelihood of transmission through pork consumption. The detection of HEV RNA within all processing stages of pork liver in the production of liver sausage suggests that further research into the risk of infection posed by this detection and vigilance in managing HEV risks in the food chain, particularly in pork products, are required to protect public health.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jan Bernd Hinrichs
- Institute of Food Quality and Food Safety, University of Veterinary Medicine Hannover, Foundation, 30173 Hannover, Germany; (J.B.H.); (A.K.); (L.S.); (M.P.)
| | - Antonia Kreitlow
- Institute of Food Quality and Food Safety, University of Veterinary Medicine Hannover, Foundation, 30173 Hannover, Germany; (J.B.H.); (A.K.); (L.S.); (M.P.)
| | - Lisa Siekmann
- Institute of Food Quality and Food Safety, University of Veterinary Medicine Hannover, Foundation, 30173 Hannover, Germany; (J.B.H.); (A.K.); (L.S.); (M.P.)
| | - Madeleine Plötz
- Institute of Food Quality and Food Safety, University of Veterinary Medicine Hannover, Foundation, 30173 Hannover, Germany; (J.B.H.); (A.K.); (L.S.); (M.P.)
| | - Nicole Kemper
- Institute for Animal Hygiene, Animal Welfare and Farm Animal Behaviors, University of Veterinary Medicine Hannover, 30173 Hannover, Germany;
| | - Amir Abdulmawjood
- Institute of Food Quality and Food Safety, University of Veterinary Medicine Hannover, Foundation, 30173 Hannover, Germany; (J.B.H.); (A.K.); (L.S.); (M.P.)
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Tan J, Harlow J, Cecillon J, Nasheri N. Assessing the efficacy of different bead-based assays in capturing hepatitis E virus. J Virol Methods 2024; 324:114860. [PMID: 38061674 DOI: 10.1016/j.jviromet.2023.114860] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/04/2023] [Revised: 12/01/2023] [Accepted: 12/04/2023] [Indexed: 12/17/2023]
Abstract
Hepatitis E virus (HEV) generally causes acute liver infection in humans and its transmission could be waterborne, foodborne, bloodborne, or zoonotic. To date, there is no standard method for the detection of HEV from food and environmental samples. Herein, we explored the possibility of using magnetic beads for the capture and detection of HEV. For this purpose, we employed Dynabeads M-270 Epoxy magnetic beads, coated with different monoclonal antibodies (mAbs) against HEV capsid protein, and the Nanotrap Microbiome A Particle magnetic beads, which are coated with chemical affinity baits, to capture HEV-3 particles in suspension. Viral RNA was extracted by heat-shock or QIAamp viral RNA kit and subjected to quantification using digital-droplet RT-PCR (ddRT-PCR). We demonstrated that the mAb-coupled Dynabeads and the Nanotrap particles, both were able to successfully capture HEV-3. The latter, however had lower limit of detection (<140gc compared with <1400 gc) and significantly higher extraction efficiency in comparison to the mAb-coupled Dynabeads (41.1% vs 8.8%). We have also observed that viral RNA extraction by heat-shock is less efficient compared to using highly denaturing reagents in QIAmp viral RNA extraction kit. As such, magnetic beads have the potential to be used to capture HEV virions for research and surveillance purposes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jeremy Tan
- National Food Virology Reference Centre, Bureau of Microbial Hazards, Food Directorate, Health Canada, 251 Sir Frederick Banting Driveway, Ottawa, ON K1A 0K9, Canada; Department of Biochemistry, Microbiology and Immunology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Ottawa, ON, Canada
| | - Jennifer Harlow
- National Food Virology Reference Centre, Bureau of Microbial Hazards, Food Directorate, Health Canada, 251 Sir Frederick Banting Driveway, Ottawa, ON K1A 0K9, Canada
| | - Jonathon Cecillon
- National Food Virology Reference Centre, Bureau of Microbial Hazards, Food Directorate, Health Canada, 251 Sir Frederick Banting Driveway, Ottawa, ON K1A 0K9, Canada; Department of Biochemistry, Microbiology and Immunology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Ottawa, ON, Canada
| | - Neda Nasheri
- National Food Virology Reference Centre, Bureau of Microbial Hazards, Food Directorate, Health Canada, 251 Sir Frederick Banting Driveway, Ottawa, ON K1A 0K9, Canada; Department of Biochemistry, Microbiology and Immunology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Ottawa, ON, Canada.
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Hinrichs JB, Kreitlow A, Plötz M, Schotte U, Becher P, Gremmel N, Stephan R, Kemper N, Abdulmawjood A. Development of a Sensitive and Specific Quantitative RT-qPCR Method for the Detection of Hepatitis E Virus Genotype 3 in Porcine Liver and Foodstuff. Foods 2024; 13:467. [PMID: 38338602 PMCID: PMC10855453 DOI: 10.3390/foods13030467] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/10/2024] [Revised: 01/25/2024] [Accepted: 01/31/2024] [Indexed: 02/12/2024] Open
Abstract
As an international and zoonotic cause of hepatitis, hepatitis E virus (HEV) poses a significant risk to public health. However, the frequency of occurrence and the degree of contamination of food of animal origin require further research. The aim of this study was to develop and validate a highly sensitive quantitative RT-qPCR assay for the detection and quantification of HEV contamination in porcine liver and food. The focus was on genotype 3, which is most common as a food contaminant in developed countries and Europe. The selected assay has its target sequence in the open reading frame 1 (ORF1) of the HEV genome and showed good results in inclusivity testing, especially for HEV genotype 3. The developed assay seems to show high efficiency and a low intercept when compared to other assays, while having a comparable limit of detection (LOD). In addition, a standard curve was generated using artificially spiked liver to provide more accurate quantitative results for contamination assessment and tracking in this matrix. Application of the assay to test 67 pig livers from different origins resulted in a positivity rate of 7.5%, which is consistent with the results of numerous other prevalence studies. Quantitative detection of the viral genome in the food chain, particularly in pig livers, is essential for understanding the presence and evolution of HEV contamination and thus ensures consumer safety.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jan Bernd Hinrichs
- Institute of Food Quality and Food Safety, University of Veterinary Medicine Hannover, 30173 Hannover, Germany; (J.B.H.); (A.K.); (M.P.)
| | - Antonia Kreitlow
- Institute of Food Quality and Food Safety, University of Veterinary Medicine Hannover, 30173 Hannover, Germany; (J.B.H.); (A.K.); (M.P.)
| | - Madeleine Plötz
- Institute of Food Quality and Food Safety, University of Veterinary Medicine Hannover, 30173 Hannover, Germany; (J.B.H.); (A.K.); (M.P.)
| | - Ulrich Schotte
- Department C Animal Health and Zoonoses, Central Institute of the Bundeswehr Medical Service Kiel, 24119 Kronshagen, Germany;
| | - Paul Becher
- Institute of Virology, University of Veterinary Medicine Hannover, 30559 Hannover, Germany; (P.B.); (N.G.)
| | - Nele Gremmel
- Institute of Virology, University of Veterinary Medicine Hannover, 30559 Hannover, Germany; (P.B.); (N.G.)
| | - Roger Stephan
- Vetsuisse Faculty, Institute for Food Safety and Hygiene, University of Zurich, 8057 Zurich, Switzerland;
| | - Nicole Kemper
- Institute for Animal Hygiene, Animal Welfare and Farm Animal Behaviors, University of Veterinary Medicine Hannover, 30173 Hannover, Germany;
| | - Amir Abdulmawjood
- Institute of Food Quality and Food Safety, University of Veterinary Medicine Hannover, 30173 Hannover, Germany; (J.B.H.); (A.K.); (M.P.)
