Journey to the center of the cell: role of the receptosome

Pituitary multi-hormone cells in mammals and fish: history, origin, and roles

The vertebrate pituitary is a dynamic organ, capable of adapting its hormone secretion to different physiological demands. In this context, endocrinologists have debated for the past 40 years if endocrine cells are mono- or multi-hormonal. Since its establishment, the dominant "one cell, one hormone" model has been continuously challenged. In mammals, the use of advanced multi-staining approaches, sensitive gene expression techniques, and the analysis of tumor tissues have helped to quickly demonstrate the existence of pituitary multi-hormone cells. In fishes however, only recent advances in imaging and transcriptomics have enabled the identification of such cells. In this review, we first describe the history of the discovery of cells producing multiple hormones in mammals and fishes. We discuss the technical limitations that have led to uncertainties and debates. Then, we present the current knowledge and hypotheses regarding their origin and biological role, which provides a comprehensive review of pituitary plasticity.

Cellular binding of nanoparticles disrupts the membrane potential

All cells generate an electrical potential across their plasma membrane driven by a concentration gradient of charged ions. A typical resting membrane potential ranges from -40 to -70 mV, with a net negative charge on the cytosolic side of the membrane. Maintenance of the resting membrane potential depends on the presence of two-pore-domain potassium "leak" channels, which allow for outward diffusion of potassium ions along their concentration gradient. Disruption of the ion gradient causes the membrane potential to become more positive or more negative relative to the resting state, referred to as "depolarization" or "hyperpolarization," respectively. Changes in membrane potential have proven to be pivotal, not only in normal cell cycle progression but also in malignant transformation and tissue regeneration. Using polystyrene nanoparticles as a model system, we use flow cytometry and fluorescence microscopy to measure changes in membrane potential in response to nanoparticle binding to the plasma membrane. We find that nanoparticles with amine-modified surfaces lead to significant depolarization of both CHO and HeLa cells. In comparison, carboxylate-modified nanoparticles do not cause depolarization. Mechanistic studies suggest that this nanoparticle-induced depolarization is the result of a physical blockage of the ion channels. These experiments show that nanoparticles can alter the biological system of interest in subtle, yet important, ways.

Secondary structure of corona proteins determines the cell surface receptors used by nanoparticles

Nanoparticles used for biological and biomedical applications encounter a host of extracellular proteins. These proteins rapidly adsorb onto the nanoparticle surface, creating a protein corona. Poly(ethylene glycol) can reduce, but not eliminate, the nonspecific adsorption of proteins. As a result, the adsorbed proteins, rather than the nanoparticle itself, determine the cellular receptors used for binding, the internalization mechanism, the intracellular transport pathway, and the subsequent immune response. Using fluorescence microscopy and flow cytometry, we first characterize a set of polystyrene nanoparticles in which the same adsorbed protein, bovine serum albumin, leads to binding to two different cell surface receptors: native albumin receptors and scavenger receptors. Using a combination of circular dichroism spectroscopy, isothermal titration calorimetry, and fluorescence spectroscopy, we demonstrate that the secondary structure of the adsorbed bovine serum albumin protein controls the cellular receptors used by the protein-nanoparticle complexes. These results show that protein secondary structure is a key parameter in determining the cell surface receptor used by a protein-nanoparticle complex. We expect this link between protein structure and cellular outcomes will provide a molecular basis for the design of nanoparticles for use in biological and biomedical applications.

Nanoparticle-cell interactions: molecular structure of the protein corona and cellular outcomes

The use of nanoparticles (NPs) in biology and medicine requires a molecular-level understanding of how NPs interact with cells in a physiological environment. A critical difference between well-controlled in vitro experiments and in vivo applications is the presence of a complex mixture of extracellular proteins. It has been established that extracellular serum proteins present in blood will adsorb onto the surface of NPs, forming a "protein corona". Our goal was to understand how this protein layer affected cellular-level events, including NP binding, internalization, and transport. A combination of microscopy, which provides spatial resolution, and spectroscopy, which provides molecular information, is necessary to probe protein-NP-cell interactions. Initial experiments used a model system composed of polystyrene NPs functionalized with either amine or carboxylate groups to provide a cationic or anionic surface, respectively. Serum proteins adsorb onto the surface of both cationic and anionic NPs, forming a net anionic protein-NP complex. Although these protein-NP complexes have similar diameters and effective surface charges, they show the exact opposite behavior in terms of cellular binding. In the presence of bovine serum albumin (BSA), the cellular binding of BSA-NP complexes formed from cationic NPs is enhanced, whereas the cellular binding of BSA-NP complexes formed from anionic NPs is inhibited. These trends are independent of NP diameter or cell type. Similar results were obtained for anionic quantum dots and colloidal gold nanospheres. Using competition assays, we determined that BSA-NP complexes formed from anionic NPs bind to albumin receptors on the cell surface. BSA-NP complexes formed from cationic NPs are redirected to scavenger receptors. The observation that similar NPs with identical protein corona compositions bind to different cellular receptors suggested that a difference in the structure of the adsorbed protein may be responsible for the differences in cellular binding of the protein-NP complexes. Circular dichroism spectroscopy, isothermal titration calorimetry, and fluorescence spectroscopy show that the structure of BSA is altered following incubation with cationic NPs, but not anionic NPs. Single-particle-tracking fluorescence microscopy was used to follow the cellular internalization and transport of protein-NP complexes. The single particle-tracking experiments show that the protein corona remains bound to the NP throughout endocytic uptake and transport. The interaction of protein-NP complexes with cells is a challenging question, as the adsorbed protein corona controls the interaction of the NP with the cell; however, the NP itself alters the structure of the adsorbed protein. A combination of microscopy and spectroscopy is necessary to understand this complex interaction, enabling the rational design of NPs for biological and medical applications.

The late endosomal p14-MP1 (LAMTOR2/3) complex regulates focal adhesion dynamics during cell migration

Late endosomes locally regulate cell migration by transporting the p14–MP1 scaffold complex to the vicinity of focal adhesions.

