Worldwide occurrence of haemoplasmas in wildlife: Insights into the patterns of infection, transmission, pathology and zoonotic potential

First detection and molecular characterization of Mycoplasma species in camels, cattle, buffalo, and their associated ticks from southern Egypt

Mycoplasma species are wall-less bacteria that infect multiple mammalian orders, including livestock, and are associated with economically significant diseases. In Egypt, molecular data on the presence and diversity of Mycoplasma spp. in camels, cattle, buffalo, and their associated ticks remain limited, despite their potential impact on livestock health and productivity. This study aimed to detect and genetically characterize Mycoplasma spp. in cattle, buffalo, camels, and their associated ticks in southern Egypt. A total of 571 samples (384 ticks, 50 buffalo, 68 cattle, and 69 camels) were screened using PCR targeting the 16S rRNA gene, followed by phylogenetic analysis of representative amplicons. Hyalomma dromedarii, Hyalomma marginatum, and Rhipicephalus annulatus were the tick species collected. Overall, Mycoplasma DNA was detected in 10.3 % of the samples. Mycoplasma ovis-like was identified in 2.9 % of camel blood, 9.4 % of H. dromedarii, 75 % of H. marginatum, and 13.8 % of R. annulatus ticks. Candidatus Mycoplasma haematovis was found in 0.4 % of H. dromedarii, and Mycoplasma wenyonii-like in 13.2 % of cattle and 4 % of buffalo blood. Remarkably, this is the first global detection of M. ovis in camel blood, as well as the detection of M. ovis-like and Ca. M. haematovis in ticks circulating on camels. This study also reports the first detection of M. wenyonii-like in bovines in Egypt and documents M. ovis-like in three tick species parasitizing cattle. The genetic similarities of Mycoplasma sequences from ticks and livestock suggest that these arthropods may serve as potential vectors. These findings highlight the need for additional studies on the zoonotic potential, infectivity, and vector competence of Mycoplasma spp. in Egypt.

Occurrence and molecular identification of haemotropic Mycoplasma species in grey wolves (Canis lupus) from southern Europe

Although wild and domestic carnivores share some haemotropic Mycoplasma species, information about the circulation of this pathogen in grey wolves (Canis lupus) populations is still very limited. Thus, a geographically broad-based investigation was performed for determining the occurrence and diversity of Mycoplasma spp. in three different wolf populations from southern Europe. Between 2001 and 2023, spleen samples from 285 grey wolves from Spain (n = 129), Italy (n = 113), and Portugal (n = 43) were collected. The presence of haemotropic Mycoplasma was assessed targeting the 16S rRNA gene using two PCR assays in parallel; in addition, the 16S-23S rRNA intergenic spacer was analysed for further identification of the positive samples. The influence of the sampling country, sex, and age of the animals on the prevalence of Mycoplasma spp. was also assessed by a generalized linear model analysis. The percentage of positive wolves was 13.3 % (38/285), and the occurrence was significantly higher in Spain (20.9 %) than in Italy (8.0 %) and Portugal (4.7 %). Mycoplasma haemocanis (10.5 %) and Candidatus M. haematoparvum (2.1 %), were identified; in addition, an uncultured Mycoplasma sp. was also detected (0.7 %). Our results confirm the circulation of potentially zoonotic Mycoplasma in wolf populations from southern Europe. To our knowledge, this is the first report of Ca. M. haematoparvum in wolves from Italy and Portugal. In addition, a Mycoplasma sp., previously found in dogs, has been detected for the first time in wolves. Further studies are needed to fully molecularly characterise haemotropic Mycoplasma spp., which will serve as a basis for the study of its ecoepidemiology.

Natural infection and diversity of hemotropic mycoplasmas in free-ranging Geoffroy's cat (Leopardus geoffroyi) and margay cat (Leopardus wiedii) populations in Southern Brazil

Hemoplasma infection significantly impacts felines health, yet there is a research gap regarding free-ranging wild small felids. Therefore, this study aimed to investigate the occurrence of hemoplasma in Leopardus geoffroyi and Leopardus wiedii in southern Brazil. For this purpose, we conducted molecular research for Mycoplasma spp. based on the 16S rRNA gene in 79 blood samples from captured wild felids. When positive, the samples were submitted to species-specific reactions for Mycoplasma haemofelis (Mhf), 'Candidatus Mycoplasma haemominutum' (CMhm), and 'Candidatus Mycoplasma turicensis' (CMt). A total of 39/79 samples were positive for at least one species of hemoplasma. The frequencies found by hemoplasma species were: 39.2 % (31/79) for Mhf, 17.7 % (14/79) for CMhm, and 20.2 % (16/79) for CMt. Factors such as species, sex, age, pelage, capture season, ectoparasite presence, and co-infection with another Mycoplasma were not associated with hemoplasma infection. This study provides the first evidence of circulating hemotropic mycoplasmas in free-living L. geoffroyi and L. wiedii in southern Brazil.

Geographically widespread and novel hemotropic mycoplasmas and bartonellae in Mexican free-tailed bats and sympatric North American bat species

Bacterial pathogens remain poorly characterized in bats, especially in North America. We describe novel (and in some cases panmictic) hemoplasmas (10.1% positivity) and bartonellae (25.6% positivity) across three colonies of Mexican free-tailed bats (Tadarida brasiliensis), a partially migratory species that can seasonally travel hundreds of kilometers. Molecular analyses identified three novel Candidatus hemoplasma species most similar to another novel Candidatus species in Neotropical molossid bats. We also detected novel hemoplasmas in sympatric cave myotis (Myotis velifer) and pallid bats (Antrozous pallidus), with sequences in the latter 96.5% related to Candidatus Mycoplasma haematohominis. We identified nine Bartonella genogroups, including those in cave myotis with 96.1% similarity to Candidatus Bartonella mayotimonensis. We also detected Bartonella rochalimae in migratory Mexican free-tailed bats, representing the first report of this human pathogen in the Chiroptera. Monthly sampling of migratory Mexican free-tailed bats during their North American occupancy period also revealed significant seasonality in infection for both bacterial pathogens, with prevalence increasing following spring migration, peaking in the maternity season, and declining into fall migration. The substantial diversity and seasonality of hemoplasmas and bartonellae observed here suggest that additional longitudinal, genomic, and immunological studies in bats are warranted to inform One Health approaches.

IMPORTANCE

Bats have been intensively sampled for viruses but remain mostly understudied for bacterial pathogens. However, bacterial pathogens can have significant impacts on both human health and bat morbidity and even mortality. Hemoplasmas and bartonellae are facultative intracellular bacteria of special interest in bats, given their high prevalence and substantial genetic diversity. Surveys have also supported plausible zoonotic transmission of these bacteria from bats to humans, including Candidatus Mycoplasma haematohominis and Candidatus Bartonella mayotimonensis. Greater characterization of these bacteria across global bat diversity (over 1,480 species) is therefore warranted to inform infection risks for both bats and humans, although little surveillance has thus far been conducted in North American bats. We here describe novel (and in some cases panmictic) hemoplasmas and bartonellae across three colonies of Mexican free-tailed bats and sympatric bat species. We find high genetic diversity and seasonality of these pathogens, including lineages closely related to human pathogens, such as Bartonella rochalimae.

Detection and phylogenetic analysis of blood-associated pathogens from spleen samples of wild raccoons (Procyon lotor) in Germany

Raccoons (Procyon lotor) originated in North America and have been introduced to Europe. Due to their close contact with human settlements, they are important reservoirs for zoonotic pathogens, such as Baylisascaris procyonis. The relevance and prevalence of vector-borne pathogens have not yet been fully elucidated. In this study, we screened 285 spleen samples of raccoons, collected between 2019 and 2022 in Germany. The samples were analysed by PCR to detect Mycoplasma spp., Anaplasmataceae, Bartonella spp., Babesia spp., Rickettsia spp., Filarioidea, Trypanosomatida and Hepatozoon spp., and positive PCR products were sequenced. In total, 104 samples were positive for Mycoplasma spp. (36.49%), making this the first study to detect Mycoplasma spp. in raccoons outside of North America. Three samples were positive for Babesia spp. (1.05%) and two for Anaplasma phagocytophilum (0.7%). Phylogenetic analysis revealed that the Mycoplasma spp. detected all belong to the haemotrophic mycoplasmas cluster and were grouped within a single phylogenetic clade. Two different Babesia spp. were detected, one of which was closely related to Babesia canis, while the other was more closely related to Babesia sp. from ruminants. It is unclear whether the pathogens detected have an impact on the health of raccoons or whether they may serve as a reservoir for other animals.

