1
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Limbach M, Lindberg ET, Olivos HJ, van Tetering L, Steren CA, Martens J, Ngo VA, Oomens J, Do TD. Taming Conformational Heterogeneity on Ion Racetrack to Unveil Principles that Drive Membrane Permeation of Cyclosporines. JACS AU 2024; 4:1458-1470. [PMID: 38665661 PMCID: PMC11040698 DOI: 10.1021/jacsau.4c00011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/03/2024] [Revised: 03/05/2024] [Accepted: 03/05/2024] [Indexed: 04/28/2024]
Abstract
Our study reveals the underlying principles governing the passive membrane permeability in three large N-methylated macrocyclic peptides (N-MeMPs): cyclosporine A (CycA), Alisporivir (ALI), and cyclosporine H (CycH). We determine a series of conformers required for robust passive membrane diffusion and those relevant to other functions, such as binding to protein targets or intermediates, in the presence of solvent additives. We investigate the conformational interconversions and establish correlations with the membrane permeability. Nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) and cyclic ion-mobility spectrometry-mass spectrometry (cIMS-MS) are employed to characterize conformational heterogeneity and identify cis-amides relevant for good membrane permeability. In addition, ion mobility selected cIMS-MS and infrared (IR) multiple-photon dissociation (IRMPD) spectroscopy experiments are conducted to evaluate the energy barriers between conformations. We observe that CycA and ALI, both cyclosporines with favorable membrane permeabilities, display multiple stable and well-defined conformers. In contrast, CycH, an epimer of CycA with limited permeability, exhibits fewer and fewer stable conformers. We demonstrate the essential role of the conformational shift from the aqueous cis MeVal11-MeBmt1 state (A1) to the closed conformation featuring cis MeLeu9-MeLeu10 (C1) in facilitating membrane permeation. Additionally, we highlight that the transition from A1 to the all-trans open conformation (O1) is specifically triggered by the presence of CaCl2. We also capture a set of conformers with cis Sar3-MeLeu4, MeLeu9-MeLeu10, denoted as I. Conformationally selected cIMS-MS and IRMPD data of [CycA+Ca]2+ show immediate repopulation of the original population distribution, suggesting that CaCl2 smooths out the energy barriers. Finally, our work presents an improved sampling molecular dynamics approach based on a refined force field that not only consistently and accurately captures established conformers of cyclosporines but also exhibits strong predictive capabilities for novel conformers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Miranda
N. Limbach
- Department
of Chemistry, University of Tennessee, Knoxville, Tennessee 37996, United States
| | - Edward T. Lindberg
- Department
of Chemistry, University of Tennessee, Knoxville, Tennessee 37996, United States
| | | | - Lara van Tetering
- Institute
for Molecules and Materials, FELIX Laboratory, Radboud University, Toernooiveld 7, Nijmegen 6525 ED, The Netherlands
| | - Carlos A. Steren
- Department
of Chemistry, University of Tennessee, Knoxville, Tennessee 37996, United States
| | - Jonathan Martens
- Institute
for Molecules and Materials, FELIX Laboratory, Radboud University, Toernooiveld 7, Nijmegen 6525 ED, The Netherlands
| | - Van A. Ngo
- Advanced
Computing for Life Sciences and Engineering Group, Science Engagement
Section, National Center for Computational Sciences, Computing and
Computational Sciences Directorate, Oak
Ridge National Laboratory, Oak Ridge, Tennessee 37830, United States
| | - Jos Oomens
- Institute
for Molecules and Materials, FELIX Laboratory, Radboud University, Toernooiveld 7, Nijmegen 6525 ED, The Netherlands
| | - Thanh D. Do
- Department
of Chemistry, University of Tennessee, Knoxville, Tennessee 37996, United States
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2
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Padron A, Prakash P, Pandhare J, Luban J, Aiken C, Balasubramaniam M, Dash C. Emerging role of cyclophilin A in HIV-1 infection: from producer cell to the target cell nucleus. J Virol 2023; 97:e0073223. [PMID: 37843371 PMCID: PMC10688351 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.00732-23] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/17/2023] Open
Abstract
The HIV-1 genome encodes a small number of proteins with structural, enzymatic, regulatory, and accessory functions. These viral proteins interact with a number of host factors to promote the early and late stages of HIV-1 infection. During the early stages of infection, interactions between the viral proteins and host factors enable HIV-1 to enter the target cell, traverse the cytosol, dock at the nuclear pore, gain access to the nucleus, and integrate into the host genome. Similarly, the viral proteins recruit another set of host factors during the late stages of infection to orchestrate HIV-1 transcription, translation, assembly, and release of progeny virions. Among the host factors implicated in HIV-1 infection, Cyclophilin A (CypA) was identified as the first host factor to be packaged within HIV-1 particles. It is now well established that CypA promotes HIV-1 infection by directly binding to the viral capsid. Mechanistic models to pinpoint CypA's role have spanned from an effect in the producer cell to the early steps of infection in the target cell. In this review, we will describe our understanding of the role(s) of CypA in HIV-1 infection, highlight the current knowledge gaps, and discuss the potential role of this host factor in the post-nuclear entry steps of HIV-1 infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Adrian Padron
- The Center for AIDS Health Disparities Research, Meharry Medical College, Nashville, Tennessee, USA
- Department of Microbiology, Immunology, and Physiology, Meharry Medical College, Nashville, Tennessee, USA
- School of Graduate Studies, Meharry Medical College, Nashville, Tennessee, USA
| | - Prem Prakash
- The Center for AIDS Health Disparities Research, Meharry Medical College, Nashville, Tennessee, USA
- Department of Biochemistry, Cancer Biology, Pharmacology and Neuroscience, Meharry Medical College, Nashville, Tennessee, USA
| | - Jui Pandhare
- The Center for AIDS Health Disparities Research, Meharry Medical College, Nashville, Tennessee, USA
- Department of Microbiology, Immunology, and Physiology, Meharry Medical College, Nashville, Tennessee, USA
- School of Graduate Studies, Meharry Medical College, Nashville, Tennessee, USA
| | - Jeremy Luban
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biotechnology, University of Massachusetts Medical School, Worcester, Massachusetts, USA
| | - Chris Aiken
- Department of Pathology, Microbiology and Immunology, Vanderbilt University School of Medicine, Nashville, Tennessee, USA
| | - Muthukumar Balasubramaniam
- The Center for AIDS Health Disparities Research, Meharry Medical College, Nashville, Tennessee, USA
- Department of Biochemistry, Cancer Biology, Pharmacology and Neuroscience, Meharry Medical College, Nashville, Tennessee, USA
| | - Chandravanu Dash
- The Center for AIDS Health Disparities Research, Meharry Medical College, Nashville, Tennessee, USA
- Department of Microbiology, Immunology, and Physiology, Meharry Medical College, Nashville, Tennessee, USA
- Department of Biochemistry, Cancer Biology, Pharmacology and Neuroscience, Meharry Medical College, Nashville, Tennessee, USA
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3
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Coluccino G, Muraca VP, Corazza A, Lippe G. Cyclophilin D in Mitochondrial Dysfunction: A Key Player in Neurodegeneration? Biomolecules 2023; 13:1265. [PMID: 37627330 PMCID: PMC10452829 DOI: 10.3390/biom13081265] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/05/2023] [Revised: 08/11/2023] [Accepted: 08/15/2023] [Indexed: 08/27/2023] Open
Abstract
Mitochondrial dysfunction plays a pivotal role in numerous complex diseases. Understanding the molecular mechanisms by which the "powerhouse of the cell" turns into the "factory of death" is an exciting yet challenging task that can unveil new therapeutic targets. The mitochondrial matrix protein CyPD is a peptidylprolyl cis-trans isomerase involved in the regulation of the permeability transition pore (mPTP). The mPTP is a multi-conductance channel in the inner mitochondrial membrane whose dysregulated opening can ultimately lead to cell death and whose involvement in pathology has been extensively documented over the past few decades. Moreover, several mPTP-independent CyPD interactions have been identified, indicating that CyPD could be involved in the fine regulation of several biochemical pathways. To further enrich the picture, CyPD undergoes several post-translational modifications that regulate both its activity and interaction with its clients. Here, we will dissect what is currently known about CyPD and critically review the most recent literature about its involvement in neurodegenerative disorders, focusing on Alzheimer's Disease and Parkinson's Disease, supporting the notion that CyPD could serve as a promising therapeutic target for the treatment of such conditions. Notably, significant efforts have been made to develop CyPD-specific inhibitors, which hold promise for the treatment of such complex disorders.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gabriele Coluccino
- Department of Medicine (DAME), University of Udine, 33100 Udine, Italy; (V.P.M.); (A.C.)
| | | | | | - Giovanna Lippe
- Department of Medicine (DAME), University of Udine, 33100 Udine, Italy; (V.P.M.); (A.C.)