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Lopez-Lopez P, Frias M, Perez-Jimenez AB, Freyre-Carrillo C, Pineda JA, Fuentes A, Alados JC, Ramirez-Arellano E, Viciana I, Corona-Mata D, Caballero-Gomez J, Garcia-Bocanegra I, Risalde MA, Rivero-Juarez A, Rivero A. Temporal changes in the genotypes of Paslahepevirus balayani in southern Spain and their possible link with changes in pig trade imports. One Health 2023; 16:100539. [PMID: 37363253 PMCID: PMC10288091 DOI: 10.1016/j.onehlt.2023.100539] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/29/2022] [Revised: 04/11/2023] [Accepted: 04/11/2023] [Indexed: 06/28/2023] Open
Abstract
Introduction Paslahepevirus balayani (HEV) is an endemic zoonotic disease ranked as a major cause of acute hepatitis in Europe. Most infections occurring in Europe are due to the endemic several subtypes of genotype 3, through the consumption of raw or undercooked pork, observing a genotype geographical distribution pattern among countries Because of global changes in the pig and pork trading markets, subtype distribution might vary. We aimed to evaluate the temporal distribution of HEV genotypes in patients from southern Spain with acute hepatitis to determine whether these changes were related to the pig import trade during the study period between 2018 and 2022. Methods Prospective longitudinal study including patients with acute hepatitis from southern Spain between 2018 and 2022. HEV RNA and antibodies was tested in all patients. In patients with detectable HEV RNA, genotype was obtained. To determine the number of imported pigs and their origins, we checked the official data from the Spanish statistics on international trade of Spanish Minister of Industry during by country of origin during the same study period. Results A total of 659 patients with acute hepatitis were included in the study. Among them, 162 (24.5%) had at least one marker (IgM or RNA) of acute HEV infection. Among the 71 patients with detectable viral RNA, genotypes could be obtained for 58 (81.6%). The most prevalent HEV genotype was 3f (n = 48; 78.6%), showing a decreasing prevalence of over time, from 100% in 2018 to 70.6% in 2022. Since 2021, the emergence of other genotypes has been determined. A significant increase in the number of animals imported was observed since the beginning of the study. Denmark experienced a significant rise, from 0.03% in 2018 of total imports to 10.4% in 2022. Conclusions HEV molecular diversity is changing in Spain, could be linked to changes in fattening pig import origin.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pedro Lopez-Lopez
- Service of Infectious Diseases, Hospital Universitario Reina Sofia, Instituto Maimonides de Investigación Biomédica de Córdoba (IMIBIC), Universidad de Córdoba (UCO), Cordoba, Spain
- CIBERINFEC, ISCIII – CIBER de Enfermedades Infecciosas, Instituto de Salud Carlos III, 28029 Madrid, Spain
| | - Mario Frias
- Service of Infectious Diseases, Hospital Universitario Reina Sofia, Instituto Maimonides de Investigación Biomédica de Córdoba (IMIBIC), Universidad de Córdoba (UCO), Cordoba, Spain
- CIBERINFEC, ISCIII – CIBER de Enfermedades Infecciosas, Instituto de Salud Carlos III, 28029 Madrid, Spain
| | - Ana Belén Perez-Jimenez
- CIBERINFEC, ISCIII – CIBER de Enfermedades Infecciosas, Instituto de Salud Carlos III, 28029 Madrid, Spain
- Clinical Microbiology Unit, Hospital Universitario Reina Sofía, Córdoba, Spain
- Instituto Maimónides de Investigación Biomédica de Córdoba (IMIBIC), Córdoba, Spain
| | | | - Juan A. Pineda
- CIBERINFEC, ISCIII – CIBER de Enfermedades Infecciosas, Instituto de Salud Carlos III, 28029 Madrid, Spain
- Unit of Infectious Diseases and Microbiology, Hospital Universitario de Valme, Seville, Spain
| | - Ana Fuentes
- CIBERINFEC, ISCIII – CIBER de Enfermedades Infecciosas, Instituto de Salud Carlos III, 28029 Madrid, Spain
- Clinical Microbiology Unit, Hospital Universitario Clínico San Cecilio, Granada, Spain
- Instituto de Investigacion Biosanitaria Ibs. Granada, Granada, Spain
| | - Juan Carlos Alados
- Clinical Microbiology Unit, Hospital Universitario de Jerez, Cádiz, Spain
- Insituto de investigación e innovación biomédica de Cadiz (INIBICA), Spain
| | - Encarnación Ramirez-Arellano
- Infectious Diseases, Microbiology and Preventive Medicine Unit, Virgen Macarena Univ. Hospital, and Department of Medicine, University of Sevilla/Biomedicine Institute of Sevilla, Sevilla, Spain
| | - Isabel Viciana
- Infectious Diseases, Microbiology and Preventive Medicine Unit, Hospital Universitario Virgen de la Victoria, Málaga, Spain
| | - Diana Corona-Mata
- Service of Infectious Diseases, Hospital Universitario Reina Sofia, Instituto Maimonides de Investigación Biomédica de Córdoba (IMIBIC), Universidad de Córdoba (UCO), Cordoba, Spain
| | - Javier Caballero-Gomez
- Service of Infectious Diseases, Hospital Universitario Reina Sofia, Instituto Maimonides de Investigación Biomédica de Córdoba (IMIBIC), Universidad de Córdoba (UCO), Cordoba, Spain
- CIBERINFEC, ISCIII – CIBER de Enfermedades Infecciosas, Instituto de Salud Carlos III, 28029 Madrid, Spain
- Departamento Sanidad Animal, Grupo de Investigación en Sanidad Animal y Zoonosis (GISAZ), UIC Zoonosis y Enfermedades Emergentes ENZOEM, Universidad de Córdoba, Campus de Rabanales, Edificio Sanidad Animal, 14014 Córdoba, Spain
| | - Ignacio Garcia-Bocanegra
- CIBERINFEC, ISCIII – CIBER de Enfermedades Infecciosas, Instituto de Salud Carlos III, 28029 Madrid, Spain
- Departamento Sanidad Animal, Grupo de Investigación en Sanidad Animal y Zoonosis (GISAZ), UIC Zoonosis y Enfermedades Emergentes ENZOEM, Universidad de Córdoba, Campus de Rabanales, Edificio Sanidad Animal, 14014 Córdoba, Spain
| | - María A. Risalde
- CIBERINFEC, ISCIII – CIBER de Enfermedades Infecciosas, Instituto de Salud Carlos III, 28029 Madrid, Spain
- Departamento Sanidad Animal, Grupo de Investigación en Sanidad Animal y Zoonosis (GISAZ), UIC Zoonosis y Enfermedades Emergentes ENZOEM, Universidad de Córdoba, Campus de Rabanales, Edificio Sanidad Animal, 14014 Córdoba, Spain
| | - Antonio Rivero-Juarez
- Service of Infectious Diseases, Hospital Universitario Reina Sofia, Instituto Maimonides de Investigación Biomédica de Córdoba (IMIBIC), Universidad de Córdoba (UCO), Cordoba, Spain
- CIBERINFEC, ISCIII – CIBER de Enfermedades Infecciosas, Instituto de Salud Carlos III, 28029 Madrid, Spain
| | - Antonio Rivero
- Service of Infectious Diseases, Hospital Universitario Reina Sofia, Instituto Maimonides de Investigación Biomédica de Córdoba (IMIBIC), Universidad de Córdoba (UCO), Cordoba, Spain
- CIBERINFEC, ISCIII – CIBER de Enfermedades Infecciosas, Instituto de Salud Carlos III, 28029 Madrid, Spain
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Animal reservoirs for hepatitis E virus within the Paslahepevirus genus. Vet Microbiol 2023; 278:109618. [PMID: 36640568 DOI: 10.1016/j.vetmic.2022.109618] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/07/2022] [Revised: 11/23/2022] [Accepted: 12/03/2022] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
Hepatitis E virus (HEV) is responsible for acute hepatitis in humans. It is a single-stranded, positive-sense RNA virus that belongs to the Hepeviridae family. The majority of concerning HEV genotypes belong to the Paslahepevirus genus and are subsequently divided into eight genotypes. HEV genotypes 1 and 2 exclusively infect humans and primates while genotypes 3 and 4 infect both humans and other mammals. Whereas HEV genotypes 5 and 6 are isolated from wild boars and genotypes 7 and 8 were identified from camels in the United Arab Emirates and China, respectively. HEV mainly spreads from humans to humans via the fecal-oral route. However, some genotypes with the capability of zoonotic transmissions, such as 3 and 4 transmit from animals to humans through feces, direct contact, and ingestion of contaminated meat products. As we further continue to uncover novel HEV strains in various animal species, it is becoming clear that HEV has a broad host range. Therefore, understanding the potential animal reservoirs for this virus will allow for better risk management and risk mitigation of infection with HEV. In this review, we mainly focused on animal reservoirs for the members of the species Paslahepevirus balayani and provided a comprehensive list of the host animals identified to date.