Metabarcoding using nanopore sequencing enables identification of diverse and zoonotic vector-borne pathogens from neglected regions: A case study investigating dogs from Bhutan

The diversity and prevalence of canine vector-borne pathogens (VBPs) in Bhutan have to date remained unexplored, whilst recent epidemiological surveys in other South Asian nations have found diseases caused by VBPs to be rife in local dog populations. Importantly, many of such VBPs can infect people as well, with a building body of evidence identifying potentially zoonotic rickettsial organisms infecting humans in Bhutan. Given the lack of data on canine pathogens in Bhutan we employed a suite of deep-sequencing metabarcoding methods using Oxford Nanopore Technologies' MinION™ device to holistically characterise the bacterial, apicomplexan and filarial worm blood-borne pathogens of dogs in the country's south. Of the 95 stray, owned and community dogs sampled 78% (95% CI = 69%-85%) were infected with at least one VBP. Pathogen species detected were highly diverse including the bacteria Mycoplasma haemocanis in 16% (95% CI: 10-24%), Ehrlichia canis in 4% (95% CI: 2-10%), Anaplasma platys in 2% (95% CI: 0.5-7%) of dogs as well as the zoonotic species Bartonella clarridgeiae in 1% (95% CI: 0.1-6%), a potentially novel Bartonella spp. and an Ehrlichia chaffeensis-like bacterium, both in 1% (95% CI: 0.1-6%) of dogs. The apicomplexan haemoparasites Hepatozoon canis in 62% (95% CI: 52-71%), Babesia gibsoni in 45% (95% CI: 36-55%) and Babesia vogeli in 3% (95% CI: 1-9%) of dogs were also detected. Finally, 5% (95% CI: 2-12%) of dogs were found to be infected with the filarioid Acanthocheilonema reconditum and 1% (95% CI: 0.1-6%) with zoonotic Dirofilaria sp. hongkongensis. One canine was found positive to the filarioid Setaria tundra, a species normally found infecting cervids. The elucidated diversity of VBP communities highlights the strength of assumption-free diagnostics, such as metabarcoding, in detecting rare, novel, and unexpected pathogens. This approach to identifying pathogen diversity is of critical importance when investigating regions and populations that have thus far been neglected, with the findings aiding the development of future One Health informed strategies for disease control.

Molecular detection and characterization of Anaplasmataceae agents, Bartonella spp. and hemoplasmas in armadillos and anteaters from Brazil

Armadillos and anteaters exhibit a wide range of interactions with various pathogens and ectoparasites, which, along with their physiological and ecological characteristics, contribute to their potential as hosts for a broad variety of pathogens with zoonotic potential. However, there has been limited research into the occurrence and diversity of vector-borne agents in this group of mammals. The present study aimed to investigate the occurrence and molecular identity of Ehrlichia spp., Anaplasma spp., Bartonella spp. and hemotropic mycoplasmas (hemoplasmas) in free-ranging armadillos and anteaters sampled in the southeast and central-west regions of Brazil. To this purpose, 167 biological samples (139 blood and 28 spleen) from Xenarthra mammals sampled in the states of São Paulo and Mato Grosso do Sul were analyzed: 48 from six-banded armadillos (Euphractus sexcinctus), 29 from giant armadillos (Priodontes maximus), 4 from nine-banded armadillos (Dasypus novemcinctus), 1 from naked-tailed armadillo (Cabassous unicinctus), 79 from giant anteaters (Myrmecophaga tridactyla) and 6 from southern tamanduas (Tamandua tetradactyla). Screening PCR assays were performed for Ehrlichia spp. based on the dsb gene, nested PCR for Anaplasma spp. and PCR for hemotropic mycoplasmas based on the 16S rRNA gene, and qPCR for Bartonella spp. based on the 16-23S rRNA intergenic region (ITS). The positive samples were additionally subjected to PCR assays targeting different molecular markers for molecular characterization. As a result, 1/48 (0.59%) blood sample from E. sexcintus was positive for Anaplasma spp., and 1/79 (0.59%) blood sample from M. tridactyla was positive for Ehrlichia spp. The 16S rRNA sequence of Anaplasma sp. detected in E. sexcintus clustered within the same clade as 'Candidatus Anaplasma brasiliensis', previously detected in T. tetradactyla. The dsb sequence of Ehrlichia sp. detected in M. tridactyla clustered within the same clade as Ehrlichia minasensis. In the PCR tests for hemoplasmas, 31/46 (64.5%) E. sexcinctus, 9/29 (65.5%) P. maximus, 2/4 (50%) D. novemcinctus, 33/79 (41.7%) M. tridactyla, and 2/6 (33.3%) T. tetradactyla tested positive. The 16S rRNA and 23S rRNA sequences of hemoplasmas found in E. sexcinctus clustered within the same clade as 'Candidatus Mycoplasma haematomaximus', which was previously detected in P. maximus in Brazil. High positivity rates were also observed for Bartonella spp., with 23/48 (47.9%) E. sexcinctus, 1/4 (25%) D. novemcinctus, 9/29 (31%) P. maximus, 21/79 (26.5%) M. tridactyla, and 3/6 (50%) T. tetradactyla showing positive results. The ftsZ sequences of Bartonella sp. detected in E. sexcinctus clustered with 'Candidatus Bartonella washoensis subsp. brasiliensis', previously identified in six-banded armadillos in Brazil. These findings reinforce the presence of 'Candidatus Anaplasma brasiliensis' and 'Candidatus Bartonella washoensis subsp. brasiliensis' in armadillos, and Ehrlichia minasensis in anteaters. This is the first report of 'Candidatus Mycoplasma haematomaximus', a hemoplasma previously described in giant armadillos, in six-banded armadillos. The zoonotic potential and real significance of infection by these agents in xenarthrans' health and conservation efforts are yet to be investigated.

Detection, genetic diversity, and factors associated with infection by hemotropic mycoplasmas in rodent and marsupial populations in regions of the states of Rio de Janeiro and Parana, Brazil

Hemotropic mycoplasmas, also known as hemoplasmas, are found in several animal species around the world. New species and genotypes of mycoplasmas have been described recently but much more remains to be discovered, especially in wildlife. The objective of this study was to investigate the presence of hemotropic mycoplasmas and diversity of the 16S rDNA sequence fragment in populations of small nonflying mammals in regions with different phytophysiognomies in the states of Rio de Janeiro and Parana, Brazil, as well as to evaluate environmental and animal factors influencing infection rates. Of the 257 animals sampled, 33.8 % (n = 87) were considered positive by conventional PCR. Of the 230 samples from wild rodents (Cricetidae), 36.5 % (n = 84) amplified hemotropic mycoplasma DNA, followed by synanthropic rodents (Muridae) (12.5 %, n = 2/16), and marsupials (Didelphidae) (9.0 %, n = 1/11). The regions with the highest frequency of positivity were Ponta Grossa (46.5 %, n = 27/58) and Cruz Machado (46.1 %, n = 24/52), followed by Nova Friburgo (30.8 %, n = 33/107), and Lidianopolis (12.5 %, n = 5/40). Oligoryzomys had the highest rate of infection (78.5 %), statistically different from Oxymycterus spp. (40.0 %), Akodon spp. (27.0 %) and Sooretamys (8.3 %). Males had a higher prevalence of Mycoplasma spp., being 3.97 times more likely to be positive for hemoplasma than females. Phylogenetic analysis grouped the sequences from this study into two clades, A and E, together with other hemoplasma sequences previously detected in small wild and synanthropic rodents from Brazil, Hungary, and Japan. Haplotype network reveals exclusive haplotypes for wild and synanthropic rodents. Our study reveals considerable genetic diversity suggesting the circulation of at least two species among sequences from this study and highlights the importance of considering environmental and biological factors in the epidemiology of these infections in wild mammals.