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4
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Gurung D, Danielson JA, Tasnim A, Zhang JT, Zou Y, Liu JY. Proline Isomerization: From the Chemistry and Biology to Therapeutic Opportunities. BIOLOGY 2023; 12:1008. [PMID: 37508437 PMCID: PMC10376262 DOI: 10.3390/biology12071008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/02/2023] [Revised: 06/27/2023] [Accepted: 07/07/2023] [Indexed: 07/30/2023]
Abstract
Proline isomerization, the process of interconversion between the cis- and trans-forms of proline, is an important and unique post-translational modification that can affect protein folding and conformations, and ultimately regulate protein functions and biological pathways. Although impactful, the importance and prevalence of proline isomerization as a regulation mechanism in biological systems have not been fully understood or recognized. Aiming to fill gaps and bring new awareness, we attempt to provide a wholistic review on proline isomerization that firstly covers what proline isomerization is and the basic chemistry behind it. In this section, we vividly show that the cause of the unique ability of proline to adopt both cis- and trans-conformations in significant abundance is rooted from the steric hindrance of these two forms being similar, which is different from that in linear residues. We then discuss how proline isomerization was discovered historically followed by an introduction to all three types of proline isomerases and how proline isomerization plays a role in various cellular responses, such as cell cycle regulation, DNA damage repair, T-cell activation, and ion channel gating. We then explore various human diseases that have been linked to the dysregulation of proline isomerization. Finally, we wrap up with the current stage of various inhibitors developed to target proline isomerases as a strategy for therapeutic development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Deepti Gurung
- Department of Medicine, University of Toledo College of Medicine, Toledo, OH 43614, USA
- Department of Cell and Cancer Biology, University of Toledo College of Medicine, Toledo, OH 43614, USA
| | - Jacob A Danielson
- Department of Medicine, University of Toledo College of Medicine, Toledo, OH 43614, USA
| | - Afsara Tasnim
- Department of Bioengineering, University of Toledo College of Engineering, Toledo, OH 43606, USA
| | - Jian-Ting Zhang
- Department of Cell and Cancer Biology, University of Toledo College of Medicine, Toledo, OH 43614, USA
| | - Yue Zou
- Department of Cell and Cancer Biology, University of Toledo College of Medicine, Toledo, OH 43614, USA
| | - Jing-Yuan Liu
- Department of Medicine, University of Toledo College of Medicine, Toledo, OH 43614, USA
- Department of Cell and Cancer Biology, University of Toledo College of Medicine, Toledo, OH 43614, USA
- Department of Bioengineering, University of Toledo College of Engineering, Toledo, OH 43606, USA
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5
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Schiene‐Fischer C, Fischer G, Braun M. Non-Immunosuppressive Cyclophilin Inhibitors. Angew Chem Int Ed Engl 2022; 61:e202201597. [PMID: 35290695 PMCID: PMC9804594 DOI: 10.1002/anie.202201597] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/28/2022] [Indexed: 01/05/2023]
Abstract
Cyclophilins, enzymes with peptidyl-prolyl cis/trans isomerase activity, are relevant to a large variety of biological processes. The most abundant member of this enzyme family, cyclophilin A, is the cellular receptor of the immunosuppressive drug cyclosporine A (CsA). As a consequence of the pathophysiological role of cyclophilins, particularly in viral infections, there is a broad interest in cyclophilin inhibition devoid of immunosuppressive activity. This Review first gives an introduction into the physiological and pathophysiological roles of cyclophilins. The presentation of non-immunosuppressive cyclophilin inhibitors will commence with drugs based on chemical modifications of CsA. The naturally occurring macrocyclic sanglifehrins have become other lead structures for cyclophilin-inhibiting drugs. Finally, de novo designed compounds, whose structures are not derived from or inspired by natural products, will be presented. Relevant synthetic concepts will be discussed, but the focus will also be on biochemical studies, structure-activity relationships, and clinical studies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cordelia Schiene‐Fischer
- Institute of Biochemistry and BiotechnologyMartin-Luther-University Halle-Wittenberg06099Halle (Saale)Germany
| | - Gunter Fischer
- Max Planck Institute for Biophysical Chemistry37077GöttingenGermany
| | - Manfred Braun
- Institute of Organic and Macromolecular ChemistryHeinrich-Heine-University Düsseldorf40225DüsseldorfGermany
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6
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Obubeid FO, Eltigani MM, Mukhtar RM, Ibrahim RA, Alzain MA, Elbadawi FA, Ghaboosh H, Alzain AA. Dual targeting inhibitors for HIV-1 capsid and cyclophilin A: molecular docking, molecular dynamics, and quantum mechanics. MOLECULAR SIMULATION 2022. [DOI: 10.1080/08927022.2022.2097673] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/17/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Fauad O. Obubeid
- Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Gezira, Gezira, Sudan
| | - Maha M. Eltigani
- Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Gezira, Gezira, Sudan
| | - Rua M. Mukhtar
- Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Gezira, Gezira, Sudan
| | - Reham A. Ibrahim
- Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Gezira, Gezira, Sudan
| | - Muna A. Alzain
- Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Gezira, Gezira, Sudan
| | - Fatima A. Elbadawi
- Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Gezira, Gezira, Sudan
| | - Hiba Ghaboosh
- Department of Pharmaceutics, University of Gezira, Wad Madani, Sudan
| | - Abdulrahim A. Alzain
- Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Gezira, Gezira, Sudan
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7
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Tembeni B, Sciorillo A, Invernizzi L, Klimkait T, Urda L, Moyo P, Naidoo-Maharaj D, Levitties N, Gyampoh K, Zu G, Yuan Z, Mounzer K, Nkabinde S, Nkabinde M, Gqaleni N, Tietjen I, Montaner LJ, Maharaj V. HPLC-Based Purification and Isolation of Potent Anti-HIV and Latency Reversing Daphnane Diterpenes from the Medicinal Plant Gnidia sericocephala ( Thymelaeaceae). Viruses 2022; 14:1437. [PMID: 35891417 PMCID: PMC9318819 DOI: 10.3390/v14071437] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/23/2022] [Revised: 06/21/2022] [Accepted: 06/24/2022] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Despite the success of combination antiretroviral therapy (cART), HIV persists in low- and middle-income countries (LMIC) due to emerging drug resistance and insufficient drug accessibility. Furthermore, cART does not target latently-infected CD4+ T cells, which represent a major barrier to HIV eradication. The “shock and kill” therapeutic approach aims to reactivate provirus expression in latently-infected cells in the presence of cART and target virus-expressing cells for elimination. An attractive therapeutic prototype in LMICs would therefore be capable of simultaneously inhibiting viral replication and inducing latency reversal. Here we report that Gnidia sericocephala, which is used by traditional health practitioners in South Africa for HIV/AIDS management to supplement cART, contains at least four daphnane-type compounds (yuanhuacine A (1), yuanhuacine as part of a mixture (2), yuanhuajine (3), and gniditrin (4)) that inhibit viral replication and/or reverse HIV latency. For example, 1 and 2 inhibit HIV replication in peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMC) by >80% at 0.08 µg/mL, while 1 further inhibits a subtype C virus in PBMC with a half-maximal effective concentration (EC50) of 0.03 µM without cytotoxicity. Both 1 and 2 also reverse HIV latency in vitro consistent with protein kinase C activation but at 16.7-fold lower concentrations than the control prostratin. Both 1 and 2 also reverse latency in primary CD4+ T cells from cART-suppressed donors with HIV similar to prostratin but at 6.7-fold lower concentrations. These results highlight G. sericocephala and components 1 and 2 as anti-HIV agents for improving cART efficacy and supporting HIV cure efforts in resource-limited regions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Babalwa Tembeni
- Department of Chemistry, University of Pretoria, Pretoria 0028, South Africa; (B.T.); (L.I.); (P.M.); (D.N.-M.)