Cell migration is mediated by the dynamic remodeling of focal adhesions (FAs). Recently, an important role of endosomal signaling in regulation of cell migration was recognized. Here, we show an essential function for late endosomes carrying the p14–MP1 (LAMTOR2/3) complex in FA dynamics. p14–MP1-positive endosomes move to the cell periphery along microtubules (MTs) in a kinesin1- and Arl8b-dependent manner. There they specifically target FAs to regulate FA turnover, which is required for cell migration. Using genetically modified fibroblasts from p14-deficient mice and Arl8b-depleted cells, we demonstrate that MT plus end–directed traffic of p14–MP1-positive endosomes triggered IQGAP1 disassociation from FAs. The release of IQGAP was required for FA dynamics. Taken together, our results suggest that late endosomes contribute to the regulation of cell migration by transporting the p14–MP1 scaffold complex to the vicinity of FAs.

Electroporation and microinjection successfully deliver single-stranded and duplex DNA into live cells as detected by FRET measurements

Förster resonance energy transfer (FRET) technology relies on the close proximity of two compatible fluorophores for energy transfer. Tagged (Cy3 and Cy5) complementary DNA strands forming a stable duplex and a doubly-tagged single strand were shown to demonstrate FRET outside of a cellular environment. FRET was also observed after transfecting these DNA strands into fixed and live cells using methods such as microinjection and electroporation, but not when using lipid based transfection reagents, unless in the presence of the endosomal acidification inhibitor bafilomycin. Avoiding the endocytosis pathway is essential for efficient delivery of intact DNA probes into cells.

Membrane potential mediates the cellular binding of nanoparticles

The use of nanoparticles for cellular therapeutic or sensing applications requires nanoparticles to bind, or adhere, to the cell surface. While nanoparticle parameters such as size, shape, charge, and composition are important factors in cellular binding, the cell itself must also be considered. All cells have an electrical potential across the plasma membrane driven by an ion gradient. Under standard conditions the ion gradient will result in a -10 to -100 mV potential across the membrane with a net negative charge on the cytosolic face. Using a combination of flow cytometry and fluorescence microscopy experiments and dissipative particle dynamics simulations, we have found that a decrease in membrane potential leads to decreased cellular binding of anionic nanoparticles. The decreased cellular binding of anionic nanoparticles is a general phenomenon, independent of depolarization method, nanoparticle composition, and cell type. Increased membrane potential reverses this trend resulting in increased binding of anionic nanoparticles. The cellular binding of cationic nanoparticles is minimally affected by membrane potential due to the interaction of cationic nanoparticles with cell surface proteins. The influence of membrane potential on the cellular binding of nanoparticles is especially important when considering the use of nanoparticles in the treatment or detection of diseases, such as cancer, in which the membrane potential is decreased.

Tethering complexes in the endocytic pathway: CORVET and HOPS

Endocytosis describes the processes by which proteins, peptides and solutes, and also pathogens, enter the cell. Endocytosed material progresses to endosomes. Genetic studies in yeast, worms, flies and mammals have identified a set of universally conserved proteins that are essential for early-to-late endosome transition and lysosome biogenesis, and for endolysosomal trafficking pathways, including autophagy. The two Vps-C complexes CORVET (class C core vacuole/endosome tethering) and HOPS (homotypic fusion and vacuole protein sorting) perform diverse biochemical functions in endocytosis: they tether membranes, interact with Rab GTPases, activate and proof-read SNARE assembly to drive membrane fusion, and possibly attach endosomes to the cytoskeleton. In addition, several of the CORVET and HOPS subunits have diversified in metazoans, and probably form additional specialized complexes to accomodate the higher complexity of trafficking pathways in these cells. Recent studies offer new insights into the complex relationships between CORVET and HOPS complexes and other factors of the endolysosomal pathway. Interactions with V-ATPase, the ESCRT machinery, phosphoinositides, the cytoskeleton and the Rab switch suggest an intricate cooperative network for endosome maturation. Accumulating evidence supports the view that endosomal tethering complexes implement a regulatory logic that governs endomembrane identity and dynamics.

Cellular Binding of Anionic Nanoparticles is Inhibited by Serum Proteins Independent of Nanoparticle Composition

Nanoparticles used in biological applications encounter a complex mixture of extracellular proteins. Adsorption of these proteins on the nanoparticle surface results in the formation of a "protein corona," which can dominate the interaction of the nanoparticle with the cellular environment. The goal of this research was to determine how nanoparticle composition and surface modification affect the cellular binding of protein-nanoparticle complexes. We examined the cellular binding of a collection of commonly used anionic nanoparticles: quantum dots, colloidal gold nanoparticles, and low-density lipoprotein particles, in the presence and absence of extracellular proteins. These experiments have the advantage of comparing different nanoparticles under identical conditions. Using a combination of fluorescence and dark field microscopy, flow cytometry, and spectroscopy, we find that cellular binding of these anionic nanoparticles is inhibited by serum proteins independent of nanoparticle composition or surface modification. We expect these results will aid in the design of nanoparticles for in vivo applications.

Heterogeneous diffusion of a membrane-bound pHLIP peptide

Lateral diffusion of cell membrane constituents is a prerequisite for many biological functions. However, the diffusivity (or mobility) of a membrane-bound species can be influenced by many factors. To provide a better understanding of how the conformation and location of a membrane-bound biological molecule affect its mobility, herein we study the diffusion properties of a pH low insertion peptide (pHLIP) in model membranes using fluorescence correlation spectroscopy. It is found that when the pHLIP peptide is located on the membrane surface, its lateral diffusion is characterized by a distribution of diffusion times, the characteristic of which depends on the peptide/lipid ratio. Whereas, under conditions where pHLIP adopts a well-defined transmembrane alpha-helical conformation the peptide still exhibits heterogeneous diffusion, the distribution of diffusion times is found to be independent of the peptide/lipid ratio. Taken together, these results indicate that the mobility of a membrane-bound species is sensitive to its conformation and location and that diffusion measurement could provide useful information regarding the conformational distribution of membrane-bound peptides. Furthermore, the observation that the mobility of a membrane-bound species depends on its concentration may have important implications for diffusion-controlled reactions taking place in membranes.