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In Vitro Replication of Swine Hepatitis E Virus (HEV): Production of Cell-Adapted Strains. Animals (Basel) 2023; 13:ani13020276. [PMID: 36670816 PMCID: PMC9854997 DOI: 10.3390/ani13020276] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/22/2022] [Revised: 01/09/2023] [Accepted: 01/10/2023] [Indexed: 01/15/2023] Open
Abstract
The hepatitis E caused by the virus HEV of genotypes HEV-3 and HEV-4 is a zoonotic foodborne disease spread worldwide. HEV is currently classified into eight different genotypes (HEV-1-8). Genotypes HEV-3 and HEV-4 are zoonotic and are further divided into subtypes. Most of the information on HEV replication remains unknown due to the lack of an efficient cell cultivation system. Over the last couple of years, several protocols for HEV cultivation have been developed on different cell lines; even if they were troublesome, long, and scarcely reproducible, they offered the opportunity to study the replicative cycle of the virus. In the present study, we aimed to obtain a protocol ready to use viral stock in serum free medium that can be used with reduced time of growth and without any purification steps. The employed method allowed isolation and cell adaptation of four swine HEV-3 strains, belonging to three different subtypes. Phylogenetic analyses conducted on partial genome sequences of in vitro isolated strains did not reveal any insertion in the hypervariable region (HVR) of the genomes. A limited number of mutations was acquired in the genome during the virus growth in the partial sequences of Methyltransferase (Met) and ORF2 coding genes.
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Takuissu GR, Kenmoe S, Ndip L, Ebogo-Belobo JT, Kengne-Ndé C, Mbaga DS, Bowo-Ngandji A, Oyono MG, Kenfack-Momo R, Tchatchouang S, Kenfack-Zanguim J, Lontuo Fogang R, Zeuko'o Menkem E, Kame-Ngasse GI, Magoudjou-Pekam JN, Nkie Esemu S, Veneri C, Mancini P, Bonanno Ferraro G, Iaconelli M, Suffredini E, La Rosa G. Hepatitis E Virus in Water Environments: A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis. FOOD AND ENVIRONMENTAL VIROLOGY 2022; 14:223-235. [PMID: 36036329 PMCID: PMC9458591 DOI: 10.1007/s12560-022-09530-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/09/2022] [Accepted: 07/21/2022] [Indexed: 06/01/2023]
Abstract
Hepatitis E virus (HEV) is responsible for acute hepatitis in humans, through foodborne, zoonotic, and waterborne transmission routes. This study aimed to assess the prevalence of HEV in water matrices. Six categories were defined: untreated and treated wastewater, surface water (river, lake, and seawater), drinking water, groundwater, and other water environments (irrigation water, grey water, reservoir water, flood water, and effluent of pig slaughterhouse). We searched PubMed, Web of Science, Global Index Medicus, and Excerpta Medica Database. Study selection and data extraction were performed by at least two independent investigators. Heterogeneity (I2) was assessed using the χ2 test on the Cochran Q statistic and H parameter. Sources of heterogeneity were explored by subgroup analysis. This study is registered with PROSPERO, number CRD42021289116. We included 87 prevalence studies from 58 papers, 66.4% of which performed in Europe. The overall prevalence of HEV in water was 9.8% (95% CI 6.4-13.7). The prevalence was higher in untreated wastewater (15.1%) and lower in treated wastewater (3.8%) and in drinking water (4.7%). In surface water, prevalence was 7.4%, and in groundwater, the percentage of positive samples, from only one study available, was 8.3%. Overall, only 36.8% of the studies reported the genotype of HEV, with genotype 3 (HEV-3) prevalent (168 samples), followed by HEV-1 (148 sample), and HEV-4 (2 samples). High-income countries were the most represented with 59/87 studies (67.8%), while only 3/87 (3.5%) of the studies were performed in low-income countries. The overall prevalence obtained of this study was generally higher in industrialized countries. Risk of bias was low in 14.9% of the studies and moderate in 85.1%. The results of this review showed the occurrence of HEV in different waters environments also in industrialized countries with sanitation and safe water supplies. While HEV transmission to humans through water has been widely demonstrated in developing countries, it is an issue still pending in industrialized countries. Better knowledge on the source of pollution, occurrence, survival in water, and removal by water treatment is needed to unravel this transmission path.
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Affiliation(s)
- G R Takuissu
- Centre for Food, Food Security and Nutrition Research, Institute of Medical Research and Medicinal Plants Studies, Yaoundé, Cameroon
| | - S Kenmoe
- Department of Microbiology and Parasitology, University of Buea, Buea, Cameroon
| | - L Ndip
- Department of Microbiology and Parasitology, University of Buea, Buea, Cameroon
| | - J T Ebogo-Belobo
- Medical Research Centre, Institute of Medical Research and Medicinal Plants Studies, Yaoundé, Cameroon
| | - C Kengne-Ndé
- Epidemiological Surveillance, Evaluation and Research Unit, National AIDS Control Committee, Douala, Cameroon
| | - D S Mbaga
- Department of Microbiology, The University of Yaounde I, Yaoundé, Cameroon
| | - A Bowo-Ngandji
- Department of Microbiology, The University of Yaounde I, Yaoundé, Cameroon
| | - M G Oyono
- Centre for Research on Health and Priority Pathologies, Institute of Medical Research and Medicinal Plants Studies, Yaoundé, Cameroon
| | - R Kenfack-Momo
- Department of Biochemistry, The University of Yaounde I, Yaoundé, Cameroon
| | - S Tchatchouang
- Scientific Direction, Centre Pasteur du Cameroun, Yaoundé, Cameroon
| | - J Kenfack-Zanguim
- Department of Biochemistry, The University of Yaounde I, Yaoundé, Cameroon
| | - R Lontuo Fogang
- Department of Animal Biology, University of Dschang, Dschang, Cameroon
| | - E Zeuko'o Menkem
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, University of Buea, Buea, Cameroon
| | - G I Kame-Ngasse
- Medical Research Centre, Institute of Medical Research and Medicinal Plants Studies, Yaoundé, Cameroon
| | | | - S Nkie Esemu
- Department of Microbiology and Parasitology, University of Buea, Buea, Cameroon
| | - C Veneri
- Department of Environment and Health, Istituto Superiore di Sanità, Rome, Italy
| | - P Mancini
- Department of Environment and Health, Istituto Superiore di Sanità, Rome, Italy
| | - G Bonanno Ferraro
- Department of Environment and Health, Istituto Superiore di Sanità, Rome, Italy
| | - M Iaconelli
- Department of Environment and Health, Istituto Superiore di Sanità, Rome, Italy
| | - E Suffredini
- Department of Food Safety, Nutrition and Veterinary Public Health, Istituto Superiore di Sanità, Rome, Italy
| | - G La Rosa
- Department of Environment and Health, Istituto Superiore di Sanità, Rome, Italy.
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Cook N, D’Agostino M, Wood A, Scobie L. Real-Time PCR-Based Methods for Detection of Hepatitis E Virus in Pork Products: A Critical Review. Microorganisms 2022; 10:microorganisms10020428. [PMID: 35208881 PMCID: PMC8877315 DOI: 10.3390/microorganisms10020428] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/15/2021] [Revised: 01/18/2022] [Accepted: 02/09/2022] [Indexed: 02/05/2023] Open
Abstract
Standard methods for detection of hepatitis A virus and norovirus in at-risk foodstuffs are available, but currently there is no standard method for detection of hepatitis E virus (HEV) in pork products or other foods that can be contaminated with the virus. Detection assays for HEV are mainly based on nucleic acid amplification, particularly the reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction (RTPCR) in real-time format. RTPCR-based methods can be sensitive and specific, but they require a suite of controls to verify that they have performed correctly. There have been several RTPCR methods developed to detect HEV in pork products, varying in details of sample preparation and RTPCR target sequences. This review critically discusses published HEV detection methods, with emphasis on those that have been successfully used in subsequent studies and surveys. RTPCR assays have been used both qualitatively and quantitatively, although in the latter case the data acquired are only reliable if appropriate assay calibration has been performed. One particular RTPCR assay appears to be ideal for incorporation in a standard method, as it has been demonstrated to be highly specific and sensitive, and an appropriate control and calibration standard is available. The review focuses on the detection of HEV in pork products and similar foodstuffs (e.g., boar). The information may be useful to inform standardisation activities.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nigel Cook
- Jorvik Food Safety Services, York YO32 2GN, UK
- Correspondence: (N.C.); (L.S.)
| | | | - Ann Wood
- Campden BRI, Chipping Campden GL55 6LD, UK; (M.D.); (A.W.)
| | - Linda Scobie
- Department of Biological and Biomedical Sciences, Glasgow Caledonian University, Glasgow G4 0BA, UK
- Correspondence: (N.C.); (L.S.)