Hemoplasmas in wild rodents and marsupials from the Caatinga Biome, Brazil

A total of 231 blood samples from wild mammals belonging to the orders Rodentia (n = 142) and Didelphimorphia (n = 89) were screened by real-time PCR assay (qPCR), being six Rhipidomys sp., 118 Thrichomys laurentius, nine Rattus rattus, four Kerodon rupestris, five Necromys lasiurus, 42 Didelphis albiventris and 47 Monodelphis domestica. Results using qPCR showed that 32 of the total 231 (13.85 %) samples were positive for hemoplasma sequences of the 16S rRNA gene. Sequences from two D. albiventris showed 99.77-99.89 % identity with 'Candidatus Mycoplasma haemoalbiventris' and 99.09 % with 'Candidatus Mycoplasma haemodidelphidis', respectively. Furthermore, one M. domestica and five T. laurentius showed 99.72-99.77 % identity with Mycoplasma sp., and one K. rupestris showed 98.13 % identity with 'Candidatus Mycoplasma haematohydrochaerus'; and from two Rattus rattus showed 99.65-99.89 % identity with Mycoplasma sp. and 'Candidatus Mycoplasma haemomuris'. The 23S rRNA gene sequences obtained from the two D. albiventris showed 100 % identity with 'Ca. M. haemoalbiventris' whereas the sequences from the R. rattus showed only 85.31 % identity with 'Candidatus Mycoplasma haematohydrochaerus'. Two T. laurentius and one K. rupestris showed 84.66-92.97 % identity with 'Candidatus Mycoplasma haemosphiggurus'. Based on phylogenetic and Neighbor-Net network analyses of the 16S and 23S rRNA genes, potential novel species are described. In addition, 'Ca. M. haemoalbiventris' was detected in Didelphis albiventris, and Mycoplasma sp. was detected in Rattus sp. rodents from the Caatinga biome, Brazil.

Detection and characterization of hemotropic Mycoplasmas in Iberian wolves (Canis lupus signatus) of Cantabria, Spain

Hemoplasmas (hemotropic mycoplasmas) are uncultivable wall-less bacteria able to infect mammalian erythrocytes. Hemoplasmas can cause anemia, especially in immunocompromised hosts, predisposing to secondary infections and even leading to death. Between 2017 and 2023, spleen samples of 131 wild Iberian wolves (Canis lupus signatus) of Cantabria (Spain) were screened for Mycoplasma spp. using a real-time PCR able to amplify a 360 bp fragment of the 16S rRNA gene and confirmed by direct Sanger sequencing. Additional conventional PCRs were performed to screen for coinfections by different Mycoplasma species and to discriminate between Mycoplasma haemocanis/haemofelis (Mhc/Mhf). Overall, 24/131 (18.3%) animals were PCR-positive. Biological and environmental factors potentially promoting hemoplasma infection in this species were analyzed. Two different hemoplasma species were detected: Mhc/Mhf (18/131; 13.7%) and Candidatus Mycoplasma haematoparvum (CMhp) (3/131; 2.3%), each with one nucleotide sequence type (ntST); three other sequences were not classified. No Mhc/Mhf and CMhp coinfection were observed. The 12 Mhc/Mhf suitable for ribonuclease P RNA sequencing were confirmed as Mhc. Mhc ntST was 100% identical to a Mhc sequence previously obtained in domestic dogs (Canis lupus familiaris), and in wild Iberian wolves of northwestern Spain (Asturias and Galicia) at a similar prevalence to the one found herein, suggesting a high Mhc genetic homogeneity in this wild population. CMhp ntST was 100% identical to CMhp sequences from domestic dogs. To our knowledge, this is the first description of CMhp in the Iberian wolf. The high genetic similarity observed in Mhc and CMhp sequences, as well as their high similarity with domestic dog sequences, suggest its recent introduction, a high level of intraspecific transmission within the wild wolf population, and likely, interspecific transmission between wolves and domestic dogs.

Haemotrophic Mycoplasmas Infecting Pigs: A Review of the Current Knowledge

Haemotrophic mycoplasmas (haemoplasmas) are a group of highly specific and adapted bacteria. Three different haemoplasma species in pigs are known to date: Mycoplasma (M.) suis, M. parvum and 'Candidatus (Ca.) M. haemosuis'. Even though these bacteria have been known in pig farming for a long time, it is difficult to draw general conclusions about the relevance of their infections in pigs. This review summarizes the current knowledge on the three porcine haemoplasma species with regards to clinical and pathological descriptions, pathobiology, epidemiology and diagnostics as well as prevention and therapy. Overall, it is clear that considerably more data are available for M. suis than for the other two species, but generally, porcine haemoplasmas were found to be highly prevalent all over the world. Mycoplasma suis is the most virulent species, causing acute infectious anaemia in pigs (IAP), whereas M. parvum usually results in chronic and subclinical infections associated with performance losses. Little is known about the clinical significance of the recently discovered third porcine species 'Ca. M. haemosuis'. So far, the described pathogenic mechanisms mainly include direct destruction of erythrocytes via adhesion, invasion, eryptosis and nutrient scavenging, indirect erythrocyte lysis due to immune-mediated events and immune dysregulation processes. A review of published diagnostic data confirms PCR assays as the current standard method, with various cross-species and species-specific protocols. Overall, there is a need for further examination to obtain valuable insights for practical application, specifically regarding the importance of subclinical infections in naturally infected animals. An essential requirement for this will be to gain a more comprehensive understanding of the mechanisms operating between the host and the pathogen.

Molecular Detection and Characterization of Hemotropic Mycoplasma in Assamese Macaques (Macaca assamensis) of Northern Thailand

Hemotropic mycoplasmas, also known as hemoplasmas, are parasitic bacteria that infect red blood cells, potentially leading to varying degrees of anemia across numerous mammalian species, including nonhuman primates. The present study aims to investigate the prevalence of hemoplasma infection and identify the species involved among free-ranging Assamese macaques (Macaca assamensis) inhabiting northern Thailand. A total of 133 blood samples were collected from Assamese macaques in Chiang Rai province, Thailand, and subjected to screening for hemoplasma infection utilizing nested PCR amplification targeting the 16S rRNA gene. Positive samples were subsequently analyzed through nucleotide sequencing and phylogenetic analysis for putative species identification. Current study results revealed that 17.3% (23/133; 95% CI 11.29-24.81) of Assamese macaques tested positive for hemoplasma infection using the nested PCR assay. Partial 16S rRNA sequences derived from hemoplasma isolates in Assamese macaques exhibited 99% homology, forming a cluster within the same phylogenetic clade as "Candidatus Mycoplasma haematomacacae," previously identified in long-tailed macaques, rhesus macaques, and Japanese macaques. These findings suggest the presence of "Ca. M. haematomacacae" not only in long-tailed macaques and rhesus macaques but also in Assamese macaques in Thailand. To our knowledge, this marks the first molecular detection of "Ca. M. haematomacacae" in Assamese macaques in Thailand. These results hold significance as they enhance our understanding of hemoplasma infection distribution among macaque populations in Thailand.

Multi-locus sequence analysis of 'Candidatus Mycoplasma haematomacacae' in free-ranging macaques from Thailand suggestive of a closer relationship to hemotropic mycoplasmas in capuchins and potential origin from bats

Although 'Candidatus Mycoplasma haematomacacae' (formerly known as 'Candidatus Mycoplasma haemomacaque') has been reported on extensively in macaques from Thailand, the USA, Japan, and Brazil, its genetic characterization has primarily been restricted to the 16S rRNA sequences with no exploration on multi-locus sequence analysis. The primary goal of this study was to characterize 'Ca. M. haematomacacae' among Thai macaques based on multiple genetic markers. Between April 2018 and November 2021, blood samples were taken from 580 free-ranging macaques (560 Macaca fascicularis and 20 Macaca nemestrina) in 15 locations encompassing 10 provinces throughout Thailand. Using the conventional PCR assay targeting the 16S ribosomal RNA (16S rRNA) gene, 338 out of 580 macaques (58.27 %) tested hemoplasma-positive. Of these, 40 positive samples were further subjected to DNA sequencing, and all were identified as 'Ca. M. haematomacacae'. Subsequently, the partial nucleotide sequences of 23S ribosomal RNA (23S rRNA) and RNase P RNA (rnpB) genes of this particular hemoplasma species were amplified through nested PCR assay. The analysis of multi-locus genetic markers revealed that the 23S rRNA and rnpB sequences exhibited higher levels of genetic diversity than the 16S rRNA sequences. Furthermore, the 16S rRNA analyses demonstrated that 'Ca. M. haematomacacae' infecting Old World monkeys (Macaca spp.) was most closely related to hemotropic Mycoplasma spp. in black-capped capuchins (Sapajus apella) and Marcgrave's capuchins (Sapajus flavius) from Brazil, as well as establishing a common ancestor clade with hemotropic Mycoplasma spp. from the Neotropical bats in Belize and Peru and an Old World bat in Spain. The 23S rRNA analyses likewise evidenced that 'Ca. M. haematomacacae' formed a sister clade with hemotropic Mycoplasma spp. in Neotropical bats from Belize and Panama. Thus, the present findings, based on multi-locus sequence analysis, suggest a potential origin of 'Ca. M. haematomacacae' from Neotropical and Old World bats. To the best of the authors' knowledge, this study provided the largest dataset so far of multi-locus genetic sequences of 'Ca. M. haematomacacae' isolated from Thai macaques and enhanced the accuracy of phylogenetic analyses, providing insights into their origins among hemotropic Mycoplasma spp. discovered worldwide.