Amino acid sequence motifs and mechanistic features of the membrane translocation of alpha-synuclein

Many lines of evidence suggest that alpha-synuclein can be secreted from cells and can penetrate into them, although the detailed mechanism is not known. In this study, we investigated the amino acid sequence motifs required for the membrane translocation of alpha-synuclein, and the mechanistic features of the phenomenon. We first showed that not only alpha-synuclein but also beta- and gamma-synucleins penetrated into live cells, indicating that the conserved N-terminal region might be responsible for the membrane translocation. Using a series of deletion mutants, we demonstrated that the 11-amino acid imperfect repeats found in synuclein family members play a critical role in the membrane translocation of these proteins. We further demonstrated that fusion peptides containing the 11-amino acid imperfect repeats of alpha-synuclein can transverse the plasma membrane, and that the membrane translocation efficiency is optimal when the peptide contains two repeat motifs. alpha-Synuclein appeared to be imported rapidly and efficiently into cells, with detectable protein in the cytoplasm within 5 min after exogenous treatment. Interestingly, the import of alpha-synuclein at 4 degrees C was comparable with the import observed at 37 degrees C. Furthermore, membrane translocation of alpha-synuclein was not significantly affected by treatment with inhibitors of endocytosis. These results suggest that the internalization of alpha-synuclein is temperature-insensitive and occurs very rapidly via a mechanism distinct from normal endocytosis.

Nanotubular highways for intercellular organelle transport

Cell-to-cell communication is a crucial prerequisite for the development and maintenance of multicellular organisms. To date, diverse mechanisms of intercellular exchange of information have been documented, including chemical synapses, gap junctions, and plasmodesmata. Here, we describe highly sensitive nanotubular structures formed de novo between cells that create complex networks. These structures facilitate the selective transfer of membrane vesicles and organelles but seem to impede the flow of small molecules. Accordingly, we propose a novel biological principle of cell-to-cell interaction based on membrane continuity and intercellular transfer of organelles.

HIV-1 Vpr displays natural protein-transducing properties: implications for viral pathogenesis

The 14-kDa Vpr protein of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) serves multiple functions in the retroviral life cycle, including the enhancement of viral replication in nondividing macrophages, the induction of G2 cell-cycle arrest in proliferating T lymphocytes, and the modulation of HIV-1-induced apoptosis. Extracellular Vpr has been detected in the sera and cerebral spinal fluid of HIV-infected patients. However, it is not known whether such forms of Vpr are biologically active. Vpr contains a carboxy-terminal basic amino acid rich segment stretch that is homologous to domains that mediate the energy- and receptor-independent cellular uptake of polypeptides by a process termed protein transduction. Similar functional protein-transducing domains are present in HIV-1 Tat, herpes simplex virus-1 DNA-binding protein VP22, and the Drosophila antennapedia homeotic transcription factor. We now demonstrate effective transduction of biologically active, synthetic Vpr (sVpr) as well as the Vpr-beta-galactosidase fusion protein. However, in contrast to other transducing proteins, Vpr transduction is not enhanced by protein denaturation, and Vpr's carboxy-terminal basic domain alone is not sufficient for its transduction across biological membranes. In contrast, the full-length Vpr protein effectively transduces a broad array of cells, leading to dose-dependent G2 cell-cycle arrest and apoptosis. Addition of Vpr into the extracellular medium also rescues the replication of Vpr-deficient strains of HIV-1 in human macrophage cultures. Native Vpr may thus be optimized for protein transduction, a feature that might enhance and extend the pathological effects of HIV infection.

Late endosome motility depends on lipids via the small GTPase Rab7

We report that lipids contribute to regulate the bidirectional motility of late endocytic compartments. Late endocytic vesicles loaded with cholesterol lose their dynamic properties, and become essentially immobile, including in cells from Niemann-Pick C patients. These vesicles then retain cytoplasmic dynein activity, but seem to be unable to acquire kinesin activity, eventually leading to paralysis. Our data suggest that this defect depends on the small GTPase Rab7, since the motility of vesicles loaded with cholesterol can be restored by the Rab7 inhibitory mutant N125I. Conversely, wild-type Rab7 overexpression mimics the effects of cholesterol on motility in control cells. Consistently, cholesterol accumulation increases the amounts of membrane-associated Rab7, and inhibits Rab7 membrane extraction by the guanine nucleotide dissociation inhibitor. Our observations thus indicate that cholesterol contributes to regulate the Rab7 cycle, and that Rab7 in turn controls the net movement of late endocytic elements. We conclude that motor functions can be regulated by the membrane lipid composition via the Rab7 cycle.

Immunoelectron microscopic investigations of patching, capping, endocytotic and shedding processes in T and B lymphocytes

Lymphocytes were isolated from the blood of healthy juvenile test persons by the FICOLL method. Subsequently, CD4-, CD8-, and CD19-positive cells were obtained by the use of magnetic beads. The sandwich technique and gold labelling method (preembedding) served for the demonstration of receptors in the electron microscope. The gold-labelled receptors were primarily endocytosed via smooth-walled micropinocytotic processes, less frequently by coated pits/vesicles. The endocytosis cycle lasted only as far as the level of multivesiculated bodies. Lysosomes and structures of the Golgi apparatus were free from gold particles. It was surprising that after activation the capping phenomena were not associated with increased endocytotic activity. The inner surface of the membrane of endocytotic vesicles underneath the cap does not explain modulation or turnover of the receptor under these conditions, not even in view of a fast endocytotic cycle. Another possibility of a membrane turnover is the "shedding" process. We were indeed able to demonstrate gold labelling and surface coat-like material in the extracellular matrix.

Rapid and efficient vascular transport of arginine polymers inhibits myointimal hyperplasia

BACKGROUND

We recently discovered that short polymers of arginine efficiently translocate across the cytoplasmic membrane independent of the basic amino acid transporter. We evaluated the kinetics and biological effects of heptamers of L-arginine and D-arginine (L-R7 and D-R7, respectively) in vascular cells. We assessed the effects of these peptides on the NO synthesis pathway and vascular cell proliferation.