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9
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Althobaiti SO, Alhumaidi GO, Alwagdani WM, Almarwani KM, Altowairqi BS, Alhaddad MS, Abdelwahab SF. Assessment of Knowledge, Attitude, and Practice among Saudi Residents Regarding Hepatitis E Virus. Am J Trop Med Hyg 2021; 106:626-631. [PMID: 34781257 PMCID: PMC8832907 DOI: 10.4269/ajtmh.21-0841] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/28/2021] [Accepted: 09/20/2021] [Indexed: 02/05/2023] Open
Abstract
Global data, including those from Saudi Arabia, that examined public knowledge, attitudes, and practices (KAP) toward hepatitis E virus (HEV) are limited. This study examined KAP levels of the general population in Saudi Arabia toward HEV. A cross-sectional study was conducted among 768 participants. An Arabic electronic questionnaire that contained demographic data and had 35 questions was used to measure KAP of the participants concerning HEV. Collected data were analyzed at a significance level of 0.05. A total of 768 individuals participated in the study, of whom 16.3% (N = 125) were males and 83.7% (N = 643) were females. Study subjects were 18 years and above. Most of the participants were Saudi citizens (95.6%; N = 734), and from Western Saudi Arabia (76.4%; N = 587). Thirty-four percent (N = 261) of the participants had not heard of HEV, and 48% were aware that yellowish skin or eyes are the most important sign of hepatitis. The level of participants' knowledge about HEV was low (39.5%). However, positive attitudes and practices were apparent and tended to aim at how to avoid becoming infected with HEV. In conclusion, the level of HEV-related knowledge among the participants was low, and their practices and attitudes were aimed at avoiding HEV infection. Awareness campaigns are required to increase the public's HEV-related knowledge.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shaima O. Althobaiti
- Department of Clinical Pharmacy, College of Pharmacy, Taif University, Taif, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia
| | - Ghaida O. Alhumaidi
- Department of Clinical Pharmacy, College of Pharmacy, Taif University, Taif, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia
| | - Waad M. Alwagdani
- Department of Clinical Pharmacy, College of Pharmacy, Taif University, Taif, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia
| | - Kawther M. Almarwani
- Department of Clinical Pharmacy, College of Pharmacy, Taif University, Taif, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia
| | - Batool S. Altowairqi
- Department of Clinical Pharmacy, College of Pharmacy, Taif University, Taif, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia
| | | | - Sayed F. Abdelwahab
- Department of Pharmaceutics and Industrial Pharmacy, College of Pharmacy, Taif University, Taif, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia
- Address correspondence to Sayed F. Abdelwahab, Professor of Pharmaceutical Microbiology, Department of Pharmaceutics and Industrial Pharmacy, College of Pharmacy, Taif University, Taif 21944, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia. E-mail:
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10
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Kamani L, Padhani ZA, Das JK. Hepatitis E: Genotypes, strategies to prevent and manage, and the existing knowledge gaps. JGH Open 2021; 5:1127-1134. [PMID: 34621997 PMCID: PMC8485408 DOI: 10.1002/jgh3.12646] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/03/2021] [Revised: 08/02/2021] [Accepted: 08/14/2021] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
Abstract
Hepatitis E virus (HEV) is considered an emergent source of viral hepatitis worldwide, with an increasing burden of jaundice, liver failure, extrahepatic illnesses, and deaths in developed countries. With the scarcity of data from efficient animal models, there are still open-ended questions about designing new models to study pathogenesis, types, virology, and evolution of these viruses. With an emphasis on available data and updates, there is still enough information to understand the HEV life cycle, pathogen interaction with the host, and the valuation of the role of vaccine and new anti-HEV therapies. However, the World Health Organization (WHO) and the European Association for the Study of the Liver (EASL) preferred to stress prevention and control measures of HEV infections in animals, zoonotic transmission, and foodborne transmission. It is being reviewed that with current knowledge on HEV and existing prevention tools, there is an excellent room for in-depth information about the virus strains, their replication, pathogenicity, and virulence. The current knowledge set also has gaps regarding standardized and validated diagnostic tools, efficacy and safety of the vaccine, and extrahepatic manifestations specifically in pregnant females, immunocompromised patients, and others. This review highlights the areas for more research exploration, focusing on enlisted research questions based on HEV infection to endorse the need for significant improvement in the current set of knowledge for this public health problem.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lubna Kamani
- Associate Professor & Director, GI Residency Program, Department of GastroenterologyLiaquat National Hospital and Medical CollegeKarachiPakistan
- ConsultantAga Khan University HospitalKarachiPakistan
| | - Zahra Ali Padhani
- Health Policy and Management, Manager (Research)Aga Khan University HospitalKarachiPakistan
| | - Jai K Das
- Assistant Professor and Head, Section of Public Health and EpidemiologyAga Khan University HospitalKarachiPakistan
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11
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Jackova A, Dudasova K, Salamunova S, Mandelik R, Novotny J, Vilcek S. Identification and genetic diversity of hepatitis E virus in domestic swine from Slovakia. BMC Vet Res 2021; 17:232. [PMID: 34193126 PMCID: PMC8246685 DOI: 10.1186/s12917-021-02936-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/10/2020] [Accepted: 06/15/2021] [Indexed: 12/27/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Hepatitis E virus (HEV) is agent causing hepatitis worldwide. Originally considered to be limited to developing countries, this virus was also detected in developed countries. In recent years an increasing number of reports indicate that farmed domestic pigs are widely infected with HEV in several European countries. The HEV status in Slovakia is still missing. Results In this study, the circulation of HEV among domestic swine in Slovakia and genetic diversity of the virus was studied. Overall HEV RNA was detected in 53/388 (13.7, 95% CI: 10.40–17.48%) pig rectal swabs in five production stages (age categories) with statistically significant differences among all the stages. The highest HEV prevalence was observed in weaners 24/81 (29.6, 95% CI: 19.99–40.81%) and then significantly declined in growers and fatteners. No HEV was detected in suckling piglets and sows. Twenty-eight partial sequences of ORF1 (242 bp) and seventeen of ORF2 (304 bp) were analysed. Phylogenetic analysis and p-distance comparisons confirmed in both ORFs that all Slovak HEV sequences belong to the genotype HEV-3, major clade 3abchij with higher identity to 3a and 3i subtypes. Three sequences were outside of all lastly updated HEV-3 subtypes. Conclusion This is the first report to fill the information gap about HEV infection in pigs in Slovakia. The results suggested a lower prevalence of HEV in Slovak pig farms than observed in other European countries. While most HEV isolates were typed as HEV-3 clade 3abchij, three sequences were unclassified.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anna Jackova
- Department of Epizootiology, Parasitology and Protection of One Health, University of Veterinary Medicine and Pharmacy, Komenskeho 73, 041 81, Kosice, Slovakia
| | - Katarina Dudasova
- Department of Epizootiology, Parasitology and Protection of One Health, University of Veterinary Medicine and Pharmacy, Komenskeho 73, 041 81, Kosice, Slovakia
| | - Slavomira Salamunova
- Department of Epizootiology, Parasitology and Protection of One Health, University of Veterinary Medicine and Pharmacy, Komenskeho 73, 041 81, Kosice, Slovakia
| | - Rene Mandelik
- Department of Epizootiology, Parasitology and Protection of One Health, University of Veterinary Medicine and Pharmacy, Komenskeho 73, 041 81, Kosice, Slovakia
| | - Jaroslav Novotny
- Clinic of Swine, University of Veterinary Medicine and Pharmacy, Komenskeho 73, 041 81, Kosice, Slovakia
| | - Stefan Vilcek
- Department of Epizootiology, Parasitology and Protection of One Health, University of Veterinary Medicine and Pharmacy, Komenskeho 73, 041 81, Kosice, Slovakia.