| | - Amanda Sciorillo
- The Wistar Institute, Philadelphia, PA 19104, USA; (A.S.); (N.L.); (K.G.); (G.Z.); (Z.Y.); (I.T.)
| | - Luke Invernizzi
- Department of Chemistry, University of Pretoria, Pretoria 0028, South Africa; (B.T.); (L.I.); (P.M.); (D.N.-M.)
| | - Thomas Klimkait
- Molecular Virology, Department of Biomedicine, University of Basel, 4031 Basel, Switzerland; (T.K.); (L.U.)
| | - Lorena Urda
- Molecular Virology, Department of Biomedicine, University of Basel, 4031 Basel, Switzerland; (T.K.); (L.U.)
| | - Phanankosi Moyo
- Department of Chemistry, University of Pretoria, Pretoria 0028, South Africa; (B.T.); (L.I.); (P.M.); (D.N.-M.)
| | - Dashnie Naidoo-Maharaj
- Department of Chemistry, University of Pretoria, Pretoria 0028, South Africa; (B.T.); (L.I.); (P.M.); (D.N.-M.)
- Agricultural Research Council-Vegetables, Industrial and Medicinal Plants, Private Bag X293, Pretoria 0001, South Africa
| | - Nathan Levitties
- The Wistar Institute, Philadelphia, PA 19104, USA; (A.S.); (N.L.); (K.G.); (G.Z.); (Z.Y.); (I.T.)
| | - Kwasi Gyampoh
- The Wistar Institute, Philadelphia, PA 19104, USA; (A.S.); (N.L.); (K.G.); (G.Z.); (Z.Y.); (I.T.)
| | - Guorui Zu
- The Wistar Institute, Philadelphia, PA 19104, USA; (A.S.); (N.L.); (K.G.); (G.Z.); (Z.Y.); (I.T.)
| | - Zhe Yuan
- The Wistar Institute, Philadelphia, PA 19104, USA; (A.S.); (N.L.); (K.G.); (G.Z.); (Z.Y.); (I.T.)
| | - Karam Mounzer
- Jonathan Lax Immune Disorders Treatment Center, Philadelphia Fight Community Health Centers, Philadelphia, PA 19107, USA;
| | | | - Magugu Nkabinde
- Ungangezulu Indigenous Remedies, J Uitval, Wasbank 2920, South Africa; (S.N.); (M.N.)
| | - Nceba Gqaleni
- Africa Health Research Institute, Congella 4013, South Africa;
- Discipline of Traditional Medicine, University of KwaZulu-Natal, Durban 4001, South Africa
- Faculty of Health Sciences, Durban University of Technology, Durban 4001, South Africa
| | - Ian Tietjen
- The Wistar Institute, Philadelphia, PA 19104, USA; (A.S.); (N.L.); (K.G.); (G.Z.); (Z.Y.); (I.T.)
| | - Luis J. Montaner
- The Wistar Institute, Philadelphia, PA 19104, USA; (A.S.); (N.L.); (K.G.); (G.Z.); (Z.Y.); (I.T.)
| | - Vinesh Maharaj
- Department of Chemistry, University of Pretoria, Pretoria 0028, South Africa; (B.T.); (L.I.); (P.M.); (D.N.-M.)
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8
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Braun M, Schiene-Fischer C, Fischer G. Non‐Immunosuppressive Cyclophilin Inhibitors. Angew Chem Int Ed Engl 2022. [DOI: 10.1002/ange.202201597] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Manfred Braun
- Heinrich-Heine-Universität Düsseldorf: Heinrich-Heine-Universitat Dusseldorf Organic CHemistry Universitätsstr. 1 40225 Düsseldorf GERMANY
| | - Cordelia Schiene-Fischer
- Martin-Luther-Universität Halle-Wittenberg: Martin-Luther-Universitat Halle-Wittenberg Institute of Biochemistry and Biotechnology, GERMANY
| | - Gunter Fischer
- Max-Planck-Institut für Biophysikalische Chemie Abteilung Meiosis: Max-Planck-Institut fur Multidisziplinare Naturwissenschaften Abteilung Meiosis Max Planck Institute for Biophysical Chemistry GERMANY
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9
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Carrer A, Laquatra C, Tommasin L, Carraro M. Modulation and Pharmacology of the Mitochondrial Permeability Transition: A Journey from F-ATP Synthase to ANT. Molecules 2021; 26:molecules26216463. [PMID: 34770872 PMCID: PMC8587538 DOI: 10.3390/molecules26216463] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/01/2021] [Revised: 10/21/2021] [Accepted: 10/23/2021] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
The permeability transition (PT) is an increased permeation of the inner mitochondrial membrane due to the opening of the PT pore (PTP), a Ca2+-activated high conductance channel involved in Ca2+ homeostasis and cell death. Alterations of the PTP have been associated with many pathological conditions and its targeting represents an incessant challenge in the field. Although the modulation of the PTP has been extensively explored, the lack of a clear picture of its molecular nature increases the degree of complexity for any target-based approach. Recent advances suggest the existence of at least two mitochondrial permeability pathways mediated by the F-ATP synthase and the ANT, although the exact molecular mechanism leading to channel formation remains elusive for both. A full comprehension of this to-pore conversion will help to assist in drug design and to develop pharmacological treatments for a fine-tuned PT regulation. Here, we will focus on regulatory mechanisms that impinge on the PTP and discuss the relevant literature of PTP targeting compounds with particular attention to F-ATP synthase and ANT.
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10
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Saito A, Yamashita M. HIV-1 capsid variability: viral exploitation and evasion of capsid-binding molecules. Retrovirology 2021; 18:32. [PMID: 34702294 PMCID: PMC8549334 DOI: 10.1186/s12977-021-00577-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/06/2021] [Accepted: 10/13/2021] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
The HIV-1 capsid, a conical shell encasing viral nucleoprotein complexes, is involved in multiple post-entry processes during viral replication. Many host factors can directly bind to the HIV-1 capsid protein (CA) and either promote or prevent HIV-1 infection. The viral capsid is currently being explored as a novel target for therapeutic interventions. In the past few decades, significant progress has been made in our understanding of the capsid–host interactions and mechanisms of action of capsid-targeting antivirals. At the same time, a large number of different viral capsids, which derive from many HIV-1 mutants, naturally occurring variants, or diverse lentiviruses, have been characterized for their interactions with capsid-binding molecules in great detail utilizing various experimental techniques. This review provides an overview of how sequence variation in CA influences phenotypic properties of HIV-1. We will focus on sequence differences that alter capsid–host interactions and give a brief account of drug resistant mutations in CA and their mutational effects on viral phenotypes. Increased knowledge of the sequence-function relationship of CA helps us deepen our understanding of the adaptive potential of the viral capsid.
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Affiliation(s)
- Akatsuki Saito
- Department of Veterinary Medicine, Faculty of Agriculture, University of Miyazaki, Miyazaki, Miyazaki, Japan.,Center for Animal Disease Control, University of Miyazaki, Miyazaki, Miyazaki, Japan
| | - Masahiro Yamashita
- Aaron Diamond AIDS Research Center, Columbia University Vagelos College of Physicians and Surgeons, New York, NY, USA.