METHODS AND RESULTS

Human umbilical vein endothelial cell and rabbit vascular segments were incubated in medium containing biotin-labeled L-R7 or D-R7. Both polymers rapidly translocated through the vessel wall and into the vascular cells in a dose- and time-dependent fashion. At a dose of 10 micromol/L for 30 minutes, 100% of the endothelial cells showed evidence of cytoplasmic and nuclear localization of the peptides. To evaluate the biological effects of the polymer translocation on myointimal formation, rabbit jugular vein segments were incubated with polymers (10 micromol/L, 30 minutes) or vehicle before arterial interposition grafting. Planimetric measurement 28 days after surgery revealed that L-R7 and D-R7 substantially reduced myointimal formation compared with the control condition (intima/media ratio: control 1. 50.5, L-R7 0.40.2, and D-R7 0.80.2; P:<0.05). Furthermore, basal nitrate and nitrite production from L-R7-treated grafts was significantly higher than that from both control and D-R7-treated veins. Studies in vitro of cultured vascular smooth muscle cells revealed that both polymers also exhibit an NO-independent inhibition of vascular smooth muscle cell proliferation.

CONCLUSIONS

Short polymers of arginine have the unique ability of vascular cell translocation, and they also have direct biological effects. These attributes are potentially useful in treating myointimal hyperplasia.

Novel cell permeable motif derived from the PreS2-domain of hepatitis-B virus surface antigens

Efficient transfer of proteins or nucleic acids across cellular membranes is a major problem in cell biology. Recently the existence of a fusogenic sequence was predicted in the junction area of the PreS2- and S-domain of the hepatitis-B virus surface antigens. We have identified cell permeability as a novel property of the PreS2-domain. Cell permeability of PreS2 is not restricted to hepatocytes. PreS2 translocates in an energy-independent manner into cells and is evenly distributed over the cytosol. Detailed analysis revealed that cell-permeability is mediated by an amphipatic alpha-helix between amino acids 41 and 52 of PreS2. Destruction of this translocation motif (PreS2-TLM) abolishes cell permeability. PreS2-TLM per se can act as a shuttle for peptides and functional proteins (such as EGFP). This permits the highly specific modulation of intracellular signal transduction by transfer of peptides competing protein-protein interactions as demonstrated by specific inhibition of TNFalpha-dependent activation of c-Raf-1 kinase. Moreover in vivo functionality was demonstrated by PreS2-TLM-dependent protein transfer into primary bone marrow cells and into the liver. The amphipatic motif is conserved between the different hepatitis-B virus subtypes, and the surface proteins of avian and rodent hepadnaviruses exhibit similar amphipatic peptide sequences. In respect to hepatitis-B virus-infection, the PreS2-TLM could represent the postulated fusion peptide and play a crucial role in the internalization of the viral particle.

Reconstitution of ATP-dependent movement of endocytic vesicles along microtubules in vitro: an oscillatory bidirectional process

We have previously used the asialoglycoprotein receptor system to elucidate the pathway of hepatocytic processing of ligands such as asialoorosomucoid (ASOR). These studies suggested that endocytic vesicles bind to and travel along microtubules under the control of molecular motors such as cytoplasmic dynein. We now report reconstitution of this process in vitro with the use of a microscope assay to observe the interaction of early endocytic vesicles containing fluorescent ASOR with fluorescent microtubules. We find that ASOR-containing endosomes bind to microtubules and translocate along them in the presence of ATP. This represents the first time that mammalian endosomes containing a well-characterized ligand have been directly observed to translocate on microtubules in vitro. The endosome movement does not require cytosol or exogenous motor protein, is oscillatory, and is directed toward the plus and minus ends at equal frequencies. We also observe endosomes being stretched in opposite directions along microtubules, suggesting that microtubules could provide a mechanical basis for endocytic sorting events. The movement of endosomes in vitro is consistent with the hypothesis that microtubules actively participate in the sorting and distribution of endocytic contents.

Synaptic vesicle biogenesis

Synaptic vesicles, which have been a paradigm for the fusion of a vesicle with its target membrane, also serve as a model for understanding the formation of a vesicle from its donor membrane. Synaptic vesicles, which are formed and recycled at the periphery of the neuron, contain a highly restricted set of neuronal proteins. Insight into the trafficking of synaptic vesicle proteins has come from studying not only neurons but also neuroendocrine cells, which form synaptic-like microvesicles (SLMVs). Formation and recycling of synaptic vesicles/SLMVs takes place from the early endosome and the plasma membrane. The cytoplasmic machinery of synaptic vesicle/SLMV formation and recycling has been studied by a variety of experimental approaches, in particular using cell-free systems. This has revealed distinct machineries for membrane budding and fission. Budding is mediated by clathrin and clathrin adaptors, whereas fission is mediated by dynamin and its interacting protein SH3p4, a lysophosphatidic acid acyl transferase.

Phagocytosis of myelin in demyelinative disease: a review

In the cell-mediated demyelinating diseases such as experimental allergic encephalomyelitis and multiple sclerosis, as well as their peripheral nerve counterparts, the phagocytic cells are the agent of myelin destruction. Both resident microglia and peripheral macrophages invading the nervous system have been shown to phagocytize myelin, although microglia appear to be more active, especially at early stages of disease. Several different receptors on these cells have been implicated as myelin receptors, with the Fc- and complement receptors receiving the most attention. Other receptors, especially the macrophage scavenger receptor with its broad specificity deserves further exploration, especially in view of its affinity for phosphatidylserine, which becomes externalized with membrane disruption. Evidence is shown for cytokine regulation of phagocytic activity in both macrophages and microglia. Further investigation of the pathways of cytokine action on myelin phagocytosis through signal transduction molecules will be important for a further understanding of the events leading to myelin destruction in demyelinating diseases.

Intracellular processing of endocytosed triglyceride-rich lipoproteins comprises both recycling and degradation

The current study was performed to investigate the intracellular fate of triglyceride-rich lipoproteins. Triglyceride-rich lipoproteins are responsible for the delivery of lipids to various tissues, however, their intracellular pathway has not yet been elucidated. Here radiolabeled triglyceride-rich lipoproteins, associated with lipoprotein lipase, were used for the quantitative evaluation of the intracellular metabolism. Pulse chase experiments showed that after 90 minutes approximately 60% of the labeled protein, mainly apoproteins E and C, was released intact into the medium, where it re-associates with lipoproteins. Apoprotein B, in contrast, was degraded, following the same pathway as the apoprotein B from low density lipoproteins. In kinetic experiments uptake and intracellular fate of triglyceride-rich lipoproteins was compared to that of transferrin and low density lipoproteins. These experiments revealed that apoproteins were retained inside the cell much longer than transferrin, and unlike low density lipoproteins were not degraded. Using immunofluorescence it was shown that apoprotein E and lipoprotein lipase follow a distinct route from the sorting compartment to the surface, which is clearly distinguishable from the perinuclear transferrin recycling compartment. In contrast, the fluorescence labeled lipids were delivered to lysosomal compartments. The data presented here show that surface proteins of triglyceride-rich lipoproteins, such as apoproteins E and C and lipoprotein lipase follow a recycling pathway, whereas lipids and high molecular mass core proteins are degraded.