High diversity, novel genotypes, and vertical transmission of hemotropic Mycoplasma in micromammals

Hemotropic mycoplasmas (hemoplasmas) are emerging zoonotic pathogens. Micromammals have received little attention as hosts for hemoplasmas despite their ubiquitous presence, high population abundances, and close association with humans. A PCR protocol targeting a fragment of the 16 S rRNA gene and direct sequencing in blood samples of 189 adult specimens and 35 fetuses belonging to three species of Eulipotyphla (shrews) and seven species of Rodentia, captured in three ecologically diverse habitats in North-Eastern Spain (Steppe, High Mountain, Mediterranean) yielded and occurrence of 26%, including 36% of 39 shrews and 23% of 150 rodents. Sequencing revealed the presence of 14 nucleotide sequence types (ntST) among the 56 readable sequences. In general, each ntST was associated with a given host species, although in some cases, the same ntST was sequenced in different species (chiefly rodents). Most ntST were closely related to rodent and/or bat hemoplasmas, but one was identical with Mycoplasma haemocanis/haemofelis, and others can be considered novel genotypes. High sequence diversity was detected in rodents, whereas in the white-toothed shrew (Crocidura russula), 9/11 sequences from two distant areas were identical. Phylogenetic and network analyses classified our sequences in different clades including hemoplasmas of rodents, carnivores, bats, and humans. Twelve of the fetuses (34.2%) of 9/12 litters (75.0%) of shrews and rodents were hemoplasma-positive, indicating frequent vertical transmission. Our study contributes to expanding our knowledge about the distribution, diversity, and transmission of hemoplasmas.

Galleria mellonella Invertebrate Model Mirrors the Pathogenic Potential of Mycoplasma alligatoris within the Natural Host

Most mycoplasmal infections result in chronic, clinically silent disease. In direct contrast, Mycoplasma alligatoris elicits a fulminant, multisystem disease in the natural host, Alligator mississippiensis (American alligator). The goals of the study were to better understand the disease in the natural host and to determine if the invertebrate model G. mellonella could serve as a surrogate alternate host. The survival of alligators infected intratracheally was dose dependent (p=0.0003), ranging from no mortality (102 CFU) to 100% mortality (108 CFU), with 60% mortality at the 104 and 105 CFU infectious dose. Microbial load in blood, joints, and brain was dose dependent, regardless of whether alligators were infected intratracheally or intravenously (p  < 0.002). Weight loss was similarly impacted (p  < 0.001). Experimental infection of the invertebrate Galleria mellonella mirrored the result in the natural host. In a dose response infection study, both larval survival curves and successful pupation curves were significantly different (p ≤ 0.0001) and dose dependent. Infected insects did not emerge as moths (p  < 0.0001). Here, we describe the first study investigating G. mellonella as a surrogate model to assess the pathogenic potential of M. alligatoris. G. mellonella survival was dose dependent and impacted life stage outcome.

Molecular survey of hemoplasmas and Coxiella burnetii in vampire bats from northern Brazil

In addition to zoonotic viral pathogens, bats can also harbor bacterial pathogens, including hemoplasmas (hemotropic mycoplasmas) and Coxiella burnetii. The present study aimed to investigate, using molecular techniques, the presence of hemoplasmas and C. burnetii in spleen samples from vampire bats in northern Brazil. For this purpose, between 2017 and 2019, spleen samples were collected from Desmodus rotundus (n = 228) and Diaemus youngii (n = 1) captured in the states of Pará (n = 207), Amazonas (n = 1), Roraima (n = 18) and Amapá (n = 3). DNA samples extracted from the bat spleen and positive in PCR for the endogenous gapdh gene were subjected to conventional PCR assays for the 16S rRNA, 23S rRNA and RNAse P genes from hemoplasmas and to qPCR based on the IS1111 gene element for C. burnetii. All spleen samples from vampire bats were negative in the qPCR for C. burnetii. Hemoplasmas were detected in 10 % (23/229) of spleen samples using a PCR based on the 16S rRNA gene. Of these, 21.73 % (5/23) were positive for the 23S rRNA gene and none for the RNAseP gene. The seven hemoplasma 16S rRNA sequences obtained were closely related to sequences previously identified in vampire bats from Belize, Peru and Brazil. The 23S rRNA sequence obtained revealed genetic proximity to hemoplasmas from non-hematophagous bats from Brazil and Belize. The analysis revealed different circulating genotypes among Brazilian vampire bats, in addition to a trend towards genera-specific hemoplasma genotypes. The present study contributes to the knowledge of the wide diversity of hemoplasmas in vampire bats.

Bat cellular immunity varies by year and dietary habit amidst land conversion

Monitoring the health of wildlife populations is essential in the face of increased agricultural expansion and forest fragmentation. Loss of habitat and habitat degradation can negatively affect an animal's physiological state, possibly resulting in immunosuppression and increased morbidity or mortality. We sought to determine how land conversion may differentially impact cellular immunity and infection risk in Neotropical bats species regularly infected with bloodborne pathogens, and to evaluate how effects may vary over time and by dietary habit. We studied common vampire bats (Desmodus rotundus), northern yellow-shouldered bats (Sturnira parvidens) and Mesoamerican mustached bats (Pteronotus mesoamericanus), representing the dietary habits of sanguivory, frugivory and insectivory respectively, in northern Belize. We compared estimated total white blood cell count, leukocyte differentials, neutrophil to lymphocyte ratio and infection status with two bloodborne bacterial pathogens (Bartonella spp. and hemoplasmas) of 118 bats captured in a broadleaf, secondary forest over three years (2017-2019). During this period, tree cover decreased by 14.5% while rangeland expanded by 14.3%, indicating increasing habitat loss and fragmentation. We found evidence for bat species-specific responses of cellular immunity between years, with neutrophil counts significantly decreasing in S. parvidens from 2017 to 2018, but marginally increasing in D. rotundus. However, the odds of infection with Bartonella spp. and hemoplasmas between 2017 and 2019 did not differ between bat species, contrary to our prediction that pathogen prevalence may increase with land conversion. We conclude that each bat species invested differently in cellular immunity in ways that changed over years of increasing habitat loss and fragmentation. We recommend further research on the interactions between land conversion, immunity and infection across dietary habits of Neotropical bats for informed management and conservation.

Expanded diversity of novel hemoplasmas in rare and undersampled Neotropical bats

Hemotropic mycoplasmas are emerging as a model system for studying bacterial pathogens in bats, but taxonomic coverage of sampled host species remains biased. We leveraged a long-term field study in Belize to uncover novel hemoplasma diversity in bats by analyzing 80 samples from 19 species, most of which are infrequently encountered. PCR targeting the partial 16S rRNA gene found 41% of bats positive for hemoplasmas. Phylogenetic analyses found two novel host shifts of hemoplasmas, four entirely new hemoplasma genotypes, and the first hemoplasma detections in four bat species. One of these novel hemoplasmas (from Neoeptesicus furinalis) shared 97.6% identity in the partial 16S rRNA gene to a human hemoplasma (Candidatus Mycoplasma haemohominis). Additional analysis of the partial 23S rRNA gene allowed us to also designate two novel hemoplasma species, in Myotis elegans and Phyllostomus discolor, with the proposed names Candidatus Mycoplasma haematomyotis sp. nov. and Candidatus Mycoplasma haematophyllostomi sp. nov., respectively. Our analyses show that additional hemoplasma diversity in bats can be uncovered by targeting rare or undersampled host species.