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11
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Zhang M, Xu B, Li N, Zhang R, Zhang Q, Shi X, Xu K, Xiao J, Chen D, Niu J, Shi Y, Fang Q. Development of Multifunctional and Orally Active Cyclic Peptide Agonists of Opioid/Neuropeptide FF Receptors that Produce Potent, Long-Lasting, and Peripherally Restricted Antinociception with Diminished Side Effects. J Med Chem 2021; 64:13394-13409. [PMID: 34465090 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jmedchem.1c00694] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/07/2023]
Abstract
We previously reported that a multifunctional opioid/neuropeptide FF receptor agonist, DN-9, achieved peripherally restricted analgesia with reduced side effects. To develop stable and orally bioavailable analogues of DN-9, eight lactam-bridged cyclic analogues of DN-9 between positions 2 and 5 were designed, synthesized, and biologically evaluated. In vitro cAMP assays revealed that these analogues, except 7, were multifunctional ligands that activated opioid and neuropeptide FF receptors. Analogue 1 exhibited improved potency for κ-opioid and NPFF2 receptors. All analogues exhibited potent, long-lasting, and peripherally restricted antinociception in the tail-flick test without tolerance development after subcutaneous administration and produced oral analgesia. Oral administration of the optimized compound analogue 1 exhibited powerful, peripherally restricted antinociceptive effects in mouse models of acute, inflammatory, and neuropathic pain. Remarkably, orally administered analogue 1 had no significant side effects, such as tolerance, dependence, constipation, or respiratory depression, at effective analgesic doses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mengna Zhang
- Key Laboratory of Preclinical Study for New Drugs of Gansu Province, and Institute of Physiology, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Lanzhou University, 199 Donggang West Road, Lanzhou, Gansu Province 730000, PR China
| | - Biao Xu
- Key Laboratory of Preclinical Study for New Drugs of Gansu Province, and Institute of Physiology, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Lanzhou University, 199 Donggang West Road, Lanzhou, Gansu Province 730000, PR China
| | - Ning Li
- Key Laboratory of Preclinical Study for New Drugs of Gansu Province, and Institute of Physiology, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Lanzhou University, 199 Donggang West Road, Lanzhou, Gansu Province 730000, PR China
| | - Run Zhang
- Key Laboratory of Preclinical Study for New Drugs of Gansu Province, and Institute of Physiology, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Lanzhou University, 199 Donggang West Road, Lanzhou, Gansu Province 730000, PR China
| | - Qinqin Zhang
- Key Laboratory of Preclinical Study for New Drugs of Gansu Province, and Institute of Physiology, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Lanzhou University, 199 Donggang West Road, Lanzhou, Gansu Province 730000, PR China
| | - Xuerui Shi
- Key Laboratory of Preclinical Study for New Drugs of Gansu Province, and Institute of Physiology, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Lanzhou University, 199 Donggang West Road, Lanzhou, Gansu Province 730000, PR China
| | - Kangtai Xu
- School of Life Sciences, Lanzhou University, 222 Tianshui South Road, Lanzhou, Gansu Province 730000, PR China
| | - Jian Xiao
- Key Laboratory of Preclinical Study for New Drugs of Gansu Province, and Institute of Physiology, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Lanzhou University, 199 Donggang West Road, Lanzhou, Gansu Province 730000, PR China
| | - Dan Chen
- Key Laboratory of Preclinical Study for New Drugs of Gansu Province, and Institute of Physiology, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Lanzhou University, 199 Donggang West Road, Lanzhou, Gansu Province 730000, PR China
| | - Jiandong Niu
- Key Laboratory of Preclinical Study for New Drugs of Gansu Province, and Institute of Physiology, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Lanzhou University, 199 Donggang West Road, Lanzhou, Gansu Province 730000, PR China
| | - Yonghang Shi
- Key Laboratory of Preclinical Study for New Drugs of Gansu Province, and Institute of Physiology, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Lanzhou University, 199 Donggang West Road, Lanzhou, Gansu Province 730000, PR China
| | - Quan Fang
- Key Laboratory of Preclinical Study for New Drugs of Gansu Province, and Institute of Physiology, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Lanzhou University, 199 Donggang West Road, Lanzhou, Gansu Province 730000, PR China
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12
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Xu J, Xue Y, Zhou R, Shi PY, Li H, Zhou J. Drug repurposing approach to combating coronavirus: Potential drugs and drug targets. Med Res Rev 2021; 41:1375-1426. [PMID: 33277927 PMCID: PMC8044022 DOI: 10.1002/med.21763] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/08/2020] [Revised: 11/03/2020] [Accepted: 11/20/2020] [Indexed: 01/18/2023]
Abstract
In the past two decades, three highly pathogenic human coronaviruses severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus (SARS-CoV), Middle East respiratory syndrome coronavirus, and, recently, SARS-CoV-2, have caused pandemics of severe acute respiratory diseases with alarming morbidity and mortality. Due to the lack of specific anti-CoV therapies, the ongoing pandemic of coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) poses a great challenge to clinical management and highlights an urgent need for effective interventions. Drug repurposing is a rapid and feasible strategy to identify effective drugs for combating this deadly infection. In this review, we summarize the therapeutic CoV targets, focus on the existing small molecule drugs that have the potential to be repurposed for existing and emerging CoV infections of the future, and discuss the clinical progress of developing small molecule drugs for COVID-19.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jimin Xu
- Chemical Biology Program, Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, University of Texas Medical Branch, Galveston, Texas, USA
| | - Yu Xue
- Chemical Biology Program, Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, University of Texas Medical Branch, Galveston, Texas, USA
| | - Richard Zhou
- Chemical Biology Program, Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, University of Texas Medical Branch, Galveston, Texas, USA
| | - Pei-Yong Shi
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, University of Texas Medical Branch, Galveston, Texas, USA
| | - Hongmin Li
- Wadsworth Center, New York State Department of Health, Albany, New York, USA
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, School of Public Health, University at Albany, Albany, New York, USA
| | - Jia Zhou
- Chemical Biology Program, Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, University of Texas Medical Branch, Galveston, Texas, USA
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13
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Selyutina A, Persaud M, Simons LM, Bulnes-Ramos A, Buffone C, Martinez-Lopez A, Scoca V, Di Nunzio F, Hiatt J, Marson A, Krogan NJ, Hultquist JF, Diaz-Griffero F. Cyclophilin A Prevents HIV-1 Restriction in Lymphocytes by Blocking Human TRIM5α Binding to the Viral Core. Cell Rep 2021; 30:3766-3777.e6. [PMID: 32187548 DOI: 10.1016/j.celrep.2020.02.100] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/11/2019] [Revised: 12/23/2019] [Accepted: 02/26/2020] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Disruption of cyclophilin A (CypA)-capsid interactions affects HIV-1 replication in human lymphocytes. To understand this mechanism, we utilize human Jurkat cells, peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs), and CD4+ T cells. Our results show that inhibition of HIV-1 infection caused by disrupting CypA-capsid interactions is dependent on human tripartite motif 5α (TRIM5αhu), showing that TRIM5αhu restricts HIV-1 in CD4+ T cells. Accordingly, depletion of TRIM5αhu in CD4+ T cells rescues HIV-1 that fail to interact with CypA, such as HIV-1-P90A. We found that TRIM5αhu binds to the HIV-1 core. Disruption of CypA-capsid interactions fail to affect HIV-1-A92E/G94D infection, correlating with the loss of TRIM5αhu binding to HIV-1-A92E/G94D cores. Disruption of CypA-capsid interactions in primary cells has a greater inhibitory effect on HIV-1 when compared to Jurkat cells. Consistent with TRIM5α restriction, disruption of CypA-capsid interactions in CD4+ T cells inhibits reverse transcription. Overall, our results reveal that CypA binding to the core protects HIV-1 from TRIM5αhu restriction.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anastasia Selyutina
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Albert Einstein College of Medicine, Bronx, NY 10461, USA
| | - Mirjana Persaud
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Albert Einstein College of Medicine, Bronx, NY 10461, USA
| | - Lacy M Simons
- Division of Infectious Diseases, Northwestern University Feinberg School of Medicine, Chicago, IL 60611, USA
| | - Angel Bulnes-Ramos
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Albert Einstein College of Medicine, Bronx, NY 10461, USA
| | - Cindy Buffone
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Albert Einstein College of Medicine, Bronx, NY 10461, USA
| | - Alicia Martinez-Lopez
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Albert Einstein College of Medicine, Bronx, NY 10461, USA
| | - Viviana Scoca
- Molecular Virology and Vaccinology Unit, CNRS UMR 3569, Department of Virology, Institut Pasteur, Paris, France
| | - Francesca Di Nunzio
- Molecular Virology and Vaccinology Unit, CNRS UMR 3569, Department of Virology, Institut Pasteur, Paris, France
| | - Joseph Hiatt
- Department of Cellular and Molecular Pharmacology, Quantitative Biosciences Institute, QBI, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA 94158, USA; J. David Gladstone Institutes, San Francisco, CA 94158, USA
| | - Alexander Marson
- Department of Medicine and Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Diabetes Center, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA 94143, USA; Innovative Genomics Institute, University of California, Berkeley, CA 94720, USA; Chan Zuckerberg Biohub, San Francisco, CA 94158, USA
| | - Nevan J Krogan
- Department of Cellular and Molecular Pharmacology, Quantitative Biosciences Institute, QBI, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA 94158, USA; J. David Gladstone Institutes, San Francisco, CA 94158, USA
| | - Judd F Hultquist
- Division of Infectious Diseases, Northwestern University Feinberg School of Medicine, Chicago, IL 60611, USA
| | - Felipe Diaz-Griffero
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Albert Einstein College of Medicine, Bronx, NY 10461, USA.