Aphidicolin induces alterations in Golgi complex and disorganization of microtubules of HeLa cells upon long-term administration

Treatment of HeLa cells with aphidicolin at 5 or 0.5 microg/ml induced cell cycle arrest at G1/S or G2/M phase, respectively, and was accompanied by unbalanced cell growth. Long-term administration of aphidicolin (more than 48 h) resulted in noticeable loss of reproductive capacity though cells were viable at the time of treatment. Immunofluorescence with anti-Golgi membrane protein monoclonal antibody (mAbG3A5) showed disfigurement of the characteristic mesh-like configuration when cells were treated for more than 48 h. Interestingly, we found that the fragmented Golgi complex formed a ring around the nucleus in more than 20% of the cells. Immunoelectron microscopy using mAbG3A5 antibody demonstrated that the stack structure of the fragmented Golgi complex in aphidicolin-arrested cells appeared partially broken up and seemed to have converted to a vesicle-like structure. Analysis using an antibody to tubulin and anticentrosome human autoimmune serum showed that alterations in the Golgi complex were induced even by the lower 0.5 microg/ml dose. These alterations were accompanied by both changes in the distribution of microtubules and an increase in the number of centrosomes. These cells lost their distinct perinuclear microtubule organizing center (MTOC). On the other hand, treatment with aphidicolin at 5 microg/ml did not induce multiplication of the centrosome although the loss of distinct MTOC was still evident. No changes took place in the Golgi complex, microtubule, or centrosome of cells treated with 0.5 microg/ml aphidicolin when cycloheximide was added simultaneously to the culture.

Amphiregulin antisense oligonucleotide inhibits the growth of T3M4 human pancreatic cancer cells and sensitizes the cells to EGF receptor-targeted therapy

Human pancreatic cancers overexpress the epidermal growth factor (EGF) receptor (EGFR) and all 5 ligands that bind to this receptor, including amphiregulin. It is not known, however, whether amphiregulin contributes in an autocrine manner to enhance pancreatic cancer cell growth. Therefore, we used an amphiregulin antisense oligonucleotide (AR-AS) to suppress amphiregulin expression in T3M4 human pancreatic cancer cells. These cells express high levels of EGFR and amphiregulin. AR-AS abolished amphiregulin immunoreactivity in T3M4 cells, decreased amphiregulin release into the medium and inhibited cell growth in a dose-dependent manner. Exogenous amphiregulin reversed AR-AS-mediated growth inhibition. A random oligonucleotide (AR-R) did not alter either cell growth or cellular amphiregulin immunoreactivity. AR-AS also increased cellular EGFR protein levels and enhanced the growth-inhibitory actions of TP40, a chimeric protein consisting of transforming growth factor-alpha coupled to Pseudomonas exotoxin that internalizes into cells via EGFR. These findings indicate that there is an important EGFR/ amphiregulin autocrine loop in T3M4 cells and raise the possibility that modalities aimed at abrogating amphiregulin action may prove useful in pancreatic cancer, especially when used in conjunction with EGFR-targeted therapy.

Kinetics of low-density lipoprotein receptor activity in Hep-G2 cells: derivation and validation of a Briggs-Haldane-based kinetic model for evaluating receptor-mediated endocytotic processes in which receptors recycle

The process of receptor-mediated endocytosis for receptors that recycle to the cell surface in an active form can be considered as being kinetically analogous to that of a uni-substrate, uni-product enzyme-catalysed reaction. In this study we have derived steady-state initial-velocity rate equations for this process, based on classical Briggs-Haldane and King-Altman kinetic approaches to multi-step reactions, and have evaluated this kinetic paradigm, using as a model system the low-density lipoprotein (LDL)-receptor-mediated endocytosis of the trapped label [14C]sucrose-LDL in uninduced, steady-state Hep-G2 cells. Using the derived rate equations, together with experimentally determined values for Bmax (123 fmol/mg of cell protein), Kd (14.3 nM), the endocytotic rate constant ke (analogous to kcat; 0.163 min-1), Km (80 nM) and maximal internalization velocity (26.4 fmol/min per mg), we have calculated the ratio ke/Km (0.00204 nM-1.min-1), the bimolecular rate constant for LDL and LDL-receptor association (0. 00248 nM-1.min-1), the first-order rate constant for LDL-LDL-receptor complex dissociation (0.0354 min-1), the total cellular content of LDL receptors (154 fmol/mg of cell protein), the intracellular LDL receptor concentration (30.7 fmol/mg of cell protein) and the pseudo-first-order rate constant for LDL receptor recycling (0.0653 min-1). Based on this mathematical model, the kinetic mechanism for the receptor-mediated endocytosis of [14C]sucrose-LDL by steady-state Hep-G2 cells is one of constitutive endocytosis via independent internalization sites that follows steady-state Briggs-Haldane kinetics, such that LDL-LDL-receptor interactions are characterized by a rapid-high-affinity ligand-receptor association, followed by ligand-receptor complex internalization that is rapid relative to complex dissociation, and by receptor recycling that is more rapid than complex internalization and that serves to maintain 80% of cellular LDL receptors on the cell surface in the steady-state. The consistency with which these quantitative observations parallel previous qualitative observations regarding LDL-receptor-mediated endocytosis, together with the high correlation between theoretical internalization velocities (calculated from determined rate constants) and experimental internalization velocities, underscore the validity of considering receptor-mediated endocytotic processes for recycling receptors in catalytic terms.