Molecular Detection and Characterization of Mycoplasma spp. in Marine Mammals, Brazil

Mycoplasma spp. are wall-less bacteria able to infect mammals and are classified as hemotropic (hemoplasma) and nonhemotropic. In aquatic mammals, hemoplasma have been reported in California sea lions (Zalophus californianus) and river dolphins (Inia spp.). We investigated Mycoplasma spp. in blood samples of West Indian manatees (Trichechus manatus), pinnipeds (5 species), and marine cetaceans (18 species) that stranded or were undergoing rehabilitation in Brazil during 2002-2022. We detected Mycoplasma in blood of 18/130 (14.8%) cetaceans and 3/18 (16.6%) pinnipeds. All tested manatees were PCR-negative for Mycoplasma. Our findings indicate that >2 different hemoplasma species are circulating in cetaceans. The sequences from pinnipeds were similar to previously described sequences. We also detected a nonhemotropic Mycoplasma in 2 Franciscana dolphins (Pontoporia blainvillei) that might be associated with microscopic lesions. Because certain hemoplasmas can cause disease and death in immunosuppressed mammals, the bacteria could have conservation implications for already endangered aquatic mammals.

Transmission of haemotropic mycoplasma in the absence of arthropod vectors within a closed population of dogs on ectoparasiticides

Dog-infecting haemotropic mycoplasmas (haemoplasmas), such as Mycoplasma haemocanis and Candidatus Mycoplasma haematoparvum are common blood-borne pathogens of canines that can potentially inflict a substantial burden of disease, particularly in immunosuppressed individuals. Nonetheless, the transmission of these pathogens remains debated as more evidence emerges that they may not be transmitted by vectors, but instead use alternative methods such as aggressive interactions and vertical transmission. Here, we treated forty dogs with two different topically-acting ectoparasiticide products able to prevent vector-borne pathogen infections during an 8-month community trial in Cambodia. A total absence of ectoparasites were observed at all time points, and no new infections caused by pathogens confirmed as being vectorially-transmitted were detected, i.e., Babesia vogeli, Ehrlichia canis, Anaplasma platys, and Hepatozoon canis. Conversely, the number of haemoplasma infections in dogs on both ectoparasiticides rose significantly, with an incidence of 26 infections per 100 dogs at risk per year, providing strong evidence of non-vectorial transmission. Over the study period, dog aggression and fighting were frequently observed, highlighting a different potential mode of transmission. This study presents the first robust evidence that canine haemoplasmas may be transmitted without arthropod vectors drawing attention to the need for new methods to prevent their transmission.

Molecular detection of blood-borne agents in vampire bats from Brazil, with the first molecular evidence of Neorickettsia sp. in Desmodus rotundus and Diphylla ecaudata

Bats (Mammalia, Chiroptera) represent the second largest group of mammals. Due to their ability to fly and adapt and colonize different niches, bats act as reservoirs of several potentially zoonotic pathogens. In this context, the present work aimed to investigate, using molecular techniques, the occurrence of blood-borne agents (Anaplasmataceae, Coxiella burnetii, hemoplasmas, hemosporidians and piroplasmids) in 198 vampire bats sampled in different regions of Brazil and belonging to the species Desmodus rotundus (n=159), Diphylla ecaudata (n=31) and Diaemus youngii (n=8). All vampire bats liver samples were negative in PCR assays for Ehrlichia spp., Anaplasma spp., piroplasmids, hemosporidians and Coxiella burnetii. However, Neorickettsia sp. was detected in liver samples of 1.51% (3/198) through nested PCR based on the 16S rRNA gene in D. rotundus and D. ecaudata. This is the first study to report Neorickettsia sp. in vampire bats. Hemoplasmas were detected in 6.06% (12/198) of the liver samples using a PCR based on the 16S rRNA gene. The two 16S rRNA sequences obtained from hemoplasmas were closely related to sequences previously identified in vampire and non-hematophagous bats from Belize, Peru and Brazil. The genotypic analysis identified a high diversity of bat-associated hemoplasma genotypes from different regions of the world, emphasizing the need for studies on this subject, in order to better understand the mechanisms of co-evolution between this group of bacteria and their vertebrate hosts. The role of neotropical bat-associated Neorickettsia sp. and bats from Brazilian in the biological cycle of such agent warrant further investigation.

Molecular Survey of Hemotropic Mycoplasma spp. and Bartonella spp. in Coatis (Nasua nasua) from Central-Western Brazil

Even though previous works showed molecular evidence of hemotropic Mycoplasma spp. (hemoplasmas) in ring-tailed coatis (Nasua nasua) from Brazil, Bartonella sp. has not been reported in these mammals so far. The present study aimed to detect the above-mentioned agents in coatis’ blood and associated ectoparasites, assessing the association between these infections and red blood parameters. Between March 2018 and January 2019, coati (n = 97) blood samples, Amblyomma sp. ticks (2242 individual ticks, resulting in 265 pools), and Neotrichodectes pallidus louse (n = 59) were collected in forested urban areas from midwestern Brazil. DNA extracted from coatis’ blood, and ectoparasite samples were submitted to quantitative PCR (qPCR) (16S rRNA) and conventional PCR (cPCR) (16S rRNA and 23S rRNA) for hemoplasmas and qPCR (nuoG gene) and culturing (only blood) for Bartonella spp. Two different hemoplasma genotypes were detected in blood samples: 71% coatis positive for myc1 and 17% positive for myc2. While 10% of ticks were positive for hemoplasmas (myc1), no louse was positive. The estimated bacterial load of hemoplasmas showed no association with anemia indicators. All coatis were negative for Bartonella sp. in qPCR assay and culturing, albeit two Amblyomma sp. larvae pools, and 2 A. dubitatum nymph pools were positive in the qPCR. The present work showed a high occurrence of hemoplasmas, with two distinct hemoplasma genotypes, in coatis from forested urban areas in midwestern Brazil.

Trends in Bacterial Pathogens of Bats: Global Distribution and Knowledge Gaps

Bats have received considerable recent attention for infectious disease research because of their potential to host and transmit viruses, including Ebola, Hendra, Nipah, and multiple coronaviruses. These pathogens are occasionally transmitted from bats to wildlife, livestock, and to humans, directly or through other bridging (intermediate) hosts. Due to their public health relevance, zoonotic viruses are a primary focus of research attention. In contrast, other emerging pathogens of bats, such as bacteria, are vastly understudied despite their ubiquity and diversity. Here, we describe the currently known host ranges and geographic distributional patterns of potentially zoonotic bacterial genera in bats, using published presence-absence data of pathogen occurrence. We identify apparent gaps in our understanding of the distribution of these pathogens on a global scale. The most frequently detected bacterial genera in bats are Bartonella, Leptospira, and Mycoplasma. However, a wide variety of other potentially zoonotic bacterial genera are also occasionally found in bats, such as Anaplasma, Brucella, Borrelia, Coxiella, Ehrlichia, Francisella, Neorickettsia, and Rickettsia. The bat families Phyllostomidae, Vespertilionidae, and Pteropodidae are most frequently reported as hosts of bacterial pathogens; however, the presence of at least one bacterial genus was confirmed in all 15 bat families tested. On a spatial scale, molecular diagnostics of samples from 58 countries and four overseas departments and island states (French Guiana, Mayotte, New Caledonia, and Réunion Island) reported testing for at least one bacterial pathogen in bats. We also identified geographical areas that have been mostly neglected during bacterial pathogen research in bats, such as the Afrotropical region and Southern Asia. Current knowledge on the distribution of potentially zoonotic bacterial genera in bats is strongly biased by research effort towards certain taxonomic groups and geographic regions. Identifying these biases can guide future surveillance efforts, contributing to a better understanding of the ecoepidemiology of zoonotic pathogens in bats.

Mycoplasma haemohominis as a cause of fever of unknown origin in a traveller

Candidatus mycoplasma haemohominis (cMh) is the most human-adapted and lethal haemoplasma. Bats are the common reservoir worldwide. cMh should be suspected in fever of unknown origin associated with splenomegaly, and haemolytic anaemia or haemophagocytic lymphohistiocytosis, above all in Asia Pacific travellers. Doxycycline should  be started preemptively as diagnosis can be retrospectively confirmed.