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Identification of an Antiretroviral Small Molecule That Appears To Be a Host-Targeting Inhibitor of HIV-1 Assembly. J Virol 2021; 95:JVI.00883-20. [PMID: 33148797 PMCID: PMC7925099 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.00883-20] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/07/2020] [Accepted: 10/25/2020] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Given the projected increase in multidrug-resistant HIV-1, there is an urgent need for development of antiretrovirals that act on virus life cycle stages not targeted by drugs currently in use. Host-targeting compounds are of particular interest because they can offer a high barrier to resistance. Here, we report identification of two related small molecules that inhibit HIV-1 late events, a part of the HIV-1 life cycle for which potent and specific inhibitors are lacking. This chemotype was discovered using cell-free protein synthesis and assembly systems that recapitulate intracellular host-catalyzed viral capsid assembly pathways. These compounds inhibit replication of HIV-1 in human T cell lines and peripheral blood mononuclear cells, and are effective against a primary isolate. They reduce virus production, likely by inhibiting a posttranslational step in HIV-1 Gag assembly. Notably, the compound colocalizes with HIV-1 Gag in situ; however, unexpectedly, selection experiments failed to identify compound-specific resistance mutations in gag or pol, even though known resistance mutations developed upon parallel nelfinavir selection. Thus, we hypothesized that instead of binding to Gag directly, these compounds localize to assembly intermediates, the intracellular multiprotein complexes containing Gag and host factors that form during immature HIV-1 capsid assembly. Indeed, imaging of infected cells shows compound colocalized with two host enzymes found in assembly intermediates, ABCE1 and DDX6, but not two host proteins found in other complexes. While the exact target and mechanism of action of this chemotype remain to be determined, our findings suggest that these compounds represent first-in-class, host-targeting inhibitors of intracellular events in HIV-1 assembly.IMPORTANCE The success of antiretroviral treatment for HIV-1 is at risk of being undermined by the growing problem of drug resistance. Thus, there is a need to identify antiretrovirals that act on viral life cycle stages not targeted by drugs in use, such as the events of HIV-1 Gag assembly. To address this gap, we developed a compound screen that recapitulates the intracellular events of HIV-1 assembly, including virus-host interactions that promote assembly. This effort led to the identification of a new chemotype that inhibits HIV-1 replication at nanomolar concentrations, likely by acting on assembly. This compound colocalized with Gag and two host enzymes that facilitate capsid assembly. However, resistance selection did not result in compound-specific mutations in gag, suggesting that the chemotype does not directly target Gag. We hypothesize that this chemotype represents a first-in-class inhibitor of virus production that acts by targeting a virus-host complex important for HIV-1 Gag assembly.
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15
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Parkinson N, Rodgers N, Head Fourman M, Wang B, Zechner M, Swets MC, Millar JE, Law A, Russell CD, Baillie JK, Clohisey S. Dynamic data-driven meta-analysis for prioritisation of host genes implicated in COVID-19. Sci Rep 2020; 10:22303. [PMID: 33339864 PMCID: PMC7749145 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-020-79033-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/24/2020] [Accepted: 12/02/2020] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
The increasing body of literature describing the role of host factors in COVID-19 pathogenesis demonstrates the need to combine diverse, multi-omic data to evaluate and substantiate the most robust evidence and inform development of therapies. Here we present a dynamic ranking of host genes implicated in human betacoronavirus infection (SARS-CoV-2, SARS-CoV, MERS-CoV, seasonal coronaviruses). We conducted an extensive systematic review of experiments identifying potential host factors. Gene lists from diverse sources were integrated using Meta-Analysis by Information Content (MAIC). This previously described algorithm uses data-driven gene list weightings to produce a comprehensive ranked list of implicated host genes. From 32 datasets, the top ranked gene was PPIA, encoding cyclophilin A, a druggable target using cyclosporine. Other highly-ranked genes included proposed prognostic factors (CXCL10, CD4, CD3E) and investigational therapeutic targets (IL1A) for COVID-19. Gene rankings also inform the interpretation of COVID-19 GWAS results, implicating FYCO1 over other nearby genes in a disease-associated locus on chromosome 3. Researchers can search and review the gene rankings and the contribution of different experimental methods to gene rank at https://baillielab.net/maic/covid19 . As new data are published we will regularly update the list of genes as a resource to inform and prioritise future studies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nicholas Parkinson
- Roslin Institute, University of Edinburgh, Easter Bush, Edinburgh, EH25 9RG, UK
| | - Natasha Rodgers
- Roslin Institute, University of Edinburgh, Easter Bush, Edinburgh, EH25 9RG, UK
| | - Max Head Fourman
- Roslin Institute, University of Edinburgh, Easter Bush, Edinburgh, EH25 9RG, UK
| | - Bo Wang
- Roslin Institute, University of Edinburgh, Easter Bush, Edinburgh, EH25 9RG, UK
| | - Marie Zechner
- Roslin Institute, University of Edinburgh, Easter Bush, Edinburgh, EH25 9RG, UK
| | - Maaike C Swets
- Roslin Institute, University of Edinburgh, Easter Bush, Edinburgh, EH25 9RG, UK
- Department of Infectious Diseases, Leiden University Medical Center, Leiden, The Netherlands
| | - Jonathan E Millar
- Roslin Institute, University of Edinburgh, Easter Bush, Edinburgh, EH25 9RG, UK
| | - Andy Law
- Roslin Institute, University of Edinburgh, Easter Bush, Edinburgh, EH25 9RG, UK
| | - Clark D Russell
- Roslin Institute, University of Edinburgh, Easter Bush, Edinburgh, EH25 9RG, UK
- University of Edinburgh Centre for Inflammation Research, The Queen's Medical Research Institute, Edinburgh, UK
| | - J Kenneth Baillie
- Roslin Institute, University of Edinburgh, Easter Bush, Edinburgh, EH25 9RG, UK.
| | - Sara Clohisey
- Roslin Institute, University of Edinburgh, Easter Bush, Edinburgh, EH25 9RG, UK.