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12
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Hepatitis E Virus Occurrence in Pigs Slaughtered in Italy. Animals (Basel) 2021; 11:ani11020277. [PMID: 33499160 PMCID: PMC7911034 DOI: 10.3390/ani11020277] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/18/2020] [Revised: 01/19/2021] [Accepted: 01/19/2021] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Simple Summary Hepatitis E is now recognized as an emerging zoonotic disease in Europe caused by an RNA virus (HEV) and foodborne is the main route of transmission. Human cases have been linked to the consumption of contaminated pig liver sausages, raw venison, or undercooked wild boar meat. The zoonotic genotype HEV-3 is widespread in pigs at farm level but little information is available on the occurrence of HEV-positive pigs at the slaughterhouse. The aim of this study was to investigate the prevalence of HEV-positive pigs during slaughtering, to understand which biological samples (feces and organs) were more frequently HEV positive. Our results showed that pigs positive for HEV can be slaughtered and that the percentage of positive animals depends on the age of animals. The other main result is the presence of the virus in the plasma of animals, which may contribute to the contamination of meat (muscle). Nevertheless, muscles are rarely contaminated by HEV-RNA compared to liver, which is the organ of replication. Abstract In Europe, foodborne transmission has been clearly associated to sporadic cases and small clusters of hepatitis E in humans linked to the consumption of contaminated pig liver sausages, raw venison, or undercooked wild boar meat. In Europe, zoonotic HEV-genotype 3 strains are widespread in pig farms but little information is available on the prevalence of HEV positive pigs at slaughterhouse. In the present study, the prevalence of HEV-RNA positive pigs was assessed on 585 animals from 4 abattoirs located across Italy. Twenty-one pigs (3.6%) tested positive for HEV in either feces or liver by real-time RT-PCR. In these 21 pigs, eight diaphragm muscles resulted positive for HEV-RNA. Among animals collected in one abattoir, 4 out of 91 plasma tested positive for HEV-RNA. ELISA tests for the detection of total antibodies against HEV showed a high seroprevalence (76.8%), confirming the frequent exposure of pigs to the virus. The phylogenetic analyses conducted on sequences of both ORF1 and ORF2 fragments, shows the circulation of HEV-3c and of a novel unclassified subtype. This study provides information on HEV occurrence in pigs at the slaughterhouse, confirming that muscles are rarely contaminated by HEV-RNA compared to liver, which is the most frequently positive for HEV.
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13
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Dziedzinska R, Krzyzankova M, Bena M, Vasickova P. Evidence of Hepatitis E Virus in Goat and Sheep Milk. Viruses 2020; 12:v12121429. [PMID: 33322702 PMCID: PMC7763044 DOI: 10.3390/v12121429] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/08/2020] [Revised: 12/08/2020] [Accepted: 12/10/2020] [Indexed: 12/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Hepatitis E virus (HEV) is the etiological agent behind hepatitis E infection. Domestic pigs and wild boars are the main animal reservoirs of HEV. Very few papers describe HEV infection in goats and sheep. As the data pertaining to the presence of HEV virus in the milk of small ruminants in Europe are lacking, the aim of this paper was to examine a representative number of milk samples from these animals. The detection of HEV genome (HEV RNA) was performed using reverse transcriptase real-time polymerase chain reaction (RT-qPCR). HEV RNA was found in 2.8% of the examined samples. Positivity ranged from 101 to 103 genome equivalents/mL (GE/mL) with a median of 9.99 × 102 GE/mL. On the basis of these results, the milk of small ruminants could represent a source of HEV infection to consumers.
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14
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Caballero-Gómez J, García Bocanegra I, Rivero-Juárez A. Response to the Letter to the Editor concerning 'Absence of hepatitis E virus circulation in wild rabbits (Oryctolagus cuniculus) and Iberian hares (Lepus granatensis) in Mediterranean ecosystems in Spain' by Caballero-Gómez et al. (Transbound Emerg Dis; 2020: https://doi.org/10.1111/tbed.13478). Transbound Emerg Dis 2020; 67:1758-1760. [PMID: 32598556 DOI: 10.1111/tbed.13700] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/19/2020] [Accepted: 06/22/2020] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Javier Caballero-Gómez
- Departamento de Sanidad Animal, Universidad de Córdoba (UCO), Córdoba, Spain
- Unidad de Enfermedades Infecciosas, Grupo de Virología Clínica y Zoonosis, Instituto Maimónides de Investigación Biomédica de Córdoba (IMIBIC), Hospital Reina Sofía, Universidad de Córdoba (UCO), Córdoba, Spain
| | | | - Antonio Rivero-Juárez
- Unidad de Enfermedades Infecciosas, Grupo de Virología Clínica y Zoonosis, Instituto Maimónides de Investigación Biomédica de Córdoba (IMIBIC), Hospital Reina Sofía, Universidad de Córdoba (UCO), Córdoba, Spain
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15
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Nasheri N, Doctor T, Chen A, Harlow J, Gill A. Evaluation of High-Pressure Processing in Inactivation of the Hepatitis E Virus. Front Microbiol 2020; 11:461. [PMID: 32265886 PMCID: PMC7105680 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2020.00461] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/28/2019] [Accepted: 03/04/2020] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Hepatitis E virus (HEV) causes acute hepatitis with approximately 20 million cases per year globally. Based on genetic diversity, HEV is classified into different genotypes, with genotype 3 (HEV-3) being most prevalent in Europe and North America. The transmission of HEV-3 has been shown to be zoonotic and mainly associated with the consumption of raw or undercooked pork products. Herein, we investigated the efficacy of high-pressure processing (HPP) in inactivation of HEV-3 using a cell culture system. HPP has been indicated as a promising non-thermal pathogen inactivation strategy for treatment of certain high-risk food commodities, without any noticeable changes in their nature. For this purpose, we treated HEV-3 in media with different conditions of HPP: 400 MPa for 1 and 5 min, as well as 600 MPa for 1 and 5 min, at ambient temperature. All four HPP treatments of HEV in media were observed to result in a 2-log reduction in HEV load, as determined by the amounts of extracellular HEV RNA produced at 14-day post-infection, using the A549/D3 cell culture system. However, application of the same treatments to artificially contaminated pork pâté resulted in 0.5 log reduction in viral load. These results indicate that the efficacy of HPP treatment in the inactivation of HEV-3 is matrix-dependent, and independent of maximum pressure between 400 and 600 MPa and hold time between 1 and 5 min. Based on the obtained results, although the HPP treatment of pork pâté reduces the HEV-3 load, it might not be sufficient to fully mitigate the risk.
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Affiliation(s)
- Neda Nasheri
- National Food Virology Reference Centre, Bureau of Microbial Hazards, Food Directorate, Health Canada, Ottawa, ON, Canada
| | - Tanushka Doctor
- National Food Virology Reference Centre, Bureau of Microbial Hazards, Food Directorate, Health Canada, Ottawa, ON, Canada
| | - Angela Chen
- National Food Virology Reference Centre, Bureau of Microbial Hazards, Food Directorate, Health Canada, Ottawa, ON, Canada
| | - Jennifer Harlow
- National Food Virology Reference Centre, Bureau of Microbial Hazards, Food Directorate, Health Canada, Ottawa, ON, Canada
| | - Alexander Gill
- National Food Virology Reference Centre, Bureau of Microbial Hazards, Food Directorate, Health Canada, Ottawa, ON, Canada
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16
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Pingale KD, Kanade GD, Karpe YA. Heterogeneous Nuclear Ribonucleoproteins Participate in Hepatitis E Virus Replication. J Mol Biol 2020; 432:2369-2387. [PMID: 32119874 DOI: 10.1016/j.jmb.2020.02.025] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/21/2020] [Revised: 02/20/2020] [Accepted: 02/20/2020] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
Coordinated assembly of viral and host factors is essential for the successful propagation of viruses as well as the generation of host antiviral response. Previous studies from our group, as well as from other groups, have identified host proteins interacting with various components of the hepatitis E virus (HEV). However, the functional relevance of host protein interactions in HEV replication context has been notably overlooked. The present study reports that heterogeneous nuclear ribonucleoproteins (hnRNPs), namely hnRNPK, hnRNPA2B1, hnRNPH, PCBP1 and PCBP2, interact with HEV RNA promoter and RNA-dependent RNA polymerase to regulate HEV replication. We found that hnRNPK and hnRNPA2B1 are the virus-supportive factors interacting with HEV RNA at promoter regions along with HEV polymerase protein, which are essential for HEV replication in the cells. Contrarily, hnRNPH, PCBP1 and PCBP2 are the antiviral factors that interact exclusively with HEV genomic promoter and inhibit HEV replication in Huh7 S10-3 cells. In vitro RNA-binding assays revealed that the antiviral hnRNP proteins hamper the binding of virus-supportive hnRNP proteins at HEV genomic promoter. In the binding reaction, the binding of HEV polymerase protein to the genomic promoter is slightly affected by the presence of antiviral hnRNPH. In an effort of visualizing the subcellular localization of hnRNP proteins in the HEV replication scenario in the Huh7 cells, we showed that hnRNPK, hnRNPA2B1, hnRNPH, PCBP1 and PCBP2 redistribute from nucleus to cytoplasm. In conclusion, our study highlights the importance of hnRNP proteins in HEV replication regulation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kunal D Pingale
- Agharkar Research Institute, Nanobioscience Group, G. G. Agarkar Road, Pune 411004, India; Savitribai Phule Pune University, Ganeshkhind, Pune 411 007, India
| | - Gayatri D Kanade
- Agharkar Research Institute, Nanobioscience Group, G. G. Agarkar Road, Pune 411004, India; Savitribai Phule Pune University, Ganeshkhind, Pune 411 007, India
| | - Yogesh A Karpe
- Agharkar Research Institute, Nanobioscience Group, G. G. Agarkar Road, Pune 411004, India; Savitribai Phule Pune University, Ganeshkhind, Pune 411 007, India.