High prevalence and genetic diversity of hemoplasmas in bats and bat ectoparasites from China

Hemoplasmas can cause severe hemolytic anemia in humans. To explore the genetic diversity and the potential transmission routes of hemoplasmas among bat population, bats and bat-ectoparasites including bat-flies, bat-mites, and bat-ticks were collected in Eastern and Central China from 2015 to 2021, and tested with PCR for hemoplasmas 16S rRNA gene. Based on 16S rRNA PCR, 18.0% (103/572) adult bats were positive for hemoplasmas, but none of 11 fetuses from hemoplasmas-positive pregnant bats was positive for hemoplasmas. These results indicated that adult bats had a high prevalence of hemoplasma, but vertical transmission of hemoplasmas did not occurr in the bats. Based on the 16S rRNA gene PCR, the minimum infection rate of bat-ectoparasite for hemoplasmas was 4.0% (27/676), suggesting that bat-ectoparasite also had a high prevalence for hemoplasmas. Phylogenetic analysis revealed that bat hemoplasmas from this study clustered into 4 genotypes (I-IV). Genotype I clustered together with hemoplasmas identified in bats from America. Genotype II shared high similarity with a human-pathogenic hemoplasma Candidatus Mycoplasma haemohominis. Genotype III and IV were unique, representing 2 new hemoplasma genotypes. Only genotype I was identified in both bats and all bat-ectoparasites including bat-flies, bat-mites, and bat-ticks. In conclusion, bats and bat-ectoparasites from China harbored abundant genetically diverse hemoplasmas including potential human-pathogenic hemoplasmas, indicating bats and bat-ectoparasites may play important roles in the maintenance and transmission of hemoplasmas in the natural foci.

Establishment of molecular diagnostics targeting the 23S ribosomal RNA gene for the detection of Mycoplasma suis infection in Thai domestic pigs

Mycoplasma (M.) suis is a pathogenic hemotropic Mycoplasma sp. that causes acute hemolytic anemia or chronic infection in pigs. M. suis infection can be diagnosed using several methods, including molecular diagnosis such as conventional PCR (cPCR) and quantitative PCR (qPCR). In these cases, the common target is the 16S rRNA gene; however, this genetic marker cannot distinguish hemoplasma at the species level owing to high sequence identity. Therefore, the 23S rRNA gene has emerged as another target gene. Other than PCR, the loop-mediated isothermal amplification (LAMP) method can be applied for M. suis. The objective of the present study was to establish cPCR, TaqMan qPCR, and LAMP assays in which the 23S rRNA gene is used to detect M. suis infection in Thai domestic pigs. The analytical sensitivity of cPCR was determined as 7.46 × 10⁴ copies/μl of plasmid DNA, whereas those of qPCR and LAMP were 7.46 × 10² copies/μl. There was no cross reaction with other pathogens in any of the assays. To evaluate the diagnostic performance of the assays, they were tested using 173 samples of genomic DNA. The detection percentage of M. suis infection was 24.86% (43/173; 95% CI: 18.61%-31.89%), 28.32% (49/173; 95% CI: 21.75%-35.66%), and 29.48% (51/173; 95% CI: 22.80%-36.88%) using cPCR, qPCR, and LAMP, respectively. Using qPCR as a reference assay, cPCR showed 81.63% sensitivity, 97.58% specificity, and an almost perfect level of agreement (kappa = 0.823). In comparison, LAMP showed 77.55% sensitivity, 89.52% specificity, and a substantial level of agreement (kappa = 0.662). All assays tested here could be applied in veterinary diagnostic laboratories for monitoring porcine health in the herds. Furthermore, the LAMP assay could be used as a screening test in farm practice without the need for any special equipment.

Co-infection by multiple vector-borne agents in wild ring-tailed coatis (Nasua nasua) from Iguaçu National Park, southern Brazil

The present study aimed to detect molecularly the presence of co-infections by vector-borne agents (VBA) in ring-tailed coatis' (Nasua nasua) blood samples from Iguaçu National Park (INP), southern Brazil, and assess the phylogenetic positioning of the detected agents. DNA blood samples were submitted to molecular screening and characterization for Anaplasmataceae agents, Piroplasmids, Hepatozoon sp., hemotropic mycoplasmas, and Bartonella spp. In total, 42 (85.7%) coatis were positive for hemotropic Mycoplasma sp., 12 (24.5%) for Bartonella machadoae, 7 (14.3%) for Anaplasma sp. closely related to 'Candidatus Anaplasma brasiliensis', and 3 (6%) for Hepatozoon procyonis. The most prevalent co-infections observed was from bacterial VBA: while 18.3% were co-infected by hemotropic Mycoplasma sp. and Bartonella sp., 12.2% were co-infected by Anaplasma sp. and hemotropic Mycoplasma sp. Only two animals (4%) presented co-infections by three VBA (Bartonella sp., Anaplasma sp. and hemotropic Mycoplasma sp.). The coati is a wild carnivore found in INP, mainly in areas visited by tourists. These animals are frequently seen searching for food in garbage dumps or in tourists' belongings. The present study expands the host specificity range of B. machadoae, which has been isolated only from rodents until the present moment. Since the zoonotic potential and transmission routes of the detected VBA are not yet known, surveillance in this area is much needed.

Advanced approaches for the diagnosis and chemoprevention of canine vector-borne pathogens and parasites-Implications for the Asia-Pacific region and beyond

Vector-borne pathogens (VBPs) of canines are a diverse range of infectious agents, including viruses, bacteria, protozoa and multicellular parasites, that are pernicious and potentially lethal to their hosts. Dogs across the globe are afflicted by canine VBPs, but the range of different ectoparasites and the VBPs that they transmit predominate in tropical regions. Countries within the Asia-Pacific have had limited prior research dedicated to exploring the epidemiology of canine VBPs, whilst the few studies that have been conducted show VBP prevalence to be high, with significant impacts on dog health. Moreover, such impacts are not restricted to dogs, as some canine VBPs are zoonotic. We reviewed the status of canine VBPs in the Asia-Pacific, with particular focus on nations in the tropics, whilst also investigating the history of VBP diagnosis and examining recent progress in the field, including advanced molecular methods, such as next-generation sequencing (NGS). These tools are rapidly changing the way parasites are detected and discovered, demonstrating a sensitivity equal to, or exceeding that of, conventional molecular diagnostics. We also provide a background to the armoury of chemopreventive products available for protecting dogs from VBP. Here, field-based research within high VBP pressure environments has underscored the importance of ectoparasiticide mode of action on their overall efficacy. The future of canine VBP diagnosis and prevention at a global level is also explored, highlighting how evolving portable sequencing technologies may permit diagnosis at point-of-care, whilst further research into chemopreventives will be essential if VBP transmission is to be effectively controlled.

Hemotropic Mycoplasma spp. in Aquatic Mammals, Amazon Basin, Brazil

Hemotropic Mycoplasma spp. (hemoplasmas) are uncultivable bacteria that infect mammals, including humans. We detected a potentially novel hemoplasma species in blood samples from wild river dolphins in the Amazon River Basin, Brazil. Further investigation could determine pathogenicity and zoonotic potential of the detected hemoplasma.

Molecular analysis of blood-associated pathogens in European wildcats (Felis silvestris silvestris) from Germany

European wildcats (Felis silvestris silvestris) have not been investigated in large numbers for blood-associated pathogens in Germany, because wildcats, being a protected species, may not be hunted, and the collection of samples is therefore difficult. Thus, spleen tissue and whole blood from 96 wildcats from Germany found as roadkill or dead from other causes in the years 1998–2020 were examined for the prevalence of blood associated pathogens using molecular genetic tools. PCR was used to screen for haemotrophic Mycoplasma spp., Hepatozoon spp., Cytauxzoon spp., Bartonella spp., Filarioidea, Anaplasmataceae, and Rickettsiales, and positive samples were subsequently sequenced. Phylogenetic analyses were performed for Mycoplasma spp. and Hepatozoon spp. by calculating phylogenetic trees and DNA haplotype networks. The following pathogens were found: Candidatus Mycoplasma haematominutum (7/96), Mycoplasma ovis (1/96), Hepatozoon silvestris (34/96), Hepatozoon felis (6/96), Cytauxzoon europaeus (45/96), and Bartonella spp. (3/96). This study elucidates the prevalence of blood-associated pathogens in wildcats from Germany.

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European wildcats from Germany carry different blood-associated pathogens.

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Pathogens can also affect domestic cats.

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Transmision by vectors or other transmisison routes are possible.