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16
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Carraro M, Carrer A, Urbani A, Bernardi P. Molecular nature and regulation of the mitochondrial permeability transition pore(s), drug target(s) in cardioprotection. J Mol Cell Cardiol 2020; 144:76-86. [DOI: 10.1016/j.yjmcc.2020.05.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/30/2020] [Revised: 04/28/2020] [Accepted: 05/20/2020] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
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17
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Transportin-1 binds to the HIV-1 capsid via a nuclear localization signal and triggers uncoating. Nat Microbiol 2019; 4:1840-1850. [PMID: 31611641 DOI: 10.1038/s41564-019-0575-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 65] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/22/2018] [Accepted: 08/30/2019] [Indexed: 01/05/2023]
Abstract
The initial steps of HIV replication in host cells prime the virus for passage through the nuclear pore and drive the establishment of a productive and irreparable infection1,2. The timely release of the viral genome from the capsid-referred to as uncoating-is emerging as a critical parameter for nuclear import, but the triggers and mechanisms that orchestrate these steps are unknown. Here, we identify β-karyopherin Transportin-1 (TRN-1) as a cellular co-factor of HIV-1 infection, which binds to incoming capsids, triggers their uncoating and promotes viral nuclear import. Depletion of TRN-1, which we characterized by mass spectrometry, significantly reduced the early steps of HIV-1 infection in target cells, including primary CD4+ T cells. TRN-1 bound directly to capsid nanotubes and induced dramatic structural damage, indicating that TRN-1 is necessary and sufficient for uncoating in vitro. Glycine 89 on the capsid protein, which is positioned within a nuclear localization signal in the cyclophilin A-binding loop, is critical for engaging the hydrophobic pocket of TRN-1 at position W730. In addition, TRN-1 promotes the efficient nuclear import of both viral DNA and capsid protein. Our study suggests that TRN-1 mediates the timely release of the HIV-1 genome from the capsid protein shell and efficient viral nuclear import.
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18
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CA Mutation N57A Has Distinct Strain-Specific HIV-1 Capsid Uncoating and Infectivity Phenotypes. J Virol 2019; 93:JVI.00214-19. [PMID: 30814280 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.00214-19] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/07/2019] [Accepted: 02/15/2019] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
The ability of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) to transduce nondividing cells is key to infecting terminally differentiated macrophages, which can serve as a long-term reservoir of HIV-1 infection. The mutation N57A in the viral CA protein renders HIV-1 cell cycle dependent, allowing examination of HIV-1 infection of nondividing cells. Here, we show that the N57A mutation confers a postentry infectivity defect that significantly differs in magnitude between the common lab-adapted molecular clones HIV-1NL4-3 (>10-fold) and HIV-1LAI (2- to 5-fold) in multiple human cell lines and primary CD4+ T cells. Capsid permeabilization and reverse transcription are altered when N57A is incorporated into HIV-1NL4-3 but not HIV-1LAI The N57A infectivity defect is significantly exacerbated in both virus strains in the presence of cyclosporine (CsA), indicating that N57A infectivity is dependent upon CA interacting with host factor cyclophilin A (CypA). Adaptation of N57A HIV-1LAI selected for a second CA mutation, G94D, which rescued the N57A infectivity defect in HIV-1LAI but not HIV-1NL4-3 The rescue of N57A by G94D in HIV-1LAI is abrogated by CsA treatment in some cell types, demonstrating that this rescue is CypA dependent. An examination of over 40,000 HIV-1 CA sequences revealed that the four amino acids that differ between HIV-1NL4-3 and HIV-1LAI CA are polymorphic, and the residues at these positions in the two strains are widely prevalent in clinical isolates. Overall, a few polymorphic amino acid differences between two closely related HIV-1 molecular clones affect the phenotype of capsid mutants in different cell types.IMPORTANCE The specific mechanisms by which HIV-1 infects nondividing cells are unclear. A mutation in the HIV-1 capsid protein abolishes the ability of the virus to infect nondividing cells, serving as a tool to examine cell cycle dependence of HIV-1 infection. We have shown that two widely used HIV-1 molecular clones exhibit significantly different N57A infectivity phenotypes due to fewer than a handful of CA amino acid differences and that these clones are both represented in HIV-infected individuals. As such minor differences in closely related HIV-1 strains may impart significant infectivity differences, careful consideration should be given to drawing conclusions from one particular HIV-1 clone. This study highlights the potential for significant variation in results with the use of multiple strains and possible unanticipated effects of natural polymorphisms.
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19
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Giorgi C, Marchi S, Simoes IC, Ren Z, Morciano G, Perrone M, Patalas-Krawczyk P, Borchard S, Jȩdrak P, Pierzynowska K, Szymański J, Wang DQ, Portincasa P, Wȩgrzyn G, Zischka H, Dobrzyn P, Bonora M, Duszynski J, Rimessi A, Karkucinska-Wieckowska A, Dobrzyn A, Szabadkai G, Zavan B, Oliveira PJ, Sardao VA, Pinton P, Wieckowski MR. Mitochondria and Reactive Oxygen Species in Aging and Age-Related Diseases. INTERNATIONAL REVIEW OF CELL AND MOLECULAR BIOLOGY 2018; 340:209-344. [PMID: 30072092 PMCID: PMC8127332 DOI: 10.1016/bs.ircmb.2018.05.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 184] [Impact Index Per Article: 30.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
Aging has been linked to several degenerative processes that, through the accumulation of molecular and cellular damage, can progressively lead to cell dysfunction and organ failure. Human aging is linked with a higher risk for individuals to develop cancer, neurodegenerative, cardiovascular, and metabolic disorders. The understanding of the molecular basis of aging and associated diseases has been one major challenge of scientific research over the last decades. Mitochondria, the center of oxidative metabolism and principal site of reactive oxygen species (ROS) production, are crucial both in health and in pathogenesis of many diseases. Redox signaling is important for the modulation of cell functions and several studies indicate a dual role for ROS in cell physiology. In fact, high concentrations of ROS are pathogenic and can cause severe damage to cell and organelle membranes, DNA, and proteins. On the other hand, moderate amounts of ROS are essential for the maintenance of several biological processes, including gene expression. In this review, we provide an update regarding the key roles of ROS-mitochondria cross talk in different fundamental physiological or pathological situations accompanying aging and highlighting that mitochondrial ROS may be a decisive target in clinical practice.