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17
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Noninvasive models for predicting poor prognosis of chronic HBV infection patients precipitating acute HEV infection. Sci Rep 2020; 10:2753. [PMID: 32066795 PMCID: PMC7026406 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-020-59670-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/24/2019] [Accepted: 02/03/2020] [Indexed: 12/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Hepatitis E virus (HEV) infection contributes to a considerable proportion of acute-on-chronic liver failure (ACLF) in patients with chronic hepatitis B virus (HBV) infection. This study aimed to predict the prognosis of chronic HBV infection patients precipitating acute HEV infection. A total of 193 patients were enrolled in this study. The performances of three chronic liver disease prognostic models (CTP score, MELD score, and CLIF-C ADs) were analyzed for predicting the development of ACLF following HEV superimposing chronic HBV infection. Subsequently, the performances of five ACLF prognostic assessment models (CTP score, MELD score, CLIF-C ACLFs, CLIF-C OFs, and COSSH-ACLFs) were analyzed for predicting the outcome of those ACLF patients. Of 193 chronic HBV infection patients precipitating acute HEV infection, 13 patients were diagnosed ACLF on admission, 54 patients developed to ACLF after admission, and 126 patients had non-ACLF during the stay in hospital. For predicting the development of ACLF, CTP score yielded a significantly higher AUROC compared with MELD score and CLIF-C ADs (0.92, 0.88, and 0.86, respectively; all p < 0.05). For predicting the poor prognosis of ACLF patients, the COSSH-ACLFs yielded a significantly higher AUROC compared with CLIF-C ACLFs, CLIF-C OFs, MELD score, and CTP score (0.89, 0.83, 0.81, 0.67, and 0.58, respectively; all p < 0.05). In conclusion, the stepwise application of CTP score and COSSH-ACLFs can predict the prognosis of chronic HBV infection patients precipitating acute HEV infection.
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18
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Li Y, Huang B, Shen C, Cai C, Wang Y, Edwards J, Zhang G, Robertson ID. Pig trade networks through live pig markets in Guangdong Province, China. Transbound Emerg Dis 2020; 67:1315-1329. [PMID: 31903722 PMCID: PMC7228257 DOI: 10.1111/tbed.13472] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/30/2019] [Revised: 12/27/2019] [Accepted: 12/27/2019] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
This study used social network analysis to investigate the indirect contact network between counties through the movement of live pigs through four wholesale live pig markets in Guangdong Province, China. All 14,118 trade records for January and June 2016 were collected from the markets and the patterns of pig trade in these markets analysed. Maps were developed to show the movement pathways. Evaluating the network between source counties was the primary objective of this study. A 1‐mode network was developed. Characteristics of the trading network were explored, and the degree, betweenness and closeness were calculated for each source county. Models were developed to compare the impacts of different disease control strategies on the potential magnitude of an epidemic spreading through this network. The results show that pigs from 151 counties were delivered to the four wholesale live pig markets in January and/or June 2016. More batches (truckloads of pigs sourced from one or more piggeries) were traded in these markets in January (8,001) than in June 2016 (6,117). The pigs were predominantly sourced from counties inside Guangdong Province (90%), along with counties in Hunan, Guangxi, Jiangxi, Fujian and Henan provinces. The major source counties (46 in total) contributed 94% of the total batches during the two‐month study period. Pigs were sourced from piggeries located 10 to 1,417 km from the markets. The distribution of the nodes' degrees in both January and June indicates a free‐scale network property, and the network in January had a higher clustering coefficient (0.54 vs. 0.39) and a shorter average pathway length (1.91 vs. 2.06) than that in June. The most connected counties of the network were in the central, northern and western regions of Guangdong Province. Compared with randomly removing counties from the network, eliminating counties with higher betweenness, degree or closeness resulted in a greater reduction of the magnitude of a potential epidemic. The findings of this study can be used to inform targeted control interventions for disease spread through this live pig market trade network in south China.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yin Li
- School of Veterinary Medicine, Murdoch University, Perth, WA, Australia.,China Animal Health and Epidemiology Center, Qingdao, China
| | - Baoxu Huang
- School of Veterinary Medicine, Murdoch University, Perth, WA, Australia.,China Animal Health and Epidemiology Center, Qingdao, China
| | - Chaojian Shen
- China Animal Health and Epidemiology Center, Qingdao, China
| | - Chang Cai
- Research and Innovation Office, Murdoch University, Murdoch, WA, Australia.,China Australia Joint Laboratory for Animal Health Big Data Analytics, College of Animal Science and Technology, Zhejiang Agricultural and Forestry University, Hangzhou, China
| | - Youming Wang
- China Animal Health and Epidemiology Center, Qingdao, China
| | - John Edwards
- School of Veterinary Medicine, Murdoch University, Perth, WA, Australia.,China Animal Health and Epidemiology Center, Qingdao, China
| | - Guihong Zhang
- South China Agriculture University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Ian D Robertson
- School of Veterinary Medicine, Murdoch University, Perth, WA, Australia.,China-Australia Joint Research and Training Centre for Veterinary Epidemiology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, China
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19
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Salines M, Rose N, Andraud M. Tackling hepatitis E virus spread and persistence on farrow-to-finish pig farms: Insights from a stochastic individual-based multi-pathogen model. Epidemics 2019; 30:100369. [PMID: 31526684 DOI: 10.1016/j.epidem.2019.100369] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/15/2019] [Revised: 08/29/2019] [Accepted: 08/30/2019] [Indexed: 01/01/2023] Open
Abstract
Hepatitis E virus (HEV) is a zoonotic agent of which domestic pigs have been recognised as the main reservoir in industrialised countries. The great variability in HEV infection dynamics described on different pig farms may be related to the influence of other pathogens, and in particular viruses affecting pigs' immune response. The objective of this study was to develop a multi-pathogen modelling approach to understand the conditions under which HEV spreads and persists on a farrow-to-finish pig farm taking into account the fact that pigs may be co-infected with an intercurrent pathogen. A stochastic individual-based model was therefore designed that combines a population dynamics model, which enables us to take different batch rearing systems into account, with a multi-pathogen model representing at the same time the dynamics of both HEV and the intercurrent pathogen. Based on experimental and field data, the epidemiological parameters of the HEV model varied according to the pig's immunomodulating virus status. HEV spread and persistence was found to be very difficult to control on a farm with a 20-batch rearing system. Housing sows in smaller groups and eradicating immunomodulating pathogens would dramatically reduce the prevalence of HEV-positive livers at slaughter, which would drop from 3.3% to 1% and 0.2% respectively (p-value < 0.01). It would also decrease the probability of HEV on-farm persistence from 0.6 to 0 and 0.34 respectively (p-value < 0.01) on farms with a 7 batch rearing system. A number of farming practices, such as limiting cross-fostering, reducing the size of weaning pens and vaccinating pigs against immunomodulating viruses, were also shown to be pivotal factors for decreasing HEV spread and persistence.
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Affiliation(s)
- Morgane Salines
- ANSES, Ploufragan-Plouzané-Niort Laboratory, Epidemiology, Health and Welfare research unit, Ploufragan, France; Bretagne-Loire University, Rennes, France.
| | - Nicolas Rose
- ANSES, Ploufragan-Plouzané-Niort Laboratory, Epidemiology, Health and Welfare research unit, Ploufragan, France; Bretagne-Loire University, Rennes, France.
| | - Mathieu Andraud
- ANSES, Ploufragan-Plouzané-Niort Laboratory, Epidemiology, Health and Welfare research unit, Ploufragan, France; Bretagne-Loire University, Rennes, France.