Haemoplasma Prevalence and Diversity in Three Invasive Rattus Species from Gauteng Province, South Africa

Invasive Rattus species are carriers of haemotropic Mycoplasmas (haemoplasmas) globally, but data from Africa are lacking. Using a PCR-sequencing approach, we assessed haemoplasma prevalence and diversity in kidney and buccal swabs collected from three invasive Rattus species (Rattus rattus, R. norvegicus and R. tanezumi) in Gauteng Province, South Africa. Whilst the overall sequence-confirmed haemoplasma prevalence was 38.4%, infection rates in R. rattus (58.3%) were significantly higher (χ2 = 12.96; df = 2; n = 99 p < 0.05) than for R. tanezumi (14.3%). Differences between host sex (χ2 = 3.59 × 10−31; df = 1; n = 99; p = 1.00) and age (χ2 = 4.28; df = 2; n = 99; p = 0.12) were not significant. Whilst buccal (1.01%) and ectoparasite positivity (2.13%) were low, these results suggest that multiple transmission routes are possible. Three phylogenetically distinct lineages, consistent with global rat-associated strains described to date, were detected, namely, ‘Candidatus Mycoplasma haemomuris subsp. Ratti’, and two Rattus-specific haemoplasmas that are yet to be formally described. These results expand the known distribution of invasive rat-associated haemoplasmas and highlight the potential for pathogen co-invasion of new territories together with invading rodent hosts.

Molecular detection of Mycoplasma wenyonii and its closely related hemotropic Mycoplasma sp. in blood-sucking flies from a buffalo farm in Chachoengsao province, Thailand

Bovine hemoplasmosis is a disease in buffaloes and cattle caused by hemotropic mycoplasmas or hemoplasmas. Only two bovine hemoplasma species, Mycoplasma wenyonii and Candidatus Mycoplasma haemobos, have been described in several countries. Hemoplasmas induce acute hemolytic anemia or chronic infection, leading to production loss. Bovine hemoplasma DNA was also detected in blood-sucking arthropods, suggesting vector transmission in farms. To date, no studies of the molecular detection of bovine hemoplasmas in Thai buffaloes and arthropod vectors have been reported. This study aimed to study the 1-year diversity of hematophagous flies in a buffalo farm located in Chachoengsao province, Thailand, and to investigate the molecular occurrence of bovine hemoplasmas in those flies using a polymerase chain reaction (PCR) assay and sequence analyses. A total of 1,488 mosquitoes, 867 stable flies, and 312 tabanid flies were collected during this study. The most abundant mosquitoes, stable flies, and tabanid flies were Culex tritaeniorhynchus, Stomoxys calcitrans, and Tabanus megalops, respectively. A total of 249 genomic DNA samples of flies were tested using a PCR assay based on the 16S rRNA gene; 23.69% (59/249) of the insect samples were positive in this assay. Positive samples (n = 8) were subjected to bidirectional sequencing. The BLAST results showed that only three samples from Stomoxys calcitrans and two samples from Tabanus megalops showed 99.90% and 99.17% similarities to the M. wenyonii isolate B003 (MG948626/Water buffalo/Cuba) and the M. wenyonii isolate C124 (MG948625/Cattle/Cuba), respectively. This molecular occurrence of bovine hemoplasmas in blood-sucking flies suggested that those flies are the mechanical vectors for bovine hemoplasmas in Thailand. Based on the phylogenetic analysis of the 16S rRNA gene, the sequences of M. wenyonii were likely classified into two subgroups (A and B), suggesting closely related bovine hemoplasma species. Finally, the genetic analysis of the 23S rRNA gene from these two subgroups revealed that subgroup A could be M. wenynoii and subgroup B may be a subspecies of M. wenyonii or another putative novel species. However, further investigation should be conducted in buffaloes, cattle, and blood-sucking flies to gain more 16S rRNA and 23 rRNA gene sequences of bovine hemoplasmas.

Molecular detection and genetic analysis of porcine hemoplasmas in commercial pig farms from Thailand reveal a putative novel species

Hemoplasma is a trivial name for hemotropic Mycoplasma spp., which can attach to the surface of red blood cells leading to deformity and anemia in a wide range of mammalian animals, including pigs. In Thailand, there is only one study that reported the occurrence of Mycoplasma suis without other hemoplasma species. In this study, we examined the molecular occurrence and genetic diversity of porcine hemoplasmas in Thai domestic pigs (Sus scrofa domesticus) from commercial farms using a PCR assay targeting the 16S rRNA gene, DNA sequencing, nucleotide sequence type (ntST) analysis, and phylogenetic analysis. A total of 665 blood samples were collected from pigs at thirteen farms located in eight provinces of Thailand during 2019-2020. Genomic DNA was extracted from blood samples and tested by PCR. The frequency of hemoplasma infection was 37.1% (247/665, 95% CI: 33.5%-40.9%) in all pigs. Among 247 PCR positive samples, 194 were sequenced and analyzed by nucleotide BLAST, ntST diversity, phylogenetic trees, and ntST networks. The results of this genetic analysis indicated that at least four species with 27 nucleotide sequence types (Mycoplasma suis, Mycoplasma parvum, Candidatus Mycoplasma haemosuis, and a putative novel species) of porcine hemoplasmas were identified. Thus, it appears that hemoplasmas show a high genetic diversity in the Thai pig population. In addition, a putative novel species was genetically characterized by other markers, namely the 23S rRNA and RNase P RNA (rnpB) genes. For phylogenetic analysis, Candidatus Mycoplasma haemosuis was placed into the Mycoplasma haemofelis group, and the three remaining species were placed into the Mycoplasma suis group in all trees containing the 16S rRNA, 23S rRNA, and rnpB genes. Further studies, such as pathobiology and epidemiology, should be conducted to better characterize this putative novel species. This article is protected by copyright. All rights reserved.

Molecular investigation of hemotropic mycoplasmas and Coxiella burnetii in free-living Xenarthra mammals from Brazil, with evidence of new hemoplasma species

Although mammals of the superorder Xenarthra are considered hosts of a wide range of zoonotic agents, works aiming at investigating the role of these animals as hosts for bacteria with zoonotic potential are rare. The present study aimed to investigate the occurrence and molecularly characterize Coxiella burnetii and hemoplasma (hemotropic mycoplasmas) DNA in blood and spleen samples from 397 free-living Xenarthra mammals (233 sloths, 107 anteaters, and 57 armadillos) in five Brazilian states (Mato Grosso do Sul, São Paulo, Pará, Rondônia, and Rio Grande do Sul). All biological samples from Xenarthra were negative in the qPCR for Coxiella burnetii based on the IS1111 gene. The absence of C. burnetii DNA in blood and spleen samples from Xenarthra suggests that these mammals may not act as possible hosts for this agent in the locations studied. When performed conventional PCR assays for the endogenous (gapdh) mammalian gene, 386 samples were positive. When screened by molecular assays based on the 16S rRNA gene of hemoplasmas, 81 samples were positive, of which 15.54% (60/386) were positive by conventional PCR and 5.44% (21/386) were positive by real-time PCR; three samples were positive in both assays. Of these, 39.74% (31/78) were also positive for the 23S rRNA gene and 7.69% (6/78) for the hemoplasma RNAse P gene. Among the samples positive for hemoplasmas, 25.64% (20/78) were obtained from anteaters (Tamandua tetradactyla and Myrmecophaga tridactyla), 39.74% (31/78) from sloths (Bradypus tridactylus, Bradypus sp. and Choloepus sp.) 34.61% (27/78) from armadillos (Priodontes maximus, Euphractus sexcinctus and Dasypus novemcinctus). A hemoplasma 16S rRNA sequence closely related and showing high identity (99.7%) to Mycoplasma wenyonii was detected, for the first time, in B. tridactylus. Based on the low identity and phylogenetic positioning of 16S rRNA and 23S rRNA sequences of hemoplasmas detected in anteaters and armadillos, the present study showed, for the first time, the occurrence of putative new Candidatus hemotropic Mycoplasma spp. ('Candidatus Mycoplasma haematotetradactyla' and 'Candidatus Mycoplasma haematomaximus') in Xenarthra mammals from Brazil. This article is protected by copyright. All rights reserved.