Intercellular trafficking and protein delivery by a herpesvirus structural protein

We show that the HSV-1 structural protein VP22 has the remarkable property of intercellular transport, which is so efficient that following expression in a subpopulation the protein spreads to every cell in a monolayer, where it concentrates in the nucleus and binds chromatin. VP22 movement was observed both after delivery of DNA by transfection or microinjection and during virus infection. Moreover, we demonstrate that VP22 trafficking occurs via a nonclassical Golgi-independent mechanism. Sensitivity to cytochalasin D treatment suggests that VP22 utilizes a novel trafficking pathway that involves the actin cytoskeleton. In addition, we demonstrate intercellular transport of a VP22 fusion protein after endogenous synthesis or exogenous application, indicating that VP22 may have potential in the field of protein delivery.

Kinetic analysis of receptor-mediated endocytosis of G-CSF derivative, nartograstim, in rat bone marrow cells

To elucidate the mechanism of the receptor-mediated clearance of granulocyte colony-stimulating factor (G-CSF), we performed kinetic analyses of the receptor-mediated endocytosis (RME) processes using a human G-CSF derivative, nartograstim (NTG), and isolated rat bone marrow cells. The first-order rate constants involved in RME processes were obtained by computerized model fitting of the time courses of the ligand-receptor complex on both the cell surface and in the cell interior and the degradation products in the medium in the pulse-chase experiment. They were also calculated based on a kinetic model involving the ligand concentration dependence of the initial binding rate, the steady-state degradation rate, and the steady-state amounts of ligand on both the cell surface and in the interior. The rate constants for the RME processes after receptor binding determined in the different experiments were similar, that is, the half-times for the dissociation, internalization, and degradation of the ligand-receptor complex were 770, 10-30, and 20 min, respectively. However, the association constant obtained by measuring the initial binding was fivefold greater than that calculated under steady-state conditions. These kinetic analyses support the hypothesis that the internalization of the receptor may be accelerated by ligand binding, causing downregulation of the receptor on the cell surface. These overall kinetic analyses based on steady-state and non-steady-state data of the RME processes clarify the dynamics of the interaction between NTG and its receptor.

An irregularity in the transmembrane domain helix correlates with the rate of insulin receptor internalization

Internalization of insulin and its receptor via receptor-mediated endocytosis is an important step in insulin-induced signal transduction. To investigate the structural determinants underlying the enhanced internalization rate observed for the insulin receptor transmembrane mutant Gly933-Pro934-->Ala-Ala (GP-->AA), we have designed and chemically synthesized two peptides, IR(TM)-GP and IR-(TM)-AA, corresponding respectively to the N-terminal portion of the wild-type and the mutant insulin receptor TM segment containing these sites. Conformational studies by circular dichroism (CD) spectroscopy on these two peptides in their monomeric states revealed that peptide IR(TM)-GP forms an irregular helix in the membrane-mimetic environments of sodium dodecyl sulfate (SDS) micelles with a possible "kink" in the helix imposed by its Gly-Pro sequence, while peptide IR(TM)-AA assumes largely classical alpha-helical structure under corresponding conditions. The helical pattern of peptide IR(TM)-AA was maintained at elevated temperatures, while the shape of the CD curve for peptide IR(TM)-GP was found to alter as a function of temperature. At higher concentrations, both peptides formed high molecular weight aggregates in SDS micelles, as demonstrated by SDS-PAGE gels, but peptide IR(TM)-AA was shown to aggregate more readily and more extensively than peptide IR(TM)-GP. Fluorescent dye-leakage experiments indicated that peptide IR(TM)-GP produces an enhanced disruption of the membrane bilayer in phosphatidylglycerol vesicles vs that induced by IR(TM)-AA.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)

Agonist-induced muscarinic cholinergic receptor internalization, recycling and degradation in cultured neuronal cells. Cellular mechanisms and role in desensitization

Short-term incubation of intact neuronal cells with muscarinic cholinergic agonists resulted in a rapid decrease of the specific binding of [3H]methylscopolamine to cell surface receptors indicative of receptor internalization. The agonists induced the internalization of both the muscarinic receptor subtypes coupled to adenylyl cyclase and those coupled to phosphoinositide turnover. Receptor internalization, which was inhibited at 0-4 degrees and by depletion of intracellular K+, is thought to occur through coated pits formation and was rapidly reversible. Receptor recycling did not imply protein synthesis. Down-regulation of muscarinic receptors occurred slowly in the presence of agonists, needed intact cytoskeleton (demonstrated by the inhibitory effect of colchicine) and involved lysosomal activity. Both receptor internalization and down-regulation were prevented by muscarinic receptor antagonists. Receptor internalization and down-regulation are agonist-induced cellular mechanisms that with receptor phosphorylation and uncoupling, may induce desensitization. These processes may contribute to complex intracellular regulatory processes and may be involved in some of the long-term effects of neurotransmitters (mainly neuropeptides and growth hormones) or drugs.

Cytoplasmic dynein-dependent vesicular transport from early to late endosomes

We have used an in vitro fusion assay to study the mechanisms of transport from early to late endosomes. Our data show that the late endosomes share with the early endosomes a high capacity to undergo homotypic fusion in vitro. However, direct fusion of early with late endosomes does not occur. We have purified vesicles which are intermediates during transport from early to late endosomes in vivo, and analyzed their protein composition in two-dimensional gels. In contrast to either early or late endosomes, these vesicles do not appear to contain unique proteins. Moreover, these vesicles undergo fusion with late endosomes in vitro, but not with each other or back with early endosomes. In vitro, fusion of these endosomal vesicles with late endosomes is stimulated by polymerized microtubules, consistent with the known role of microtubules during early to late endosome transport in vivo. In contrast, homotypic fusion of early or late endosomes is microtubule-independent. Finally, this stimulation by microtubules depends on microtubule-associated proteins and requires the presence of the minus-end directed motor cytoplasmic dynein, but not the plus-end directed motor kinesin, in agreement with the microtubule organization in vivo. Our data strongly suggest that early and late endosomes are separate, highly dynamic organelles, which are connected by a microtubule-dependent vesicular transport step.