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Affiliation(s)
- Carlotta Giorgi
- Department of Morphology Surgery and Experimental Medicine, Section of Pathology Oncology and Experimental Biology, Interdisciplinary Center for the Study of Inflammation (ICSI), Laboratory for Technologies of Advanced Therapies (LTTA), University of Ferrara, Ferrara, Italy
| | - Saverio Marchi
- Department of Morphology Surgery and Experimental Medicine, Section of Pathology Oncology and Experimental Biology, Interdisciplinary Center for the Study of Inflammation (ICSI), Laboratory for Technologies of Advanced Therapies (LTTA), University of Ferrara, Ferrara, Italy
| | - Ines C.M. Simoes
- Department of Biochemistry, Nencki Institute of Experimental Biology, Polish Academy of Sciences, Warsaw, Poland
| | - Ziyu Ren
- Department of Cell and Developmental Biology, Consortium for Mitochondrial Research, University College London, London, United Kingdom
| | - Giampaolo Morciano
- Department of Morphology Surgery and Experimental Medicine, Section of Pathology Oncology and Experimental Biology, Interdisciplinary Center for the Study of Inflammation (ICSI), Laboratory for Technologies of Advanced Therapies (LTTA), University of Ferrara, Ferrara, Italy
- Cecilia Hospital, GVM Care & Research, 48033 Cotignola, Ravenna, Italy
- Maria Pia Hospital, GVM Care & Research, Torino, Italy
| | - Mariasole Perrone
- Department of Morphology Surgery and Experimental Medicine, Section of Pathology Oncology and Experimental Biology, Interdisciplinary Center for the Study of Inflammation (ICSI), Laboratory for Technologies of Advanced Therapies (LTTA), University of Ferrara, Ferrara, Italy
| | - Paulina Patalas-Krawczyk
- Department of Biochemistry, Nencki Institute of Experimental Biology, Polish Academy of Sciences, Warsaw, Poland
| | - Sabine Borchard
- Institute of Molecular Toxicology and Pharmacology, Helmholtz Center Munich, German Research Center for Environmental Health, Neuherberg, Germany
| | - Paulina Jȩdrak
- Department of Molecular Biology, University of Gdańsk, Gdańsk, Poland
| | | | - Jȩdrzej Szymański
- Department of Biochemistry, Nencki Institute of Experimental Biology, Polish Academy of Sciences, Warsaw, Poland
| | - David Q. Wang
- Department of Medicine, Division of Gastroenterology and Liver Diseases, Marion Bessin Liver Research Center, Albert Einstein College of Medicine, Bronx, NY, United States
| | - Piero Portincasa
- Clinica Medica “A. Murri”, Dept. of Biomedical Sciences & Human Oncology, University of Bari "Aldo Moro" Medical School, Bari, Italy
| | - Grzegorz Wȩgrzyn
- Department of Molecular Biology, University of Gdańsk, Gdańsk, Poland
| | - Hans Zischka
- Institute of Molecular Toxicology and Pharmacology, Helmholtz Center Munich, German Research Center for Environmental Health, Neuherberg, Germany
- Institute of Toxicology and Environmental Hygiene, Technical University Munich, Munich, Germany
| | - Pawel Dobrzyn
- Department of Biochemistry, Nencki Institute of Experimental Biology, Polish Academy of Sciences, Warsaw, Poland
| | - Massimo Bonora
- Departments of Cell Biology and Gottesman Institute for Stem Cell & Regenerative Medicine Research, Albert Einstein College of Medicine, Bronx, NY, United States
| | - Jerzy Duszynski
- Department of Biochemistry, Nencki Institute of Experimental Biology, Polish Academy of Sciences, Warsaw, Poland
| | - Alessandro Rimessi
- Department of Morphology Surgery and Experimental Medicine, Section of Pathology Oncology and Experimental Biology, Interdisciplinary Center for the Study of Inflammation (ICSI), Laboratory for Technologies of Advanced Therapies (LTTA), University of Ferrara, Ferrara, Italy
| | | | | | - Gyorgy Szabadkai
- Department of Cell and Developmental Biology, Consortium for Mitochondrial Research, University College London, London, United Kingdom
- The Francis Crick Institute, London, United Kingdom
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, University of Padua, Padua, Italy
| | - Barbara Zavan
- Cecilia Hospital, GVM Care & Research, 48033 Cotignola, Ravenna, Italy
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, University of Padua, Padua, Italy
| | - Paulo J. Oliveira
- CNC - Center for Neuroscience and Cell Biology, UC-Biotech, Biocant Park, University of Coimbra, Cantanhede, Portugal
| | - Vilma A. Sardao
- CNC - Center for Neuroscience and Cell Biology, UC-Biotech, Biocant Park, University of Coimbra, Cantanhede, Portugal
| | - Paolo Pinton
- Department of Morphology Surgery and Experimental Medicine, Section of Pathology Oncology and Experimental Biology, Interdisciplinary Center for the Study of Inflammation (ICSI), Laboratory for Technologies of Advanced Therapies (LTTA), University of Ferrara, Ferrara, Italy
- Cecilia Hospital, GVM Care & Research, 48033 Cotignola, Ravenna, Italy
| | - Mariusz R. Wieckowski
- Department of Biochemistry, Nencki Institute of Experimental Biology, Polish Academy of Sciences, Warsaw, Poland
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20
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Crouchet E, Wrensch F, Schuster C, Zeisel MB, Baumert TF. Host-targeting therapies for hepatitis C virus infection: current developments and future applications. Therap Adv Gastroenterol 2018; 11:1756284818759483. [PMID: 29619090 PMCID: PMC5871046 DOI: 10.1177/1756284818759483] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/15/2017] [Accepted: 01/15/2018] [Indexed: 02/04/2023] Open
Abstract
Chronic hepatitis C virus (HCV) infection is a leading cause of chronic liver diseases and hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) worldwide. In the past few years, anti-HCV therapies have undergone a revolution with the approval of multiple direct-acting antivirals (DAAs), which enable interferon-free treatments with considerable improvement of sustained virologic response in patients. Today, DAAs have become the standard of care for HCV therapy. However, several limitations remain, which include access to therapy, treatment failure in a subset of patients and persistent risk of HCC development following cure in patients with advanced fibrosis. By targeting conserved host proteins involved in the HCV life cycle, host-targeting agents (HTAs) offer opportunities for pan-genotypic antiviral approaches with a high barrier to drug resistance. Moreover, when applied in combination with DAAs, HTAs could improve the management of difficult-to-treat patients by acting through a complementary mechanism of action. In this review, we summarize the different HTAs evaluated in preclinical and clinical development and discuss their potential role for anti-HCV therapies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Emilie Crouchet
- Institut National de la Santé et de la Recherche Médicale (Inserm), U1110, Institut de Recherche sur les Maladies Virales et Hépatiques, Strasbourg, France Université de Strasbourg, Strasbourg, France
| | - Florian Wrensch
- Institut National de la Santé et de la Recherche Médicale (Inserm), U1110, Institut de Recherche sur les Maladies Virales et Hépatiques, Strasbourg, France Université de Strasbourg, Strasbourg, France
| | - Catherine Schuster
- Institut National de la Santé et de la Recherche Médicale (Inserm), U1110, Institut de Recherche sur les Maladies Virales et Hépatiques, Strasbourg, France Université de Strasbourg, Strasbourg, France
| | - Mirjam B. Zeisel
- Institut National de la Santé et de la Recherche Médicale (Inserm), U1110, Institut de Recherche sur les Maladies Virales et Hépatiques, Strasbourg, France Université de Strasbourg, Strasbourg, France Inserm U1052, CNRS UMR 5286, Cancer Research Center of Lyon (CRCL), Université de Lyon (UCBL), Lyon, France
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21
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Abstract
Globally, diabetes is the leading cause of chronic kidney disease and end-stage renal disease, which are major risk factors for cardiovascular disease and death. Despite this burden, the factors that precipitate the development and progression of diabetic kidney disease (DKD) remain to be fully elucidated. Mitochondrial dysfunction is associated with kidney disease in nondiabetic contexts, and increasing evidence suggests that dysfunctional renal mitochondria are pathological mediators of DKD. These complex organelles have a broad range of functions, including the generation of ATP. The kidneys are mitochondrially rich, highly metabolic organs that require vast amounts of ATP for their normal function. The delivery of metabolic substrates for ATP production, such as fatty acids and oxygen, is altered by diabetes. Changes in metabolic fuel sources in diabetes to meet ATP demands result in increased oxygen consumption, which contributes to renal hypoxia. Inherited factors including mutations in genes that impact mitochondrial function and/or substrate delivery may also be important risk factors for DKD. Hence, we postulate that the diabetic milieu and inherited factors that underlie abnormalities in mitochondrial function synergistically drive the development and progression of DKD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Josephine M Forbes
- Glycation and Diabetes Group, Mater Research Institute, The University of Queensland, Translational Research Institute, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia.,Mater Clinical School, School of Medicine, The University of Queensland, St Lucia, Queensland, Australia.,Departments of Medicine and Paediatrics, The University of Melbourne, Parkville, Victoria, Australia
| | - David R Thorburn
- Departments of Medicine and Paediatrics, The University of Melbourne, Parkville, Victoria, Australia.,Murdoch Children's Research Institute, Royal Children's Hospital, Parkville, Victoria, Australia