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20
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Rogers E, Todd SM, Pierson FW, Kenney SP, Heffron CL, Yugo DM, Matzinger SR, Mircoff E, Ngo I, Kirby C, Jones M, Siegel P, Jobst P, Hall K, Etches RJ, Meng XJ, LeRoith T. CD8 + lymphocytes but not B lymphocytes are required for protection against chronic hepatitis E virus infection in chickens. J Med Virol 2019; 91:1960-1969. [PMID: 31317546 DOI: 10.1002/jmv.25548] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/13/2019] [Accepted: 07/09/2019] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Hepatitis E is an important global disease, causing outbreaks of acute hepatitis in many developing countries and sporadic cases in industrialized countries. Hepatitis E virus (HEV) infection typically causes self-limiting acute hepatitis but can also progress to chronic disease in immunocompromised individuals. The immune response necessary for the prevention of chronic infection is T cell-dependent; however, the arm of cellular immunity responsible for this protection is not currently known. To investigate the contribution of humoral immunity in control of HEV infection and prevention of chronicity, we experimentally infected 20 wild-type (WT) and 18 immunoglobulin knockout (JH-KO) chickens with a chicken strain of HEV (avian HEV). Four weeks postinfection (wpi) with avian HEV, JH-KO chickens were unable to elicit anti-HEV antibody but had statistically significantly lower liver lesion scores than the WT chickens. At 16 wpi, viral RNA in fecal material and liver, and severe liver lesions were undetectable in both groups. To determine the role of cytotoxic lymphocytes in the prevention of chronicity, we infected 20 WT and 20 cyclosporine and CD8+ antibody-treated chickens with the same strain of avian HEV. The CD8 + lymphocyte-depleted, HEV-infected chickens had higher incidences of prolonged fecal viral shedding and statistically significantly higher liver lesion scores than the untreated, HEV-infected birds at 16 wpi. The results indicate that CD8 + lymphocytes are required for viral clearance and reduction of liver lesions in HEV infection while antibodies are not necessary for viral clearance but may contribute to the development of liver lesions in acute HEV infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eda Rogers
- Department of Biomedical Sciences and Pathobiology, Virginia-Maryland College of Veterinary Medicine, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, Blacksburg, Virginia
| | - Stephanie Michelle Todd
- Department of Biomedical Sciences and Pathobiology, Virginia-Maryland College of Veterinary Medicine, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, Blacksburg, Virginia
| | - Frank William Pierson
- Department of Biomedical Sciences and Pathobiology, Virginia-Maryland College of Veterinary Medicine, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, Blacksburg, Virginia
| | - Scott P Kenney
- Department of Biomedical Sciences and Pathobiology, Virginia-Maryland College of Veterinary Medicine, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, Blacksburg, Virginia
| | - Connie Lynn Heffron
- Department of Biomedical Sciences and Pathobiology, Virginia-Maryland College of Veterinary Medicine, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, Blacksburg, Virginia
| | - Danielle M Yugo
- Department of Biomedical Sciences and Pathobiology, Virginia-Maryland College of Veterinary Medicine, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, Blacksburg, Virginia
| | - Shannon R Matzinger
- Department of Biomedical Sciences and Pathobiology, Virginia-Maryland College of Veterinary Medicine, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, Blacksburg, Virginia
| | - Elena Mircoff
- Department of Biomedical Sciences and Pathobiology, Virginia-Maryland College of Veterinary Medicine, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, Blacksburg, Virginia
| | - Irene Ngo
- Department of Biomedical Sciences and Pathobiology, Virginia-Maryland College of Veterinary Medicine, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, Blacksburg, Virginia
| | - Charles Kirby
- Department of Biomedical Sciences and Pathobiology, Virginia-Maryland College of Veterinary Medicine, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, Blacksburg, Virginia
| | - Michaela Jones
- Department of Biomedical Sciences and Pathobiology, Virginia-Maryland College of Veterinary Medicine, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, Blacksburg, Virginia
| | - Paul Siegel
- Department of Animal and Poultry Sciences, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, Blacksburg, Virginia
| | - Peter Jobst
- Department of Biomedical Sciences and Pathobiology, Virginia-Maryland College of Veterinary Medicine, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, Blacksburg, Virginia
| | - Karen Hall
- Department of Biomedical Sciences and Pathobiology, Virginia-Maryland College of Veterinary Medicine, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, Blacksburg, Virginia
| | | | - Xiang-Jin Meng
- Department of Biomedical Sciences and Pathobiology, Virginia-Maryland College of Veterinary Medicine, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, Blacksburg, Virginia
| | - Tanya LeRoith
- Department of Biomedical Sciences and Pathobiology, Virginia-Maryland College of Veterinary Medicine, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, Blacksburg, Virginia
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21
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Mulder AC, Kroneman A, Franz E, Vennema H, Tulen AD, Takkinen J, Hofhuis A, Adlhoch C. HEVnet: a One Health, collaborative, interdisciplinary network and sequence data repository for enhanced hepatitis E virus molecular typing, characterisation and epidemiological investigations. Euro Surveill 2019; 24:1800407. [PMID: 30862334 PMCID: PMC6415499 DOI: 10.2807/1560-7917.es.2019.24.10.1800407] [Citation(s) in RCA: 47] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/24/2018] [Accepted: 02/08/2019] [Indexed: 12/27/2022] Open
Abstract
Hepatitis E virus (HEV) is a common cause of acute hepatitis worldwide. In Europe, HEV is a zoonosis transmitted via contaminated pork meat or other pork food products. Genotype 3 is the most prevalent HEV type in the animal reservoir, as well as in humans. Despite an increased incidence of hepatitis E across Europe, much remains unknown about its spread, sources and transmission routes. A One Health approach is crucial to better understand the (molecular) epidemiology of HEV. HEVnet was established in April 2017 as a network and database for sharing sequences and accompanying metadata collected from human, animal, food and environmental sources. HEVnet members working in the public health, veterinary health, food, environmental and blood safety sectors have submitted 1,615 HEV sequences from nine countries as at January 2019. Most are from humans (89%), and sequences of animal (5%), food (6%) or environmental (0.3%) origin are rare. Metadata for human sequences capture mostly sex (93%), year of birth (92%) and sampling (100%); data on region of sampling (37%) and clinical information (hospitalisation 27%, symptoms 20% or mortality 8%) are limited. HEVnet aims to expand into a global network capable of performing cross-sectoral and supranational studies, with a joint repository of molecular and epidemiological data on HEV.