Beta-very low density lipoprotein is sequestered in surface-connected tubules in mouse peritoneal macrophages

beta-very low density lipoprotein (VLDL) is a large lipoprotein with multiple apoprotein E (apoE) molecules that bind to the LDL receptors on mouse macrophages. Even though they bind to the same receptor, the endocytic processing of beta-VLDL differs from low density lipoprotein (LDL). LDL is rapidly delivered to perinuclear lysosomes and degraded, but much of the beta-VLDL is retained in peripheral compartments for several minutes. We have investigated the properties of these peripheral compartments. Measurement of the pH was made using FITC-phosphatidylethanolamine incorporated into the beta-VLDL, and we found that the peripheral compartments were near neutral in pH. These peripheral, beta-VLDL containing compartments were poorly accessible to antibodies, but a low molecular weight fluorescence quencher (trypan blue) entered the compartments within a few seconds. Intermediate voltage EM of cells labeled with colloidal-gold-beta-VLDL revealed that the peripheral compartments are tubular, surface-connected invaginations. Kinetic studies with fluorescent beta-VLDL showed that the compartments become fully sealed with a half-time of 6 min, and the beta-VLDL is then delivered rapidly to perinuclear lysosomes. By monitoring fluorescence energy transfer between lipid analogs incorporated into the beta-VLDL, some processing of the lipoprotein in the peripheral tubular compartments is demonstrated. The novel mode of uptake of beta-VLDL may account for the high cholesterol ester accumulation induced by this lipoprotein.

Transient c-fos expression and dendritic spine plasticity in hippocampal granule cells

A transient expression of Fos protein occurs in nuclei of partially deafferented dentate granule cells within 1 h of transecting perforant path and fornix inputs. This was followed within 24 h by widening of spine necks, elaboration of the spine apparatus, and appearance of coated vesicles, multivesicular bodies, and ribosomes in remaining spines. This study supports the hypothesis that immediate early genes such as c-fos activate late response genes for generating building blocks of plasticity in partially deafferented neurons of adult rats.

Recognition of liposomes by cells: in vitro binding and endocytosis mediated by specific lipid headgroups and surface charge density

We investigated the interaction of liposomes of different surface properties with two mammalian cell lines, CV1, an African green monkey kidney cell line, and J774, a murine macrophage-like cell line. Cell surface binding and endocytosis of liposomes were quantified by fluorometry, using the liposome-encapsulated pH-sensitive fluorescent dye, pyranine, and the lipid marker rhodamine-PE. The liposome uptake was dependent both on the surface properties of the liposomes and on the cell line. Negatively charged phospholipids incorporated into egg phosphatidylcholine (PC)/cholesterol (C) (2:1) liposomes were recognized by the two cell lines to different extents depending on the lipid headgroup and its charge density in the liposome bilayer. Inclusion of 9% phosphatidylserine (PS), phosphatidylglycerol (PG), or phosphatidic acid (PA) promoted the uptake by CV1 cells more than 20-fold. Increasing the content of these negatively charged lipids beyond 9% did not further enhance the uptake. In contrast, 9% monosialoganglioside GM1, phosphatidylinositol (PI), or phosphatidylethanolamine conjugated to poly(ethylene glycol) (PEG-PE) did not promote the uptake. Inclusion of 9% PS, PG, PA or PI in PC/C liposomes did not enhance the uptake by J774 cells, but a drastic enhancement was observed when increasing concentrations of these anionic lipids were incorporated in the liposome bilayer. At least 50% PS, PG, or PI was needed to reach the level of uptake seen with CV1 cells. The uptake of liposomes containing 50% PS by J774 cells was inhibited by poly-anions which are the competing ligands for scavenger receptors, but the uptake by CV1 was not inhibited. Different mechanisms of liposome uptake by these two cell lines are suggested from the different patterns of uptake and the competition with various poly-anions. The differences observed in the uptake rate of liposomes with different lipid compositions seemed to be primarily due to the differences in the binding between liposomes and cell membrane components. The in vitro interaction of various liposomes with these cell lines, especially CV1 cells, shows significant similarities to the in vivo clearance rates of the liposomes.

The renin-angiotensin system in the pituitary gland

There is evidence that angiotensin II, in addition to being generated in the circulating blood, is synthesized in the anterior pituitary lobe and other endocrine tissues. Angiotensin II produced locally may act on pituitary cell receptors to modulate or mediate the action of other hormonal factors. However, tissue angiotensins may be synthesized by a different mechanism than most other neuroendocrine peptides. A precise understanding of the mode of formation of local angiotensin II is necessary for the comprehension of its physiologic role in the pituitary gland.

Kinetic analysis of receptor-mediated endocytosis of epidermal growth factor by isolated rat hepatocytes

The interaction of epidermal growth factor (EGF) with cell surface receptors and their subsequent endocytosis in isolated rat hepatocytes were analyzed by measuring changes in the concentrations of cell surface-bound, internalized, and degraded EGF. The kinetic model proposed by Wiley and Cunningham (Cell 25: 433-440, 1981) and Gex-Fabry and Delisi [Am. J. Physiol. 247 (Regulatory Integrative Comp. Physiol. 16): R768-R779, 1984] was basically utilized for the model analysis. The following kinetic parameters were obtained: association and dissociation rate constants for EGF-receptor interaction, internalization rate constant for EGF-receptor complex (kappa e), internalization rate constant for free receptor (kappa t), sequestration rate constant (kappa s) of the complex from shallow (exchangeable) to deep (nonexchangeable) membraneous compartment, intracellular degradation rate constant and initial cell-surface receptor density. The kappa s value, which was obtained by analyzing the time profiles of EGF association with cells, was approximately 5-10 times larger than the kappa e value determined by directly measuring internalized EGF with the acid-washing technique. This suggests the necessary presence of deep (nonexchanging) compartment of the complex in the plasma membrane. The calculated kappa e value is at least several times larger than the kappa t value, yielding the kinetic basis for the occurrence of receptor downregulation induced by excess EGF. We conclude that, in the overall receptor-mediated processing of EGF after bound to the cell surface receptors, the dissociation process is rapid [half-time (t1/2) less than 1 min], the degradation process is much slower (t1/2 approximately equal to 3 h), and the receptor internalization process is intermediate (t1/2 approximately equal to 6-7 min). In addition, two pools for EGF-receptor complex in the plasma membrane seem to be present, although their identification cannot be made.