Molecular Detection and Characterization of Hemoplasmas in the Pudu (Pudu puda), a Native Cervid from Chile

Hemotropic mycoplasmas cause hemolytic anemia in a variety of wild and domestic mammals. Despite growing evidence about their widespread presence and genetic diversity in wildlife, their presence has never been investigated in Chilean artiodactyls. We aimed to describe the presence and diversity of hemoplasmas in pudus (Pudu puda), a small cervid native to Chile. Hemoplasma infection was assessed in blood samples from 43 wild and 33 captive pudus from central and southern Chile by direct sequencing of the 16S rRNA gene. We detected hemoplasmas in 13%, with no statistical differences between wild (19%) and captive animals (6%). A sequence closely related to Mycoplasma ovis was present both in wild (14%) and captive (6%) pudus. Two previously undescribed sequences, classified in a clade including hemoplasmas from carnivores, were found in one wild pudu each. This study presents the first evidence of the presence of M. ovis-like organisms in Chile and of the susceptibility of pudus to infection with hemoplasmas. Further research is needed to understand the pathologic consequences of this pathogen for pudus, its effects at the population level, and their potential impact on the health small ruminants and other wildlife species in Chile.

'Candidatus Mycoplasma haematonasua' and tick-borne pathogens in ring-tailed coatis (Nasua nasua Linnaeus, 1976) from the Iguaçu National Park, Paraná State, southern Brazil

The Iguaçu National Park (INP) is the largest remnant of Atlantic Forest in southern Brazil, representing an ecological continuum with Argentina. The INP harbours a diverse fauna, with ring-tailed coatis (Nasua nasua Linnaeus, 1976, Carnivora: Procyonidae) in close contact with tourists either begging and/or snatching food from visitors. A potentially novel haemotropic Mycoplasma sp. has been previously detected in the ring-tailed coatis from central-western and southern Brazil. Therefore, the aims of this study were to investigate the occurrence of haemotropic Mycoplasma sp. and tick-borne pathogens in wild ring-tailed coatis from the INP, Foz do Iguaçu municipality, Paraná State, southern Brazil. Blood samples were collected from 18 wild ring-tailed coatis and evaluated by conventional PCR (cPCR) assays for haemotropic Mycoplasma spp. (16S and 23S rRNA), Theileria/Babesia spp. (18S rRNA) and Ehrlichia/Anaplasma spp. (16S rRNA, sodB, dsb and groEL). Eight out of 18 (44.44%; 95% CI: 24.56%-66.28%) animals were positive for haemotropic Mycoplasma spp. All ring-tailed coatis tested negative for Theileria/Babesia spp. and only one out of 18 (5.56%; 95% CI: 0.99%-25.76%) animals tested positive for Ehrlichia/Anaplasma spp. by the 16S rRNA cPCR. Unfortunately, multiple attempts to sequence the 16S rRNA gene of the Ehrlichia/Anaplasma-positive sample have failed. Phylogenetic and network analysis of the hemoplasma 16S and 23S rRNA gene fragments confirmed that animals were infected by a potentially novel haemotropic Mycoplasma sp. previously reported in ring-tailed coatis from Brazil. The name 'Candidatus Mycoplasma haematonasua' is proposed for this novel organism.

'Candidatus Mycoplasma haematohydrochoerus', a novel hemoplasma species in capybaras (Hydrochoerus hydrochaeris) from Brazil

Three different species of hemoplasmas have been described in rodents, Mycoplasma coccoides, 'Candidatus Mycoplasma haemomuris' and 'Candidatus Mycoplasma haemosphiggurus'. Additionally, potentially novel hemoplasma species have been detected in wild rodents from Brazil, including capybaras (Hydrochoerus hydrochaeris). Capybaras are the largest rodent in the world and are well adapted to live within close proximity to humans, which increases the risk to spread of zoonotic pathogens. Herein, we investigate the occurrence and genetic diversity of hemoplasmas infecting free-ranging capybaras from southern Brazil. Blood samples and ticks from 17 capybaras were collected. Packed cell volume and total plasma protein were measured, DNA was extracted, and further screened by species-specific and pan-hemoplasma PCR assays targeting the 16S rRNA gene of hemoplasmas. Sixteen out of 17 (94.12%; 95% CI: 73.02-98.95%) were anemic. Only one young female was hypoproteinemic. All capybaras were infested by adults and nymphs of Amblyomma dubitatum ticks. Using the PCR assay targeting the 16S rRNA gene of M. coccoides, 13/17 (76.47%; 95% CI: 52.74-90.44%) capybaras were positive for hemoplasmas. When DNA samples were tested by the pan-hemoplasma PCR, 16/17 (94.12%; 95% CI: 73.02-98.95%) animals were positive. One out of 11 (9.09%) adult ticks salivary glands tested positive for hemoplasma by the pan-hemoplasma PCR assay. Sequencing and phylogenetic analysis of the 16S and 23S rRNA gene fragments confirmed that animals were infected by a novel hemotropic Mycoplasma sp. previously reported in capybaras from Brazil. Additionally, sequencing and phylogenetic analysis of the 23S rRNA gene from three hemoplasma-positive capybaras samples from a previous study performed in midwestern Brazil also confirm our findings. Based on phylogenetic and Neighbor-Net network analysis of the 16S rRNA and 23S rRNA genes, the name 'Candidatus Mycoplasma haematohydrochoerus' is proposed for this novel organism.

Widespread Infection with Hemotropic Mycoplasmas in Free-Ranging Dogs and Wild Foxes Across Six Bioclimatic Regions of Chile

Blood samples of 626 rural dogs, 140 Andean foxes (Lycalopex culpaeus), and 83 South American grey foxes (L. griseus) from six bioregions of Chile spanning 3000 km were screened for Mycoplasma DNA by conventional PCR and sequencing. Risk factors of infection were inferred using Generalized Linear Mixed Models and genetic structure by network analyses. Overall, Mycoplasma haemocanis/Mycoplasma haemofelis (Mhc/Mhf) and Candidatus Mycoplasma haematoparvum (CMhp) observed prevalence was 23.8% and 12.8% in dogs, 20.1% and 7.2% in Andean foxes, and 26.5% and 8.4% in grey foxes, respectively. Both hemoplasmas were confirmed in all the bioregions, with higher prevalence in those where ticks from the Rhipicephalus sanguineus species group were absent. Candidatus M. haematominutum and a Mycoplasma sp. previously found in South American carnivores were detected in one fox each. Although the most prevalent Mhc/Mhf and CMhp sequence types were shared between dogs and foxes, network analysis revealed genetic structure of Mhc/Mhf between hosts in some regions. Male sex was associated with a higher risk of Mhc/Mhf and CMhp infection in dogs, and adult age with CMhp infection, suggesting that direct transmission is relevant. No risk factor was identified in foxes. Our study provides novel information about canine hemoplasmas with relevance in distribution, transmission routes, and cross-species transmission.

Disentangling interactions among mercury, immunity and infection in a Neotropical bat community

1. Contaminants such as mercury are pervasive and can have immunosuppressive effects on wildlife. Impaired immunity could be important for forecasting pathogen spillover, as many land-use changes that generate mercury contamination also bring wildlife into close contact with humans and domestic animals. However, the interactions among contaminants, immunity and infection are difficult to study in natural systems, and empirical tests of possible directional relationships remain rare. 2. We capitalized on extreme mercury variation in a diverse bat community in Belize to test association among contaminants, immunity and infection. By comparing a previous dataset of bats sampled in 2014 with new data from 2017, representing a period of rapid agricultural land conversion, we first confirmed bat species more reliant on aquatic prey had higher fur mercury. Bats in the agricultural habitat also had higher mercury in recent years. We then tested covariation between mercury and cellular immunity and determined if such relationships mediated associations between mercury and bacterial pathogens. As bat ecology can dictate exposure to mercury and pathogens, we also assessed species-specific patterns in mercury-infection relationships. 3. Across the bat community, individuals with higher mercury had fewer neutrophils but not lymphocytes, suggesting stronger associations with innate immunity. However, the odds of infection for haemoplasmas and Bartonella spp. were generally lowest in bats with high mercury, and relationships between mercury and immunity did not mediate infection patterns. Mercury also showed species- and clade-specific relationships with infection, being associated with especially low odds for haemoplasmas in Pteronotus mesoamericanus and Dermanura phaeotis. For Bartonella spp., mercury was associated with particularly low odds of infection in the genus Pteronotus but high odds in the subfamily Stenodermatinae. 4. Synthesis and application. Lower general infection risk in bats with high mercury despite weaker innate defense suggests contaminant-driven loss of pathogen habitat (i.e. anemia) or vector mortality as possible causes. Greater attention to these potential pathways could help disentangle relationships among contaminants, immunity and infection in anthropogenic habitats and help forecast disease risks. Our results also suggest that contaminants may increase infection risk in some taxa but not others, emphasizing the importance of considering surveillance and management at different phylogenetic scales.