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Affiliation(s)
- Annemieke Christine Mulder
- Centre for Infectious Disease Control, National Institute for Public Health and the Environment (RIVM), Bilthoven, the Netherlands
| | - Annelies Kroneman
- Centre for Infectious Disease Control, National Institute for Public Health and the Environment (RIVM), Bilthoven, the Netherlands
| | - Eelco Franz
- Centre for Infectious Disease Control, National Institute for Public Health and the Environment (RIVM), Bilthoven, the Netherlands
| | - Harry Vennema
- Centre for Infectious Disease Control, National Institute for Public Health and the Environment (RIVM), Bilthoven, the Netherlands
| | - Anna D Tulen
- Centre for Infectious Disease Control, National Institute for Public Health and the Environment (RIVM), Bilthoven, the Netherlands
| | - Johanna Takkinen
- European Centre for Disease Prevention and Control (ECDC), Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Agnetha Hofhuis
- Centre for Infectious Disease Control, National Institute for Public Health and the Environment (RIVM), Bilthoven, the Netherlands
- These authors contributed equally to this article and share last authorship
| | - Cornelia Adlhoch
- European Centre for Disease Prevention and Control (ECDC), Stockholm, Sweden
- These authors contributed equally to this article and share last authorship
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22
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The genetic divergences of codon usage shed new lights on transmission of hepatitis E virus from swine to human. INFECTION GENETICS AND EVOLUTION 2019; 68:23-29. [DOI: 10.1016/j.meegid.2018.11.024] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/15/2018] [Revised: 11/22/2018] [Accepted: 11/30/2018] [Indexed: 12/27/2022]
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23
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Pingale KD, Kanade GD, Karpe YA. Hepatitis E virus polymerase binds to IFIT1 to protect the viral RNA from IFIT1-mediated translation inhibition. J Gen Virol 2019; 100:471-483. [PMID: 30702423 DOI: 10.1099/jgv.0.001229] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Hepatitis E virus (HEV) induces interferons and regulates the induction of interferon-stimulated genes (ISGs) in the host cell. HEV infection has been shown to promote the expression of different ISGs, such as ISG15, IFIT1, MX1, RSAD2/Viperin and CxCL10, in cell culture and animal models. Interferon-induced protein with tetratricopeptide repeat 1 (IFIT1) is an ISG-encoded protein that inhibits the translation of viral RNA, having 5'-triphosphate or the mRNA lacking 2'-O-methylation on the 5'cap. In this study, we found that IFIT1 binds to HEV RNA to inhibit its translation. HEV replication is also restricted in hepatoma cells with overexpressed IFIT1. However, despite this binding of IFIT1 to HEV RNA, HEV successfully replicates in hepatoma cells in the infection scenario. In an effort to identify the underlying mechanism, we found that HEV RNA-dependent RNA polymerase (RdRp) binds to IFIT1, thereby protecting the viral RNA from IFIT1-mediated translation inhibition. RdRp sequesters IFIT1, resulting in the successful progression of viral replication in the infected cells. Thus, we discovered a distinct pro-viral role of HEV RdRp that is crucial for successful infection in the host, and propose a unique mechanism developed by HEV to overcome IFIT1-mediated host immune response.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kunal D Pingale
- 1Agharkar Research Institute, Nanobioscience Group, G. G. Agarkar Road, Pune 411004, India.,2Savitribai Phule Pune University, Ganeshkhind, Pune 411 007, India
| | - Gayatri D Kanade
- 1Agharkar Research Institute, Nanobioscience Group, G. G. Agarkar Road, Pune 411004, India.,2Savitribai Phule Pune University, Ganeshkhind, Pune 411 007, India
| | - Yogesh A Karpe
- 1Agharkar Research Institute, Nanobioscience Group, G. G. Agarkar Road, Pune 411004, India.,2Savitribai Phule Pune University, Ganeshkhind, Pune 411 007, India
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24
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Charlier J, Barkema HW. DISCONTOOLS supplement: Current research gaps for advancing control of infectious diseases in production animals. Transbound Emerg Dis 2018; 65 Suppl 1:5-8. [PMID: 29878664 DOI: 10.1111/tbed.12878] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/19/2018] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
DISCONTOOLS (DISease CONtrol TOOLS) is an open-access database to assist public and private funders of animal health research in identifying research gaps and planning future research. This database is supported by a range of national funders of animal health research in Europe, with industry providing secretariat support. Information in the database is generated by disease-specific expert groups. In this DISCONTOOLS Supplement, contributing experts expanded their gap analyses into review papers for 15 diseases, covering zoonotic, production and epizootic diseases. Across this diverse array of diseases, it is clear that fundamental research on host-pathogen relationships and immune responses remains critical for evidence-based development of novel vaccines, pharmaceuticals and diagnostics to improve animal health. Furthermore, it is also obvious that there is need to better utilize economics and knowledge regarding "human factors" to optimise uptake and use of a broad range of tools and insights.
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Affiliation(s)
- J Charlier
- AnimalhealthEurope, Brussels, Belgium.,Kreavet, Kruibeke, Belgium
| | - H W Barkema
- Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Department of Production Animal Health, University of Calgary, Calgary, AB, Canada.,Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Department of Reproduction, Obstetrics and Herd Health, Ghent University, Ghent, Belgium
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25
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Randazzo W, Vasquez-García A, Aznar R, Sánchez G. Viability RT-qPCR to Distinguish Between HEV and HAV With Intact and Altered Capsids. Front Microbiol 2018; 9:1973. [PMID: 30210465 PMCID: PMC6119771 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2018.01973] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/21/2018] [Accepted: 08/06/2018] [Indexed: 01/08/2023] Open
Abstract
The hepatitis E virus (HEV) is an emerging pathogen showing a considerable increase in the number of reported cases in Europe mainly related to the ingestion of contaminated food. As with other relevant viral foodborne pathogens, real-time reverse transcriptase polymerase chain reaction (RT-qPCR) is the gold standard for HEV detection in clinical, food, and environmental samples, but these procedures cannot discriminate between inactivated and potentially infectious viruses. Thus, the aim of this study was to develop a viability PCR method to discriminate between native, heat-, and high-pressure processing (HPP)-treated HEV using the hepatitis A virus (HAV) as a cultivable surrogate. To this end, different concentrations of viability markers (PMAxx and platinum chloride, PtCl4) were screened firstly on purified viral RNA using different RT-qPCR assays. Reductions of HEV RNA signals of >17.5, >15.0, and >15.5 quantification cycles (Cq) were reported for PtCl4 and 1.6, 2.9, and 8.4 Cq for PMAxx, clearly indicating a better performance of PtCl4 than PMAxx irrespective of the RT-qPCR assay used. The most efficient viability pretreatment (500 μM PtCl4 incubated at 5°C for 30 min) was then assessed on native, heat-, and HPP-treated HEV suspension. The optimized viability RT-qPCR discriminated successfully between native, heat-, and HPP-treated HEV, to different extents depending on the experimental conditions. In particular, approximately 2-log10 reduction was reported by PtCl4-RT-qPCR at both 72 and 95°C compared to the control. Additionally, both viability pretreatments were tested for HPP-treated HAV without success, while PtCl4-RT-qPCR completely eliminated (>5.6-log10 reduction) the RT-qPCR signals of HPP-treated HEV. Although this viability procedure may still overestimate infectivity, the PtCl4 pretreatment represents progress to better interpreting the quantification of intact HEV, and it could be included in molecular procedures used to quantify enteric viruses in food and environmental samples.
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Affiliation(s)
- Walter Randazzo
- Department of Microbiology and Ecology, University of Valencia, Valencia, Spain
- Department of Preservation and Food Safety Technologies, Instituto de Agroquímica y Tecnología de Alimentos – Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas, Valencia, Spain
| | - Andrea Vasquez-García
- Faculty of Animal Science and Food Engineering, University of São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Rosa Aznar
- Department of Microbiology and Ecology, University of Valencia, Valencia, Spain
- Department of Preservation and Food Safety Technologies, Instituto de Agroquímica y Tecnología de Alimentos – Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas, Valencia, Spain
| | - Gloria Sánchez
- Department of Preservation and Food Safety Technologies, Instituto de Agroquímica y Tecnología de Alimentos – Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas, Valencia, Spain
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26
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Cao D, Ni YY, Walker M, Huang YW, Meng XJ. Roles of the genomic sequence surrounding the stem-loop structure in the junction region including the 3' terminus of open reading frame 1 in hepatitis E virus replication. J Med Virol 2018; 90:1524-1531. [PMID: 29718575 DOI: 10.1002/jmv.25215] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/04/2018] [Accepted: 04/18/2018] [Indexed: 01/15/2023]
Abstract
Hepatitis E virus (HEV), a member of the family Hepeviridae, causes both acute and chronic viral hepatitis. We have previously demonstrated that the stem-loop structure in the junction region (JR) of HEV genome plays a critical role in HEV replication. However, the function of the sequence bordering the JR, including the 3' terminus of open reading frame (ORF1), in HEV replication is unknown. In this study, a panel of HEV Renilla luciferase (Rluc) replicons containing various deletions at 5' or 3' termini of the JR was constructed to determine the effect of the deletions on HEV replication in Huh7 human liver cells. We showed that even a single nucleotide deletion at the 5' terminus of the JR abolished HEV replication, whereas deletions at the 3' terminus of the JR also decreased virus replication efficiency. Furthermore, we also constructed firefly luciferase and Rluc dual-reporter HEV replicons containing the 3' terminal ORF1 of various lengths and the JR inserted upstream of the Rluc reporter. A higher level of HEV replication was observed in cells transfected with replicons containing the 3' terminal ORF1 than that of the JR only replicon. We also showed that the ORF3 noncoding sequence along with the JR promoted a higher level of translation activity than that promoted by JR and the ORF2 noncoding sequence.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dianjun Cao
- Department of Biomedical Sciences and Pathobiology, Virginia-Maryland College of Veterinary Medicine, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, Blacksburg, Virginia
| | - Yan-Yan Ni
- Department of Biomedical Sciences and Pathobiology, Virginia-Maryland College of Veterinary Medicine, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, Blacksburg, Virginia
| | - Michelle Walker
- Department of Biomedical Sciences and Pathobiology, Virginia-Maryland College of Veterinary Medicine, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, Blacksburg, Virginia
| | - Yao-Wei Huang
- Department of Biomedical Sciences and Pathobiology, Virginia-Maryland College of Veterinary Medicine, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, Blacksburg, Virginia
| | - Xiang-Jin Meng
- Department of Biomedical Sciences and Pathobiology, Virginia-Maryland College of Veterinary Medicine, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, Blacksburg, Virginia
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