Gamete interactions and the fate of sperm organelles in fertilized echinoderm eggs

Investigations of gamete fusion, sperm entry and the fate of the sperm nucleus, plasma membrane, mitochondrion, and axonemal complex in fertilized echinoderm eggs are reviewed. The timing of gamete fusion with respect to the onset of electrical activity characteristic of the activated egg and the affects of fixation conditions on the stability of fusing membranes are discussed. Observations from investigations using cationized ferritin labeled gametes and immunogold cytochemistry to demonstrate the mixing of sperm plasma membrane components within the egg plasma membrane, in particular along the surface of the fertilization cone, are compared with results from studies in somatic cells. Transformations of the sperm nucleus into a male pronucleus, consisting of sperm nuclear envelope breakdown, chromatin dispersion, and formation of a pronuclear envelope, are correlated with recent biochemical observation of similar processes in other cellular systems. Fates of the sperm mitochondrion and axonemal complex are examined.

Cell surface actions of adriamycin

Adriamycin has a vast range of reported actions on the structural and functional properties of cells. This review summarizes the literature on the ability of the drug to modulate the cell surface membrane and attempts to address the question of how such actions could be linked to cytotoxicity. In addition, we consider the use of polymer immobilization of adriamycin to separate intracellular from plasma membrane effects of the drug, and show how this approach has been helpful in interpreting the pharmacology of adriamycin. Finally, a range of biophysical and spectroscopic approaches to defining the molecular details of adriamycin-bilayer interactions is surveyed, and the results used to discuss a model for how this antineoplastic agent binds to membranes.

Differentiation of acid-pH-dependent and -nondependent entry pathways for mouse hepatitis virus

Early events of infection of MHV were studied in comparison with those of VSV, which is known to enter cells by an endocytic pathway. Treatment of mouse L-2 fibroblasts with ammonium chloride, chloroquine, or dansylcadaverine inhibited infection of MHV to a much lesser degree than that of VSV, suggesting a relatively minor role for the endocytic pathway and functional endosomes in MHV infection. Endocytosis of MHV and VSV into L-2 cells was assayed by the recovery of infectious (i.e., not uncoated) viruses from homogenates of cells harvested within the first few minutes of infection (and treated with protease to remove surface-bound virus). The results thus suggest that while a small proportion of the MHV inoculum is internalized by endocytosis, productive infection does not depend on functional endocytosis as utilized by VSV. Studies on direct virion-mediated cell fusion showed that MHV can induce fusion at pH 7.4, whereas VSV causes fusion at pH 5.0. Taken together, the above results suggest that MHV enters L-2 cells predominantly by membrane fusion with a non-acidified compartment such as the plasma membrane, endocytic vesicles, or endosomes (prior to their acidification). Results obtained from cell lines which differed in permissiveness to MHV infection suggested that the ability to support MHV infection does not correlate with endocytosis. Rather, nonpermissive cells, such as rat astrocytoma (C-6) and Vero cells, showed higher levels of recoverable internalized MHV than did fully permissive L-2 cells. Cells which are normally nonpermissive to MHV, could be rendered MHV-susceptible by PEG-induced fusion of cell surface-bound virus. Such PEG-mediated susceptibility to MHV infection was insensitive to inhibition by ammonium chloride, supporting the idea that host cell restriction of MHV infection in C-6 and Vero cells may be due to a block in nonendosomal membrane fusion. Thus endocytic internalization of MHV, which clearly occurs in a variety of cells, does not guarantee productive infection.

Inhibition of receptor-mediated cellular entry of viruses including HIV: a perspective on further researches on chemotherapy in viral diseases including AIDS

Receptor-mediated endocytosis is a well recognized process by which many cells internalize and intracellularly process important biological molecules including viruses. The present hypothesis, addressing receptor-mediated cellular entry of viruses including HIV, describes a perspective of further basic studies seen through the current knowledge about pharmacological control of various steps of receptor-mediated endocytosis of different ligands and viruses as well. It proposes a list of more than 20 chemicals, targeted at inhibition of viral internalization and viral release into the cytoplasm, via their action(s) on transglutaminase, calmodulin, protein kinase C, and intraendosomal pH. It is cautiously suggested that a proper study of these chemicals may reveal some therapeutic values of their own in some viral diseases including AIDS.

Resistance to receptor-mediated degradation of a murine epidermal growth factor analogue (EGF-Val-47) potentiates its mitogenic activity

In most cell types two classes of epidermal growth factor (EGF) receptors can be found: a major class that binds EGF with relatively low affinity and a minor class that binds with very high affinity. Structure-function studies have shown that mutations at amino acid 47 in the EGF molecule severely reduce its affinity for the EGF receptor but do not cause preferential binding to one or the other subclass of receptors. Using three EGF derivatives with a mutation at amino acid 47 (Ser-47, Leu-37-Tyr-47, and Val-47), we have investigated the relative contribution of the two receptor subclasses to the EGF-dependent mitogenic response. We show that mitogenicity correlates exclusively with occupancy of the high-affinity receptor and that full occupancy of this subclass is required for maximal stimulation. In addition we demonstrate that for the EGF-Val-47 analogue this requirement can be abrogated and half-maximal biological activity reached with a high-affinity receptor occupancy of only 8%. While the rate of internalization did not significantly differ between EGF-Val-47 and native mEGF, the analogue was much more resistant to degradation by cellular proteases and, after binding and receptor-mediated internalization, was released into the medium predominantly in an intact form. We propose that the increased mitogenicity of EGF-Val-47 is due to its prolonged half-life, resulting in continued occupancy of the high-affinity EGF receptor.

Lateral diffusion of visual pigments in toad (Bufo marinus) rods and in catfish (Ictalurus punctatus) cones

1. The lateral diffusion coefficient, D, was determined for visual pigments in red rods, green rods and red-sensitive cones with a photon-counting microspectrophotometer. 2. A novel protocol that involved the placement on a photoreceptor of a single micromeasuring/bleaching beam permitted the determination of D of the pigment. 3. Demonstration that D for red rods compared very well with values obtained by other workers using other means validated the protocol. 4. Applied to green rods, the protocol gave a value of D that was about 80% greater than that for red rods. 5. D for cone pigment was found to be slightly less than that of red rod pigment. 6. The dichroic ratio of cones and the average orientation of the chromophore in the cone lamellae were 1.71 and 28.4 deg, respectively. 7. The photosensitivity at lambda max of the red-sensitive cones was found to be about 16% less than that of red rods.