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22
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Snyder B, Goebel S, Koide F, Ptak R, Kalkeri R. Synergistic antiviral activity of Sofosbuvir and type-I interferons (α and β) against Zika virus. J Med Virol 2017; 90:8-12. [PMID: 28851097 DOI: 10.1002/jmv.24932] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/03/2017] [Accepted: 08/07/2017] [Indexed: 01/09/2023]
Abstract
Zika virus (ZIKV) is transmitted by mosquitoes and causes Dengue-like illness, neurological symptoms such as Guillain-Barré Syndrome and microcephaly in children born to infected pregnant mothers. Recently, the World Health Organization (WHO) declared ZIKV infection as a Global Health Emergency. However, there are no known prophylactic or therapeutic measures against this virus. As a proof of concept toward combination therapeutic strategy against ZIKV, combinations of host-targeted (Interferon-α and Interferon-β) and direct acting (Sofosbuvir) antivirals were evaluated in a hepatic cell line (Huh7) using a Cytoprotection (CP) assay. The combination of these antivirals resulted in synergistic inhibition of ZIKV infection in the in vitro CP assay. Additional testing in a ZIKV yield assay demonstrated that combination treatment of these antivirals conferred >2-log reduction in the release of viral RNA. Measurement of ZIKV proteins in the cells infected with multiple ZIKV strains isolated from different geographical regions (Americas, Asia, and Africa) using an immunofluorescence assay confirmed the effective antiviral activity of this combination against ZIKV. These results demonstrate the in vitro proof of concept (POC) for using a combination approach utilizing the strengths of both virus and host-targeted antivirals. These results suggest the effectiveness of the combination strategy in combating ZIKV, in the in vitro systems. Further evaluation of such combination therapies in vivo might provide an impetus for the development of effective ZIKV therapeutic strategies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Beth Snyder
- Department of Infectious Diseases Research, Drug Development, Southern Research, Frederick, Maryland
| | - Scott Goebel
- Department of Infectious Diseases Research, Drug Development, Southern Research, Frederick, Maryland
| | - Fusataka Koide
- Department of Infectious Diseases Research, Drug Development, Southern Research, Frederick, Maryland
| | - Roger Ptak
- Department of Infectious Diseases Research, Drug Development, Southern Research, Frederick, Maryland
| | - Raj Kalkeri
- Department of Infectious Diseases Research, Drug Development, Southern Research, Frederick, Maryland
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23
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Nielsen DS, Shepherd NE, Xu W, Lucke AJ, Stoermer MJ, Fairlie DP. Orally Absorbed Cyclic Peptides. Chem Rev 2017; 117:8094-8128. [PMID: 28541045 DOI: 10.1021/acs.chemrev.6b00838] [Citation(s) in RCA: 247] [Impact Index Per Article: 35.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
Peptides and proteins are not orally bioavailable in mammals, although a few peptides are intestinally absorbed in small amounts. Polypeptides are generally too large and polar to passively diffuse through lipid membranes, while most known active transport mechanisms facilitate cell uptake of only very small peptides. Systematic evaluations of peptides with molecular weights above 500 Da are needed to identify parameters that influence oral bioavailability. Here we describe 125 cyclic peptides containing four to thirty-seven amino acids that are orally absorbed by mammals. Cyclization minimizes degradation in the gut, blood, and tissues by removing cleavable N- and C-termini and by shielding components from metabolic enzymes. Cyclization also folds peptides into bioactive conformations that determine exposure of polar atoms to solvation by water and lipids and therefore can influence oral bioavailability. Key chemical properties thought to influence oral absorption and bioavailability are analyzed, including molecular weight, octanol-water partitioning, hydrogen bond donors/acceptors, rotatable bonds, and polar surface area. The cyclic peptides violated to different degrees all of the limits traditionally considered to be important for oral bioavailability of drug-like small molecules, although fewer hydrogen bond donors and reduced flexibility generally favored oral absorption.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniel S Nielsen
- Division of Chemistry and Structural Biology, and ‡Australian Research Council Centre of Excellence in Advanced Molecular Imaging, Institute for Molecular Bioscience, The University of Queensland , Brisbane, QLD 4072, Australia
| | - Nicholas E Shepherd
- Division of Chemistry and Structural Biology, and ‡Australian Research Council Centre of Excellence in Advanced Molecular Imaging, Institute for Molecular Bioscience, The University of Queensland , Brisbane, QLD 4072, Australia
| | - Weijun Xu
- Division of Chemistry and Structural Biology, and ‡Australian Research Council Centre of Excellence in Advanced Molecular Imaging, Institute for Molecular Bioscience, The University of Queensland , Brisbane, QLD 4072, Australia
| | - Andrew J Lucke
- Division of Chemistry and Structural Biology, and ‡Australian Research Council Centre of Excellence in Advanced Molecular Imaging, Institute for Molecular Bioscience, The University of Queensland , Brisbane, QLD 4072, Australia
| | - Martin J Stoermer
- Division of Chemistry and Structural Biology, and ‡Australian Research Council Centre of Excellence in Advanced Molecular Imaging, Institute for Molecular Bioscience, The University of Queensland , Brisbane, QLD 4072, Australia
| | - David P Fairlie
- Division of Chemistry and Structural Biology, and ‡Australian Research Council Centre of Excellence in Advanced Molecular Imaging, Institute for Molecular Bioscience, The University of Queensland , Brisbane, QLD 4072, Australia
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24
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de Wilde AH, Falzarano D, Zevenhoven-Dobbe JC, Beugeling C, Fett C, Martellaro C, Posthuma CC, Feldmann H, Perlman S, Snijder EJ. Alisporivir inhibits MERS- and SARS-coronavirus replication in cell culture, but not SARS-coronavirus infection in a mouse model. Virus Res 2016; 228:7-13. [PMID: 27840112 PMCID: PMC7114565 DOI: 10.1016/j.virusres.2016.11.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 57] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/01/2016] [Revised: 11/04/2016] [Accepted: 11/07/2016] [Indexed: 01/20/2023]
Abstract
In cell culture models, low-micromolar doses of alisporivir block SARS-CoV and MERS-CoV replication. Combination treatment with alisporivir and ribavirin increases the anti-MERS-CoV activity in cell culture. Combination treatment with alisporivir and ribavirin does not protect against SARS-CoV infection in a mouse model. Cyclophilin-binding drugs should be explored further in the context of host-directed anti-coronaviral strategies.
Currently, there is no registered treatment for infections with emerging zoonotic coronaviruses like SARS- and MERS-coronavirus. We here report that in cultured cells low-micromolar concentrations of alisporivir, a non-immunosuppressive cyclosporin A-analog, inhibit the replication of four different coronaviruses, including MERS- and SARS-coronavirus. Ribavirin was found to further potentiate the antiviral effect of alisporivir in these cell culture-based infection models, but this combination treatment was unable to improve the outcome of SARS-CoV infection in a mouse model. Nevertheless, our data provide a basis to further explore the potential of Cyp inhibitors as host-directed, broad-spectrum inhibitors of coronavirus replication.
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Affiliation(s)
- Adriaan H de Wilde
- Molecular Virology Laboratory, Department of Medical Microbiology, Leiden University Medical Center, Leiden, The Netherlands.
| | - Darryl Falzarano
- National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Hamilton, USA
| | - Jessika C Zevenhoven-Dobbe
- Molecular Virology Laboratory, Department of Medical Microbiology, Leiden University Medical Center, Leiden, The Netherlands
| | - Corrine Beugeling
- Molecular Virology Laboratory, Department of Medical Microbiology, Leiden University Medical Center, Leiden, The Netherlands
| | - Craig Fett
- Department of Microbiology, University of Iowa, Iowa City, USA
| | - Cynthia Martellaro
- National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Hamilton, USA
| | - Clara C Posthuma
- Molecular Virology Laboratory, Department of Medical Microbiology, Leiden University Medical Center, Leiden, The Netherlands
| | - Heinz Feldmann
- National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Hamilton, USA
| | - Stanley Perlman
- Department of Microbiology, University of Iowa, Iowa City, USA
| | - Eric J Snijder
- Molecular Virology Laboratory, Department of Medical Microbiology, Leiden University Medical Center, Leiden, The Netherlands.
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25
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Bennett RP, Stewart RA, Hogan PA, Ptak RG, Mankowski MK, Hartman TL, Buckheit RW, Snyder BA, Salter JD, Morales GA, Smith HC. An analog of camptothecin inactive against Topoisomerase I is broadly neutralizing of HIV-1 through inhibition of Vif-dependent APOBEC3G degradation. Antiviral Res 2016; 136:51-59. [PMID: 27825797 DOI: 10.1016/j.antiviral.2016.11.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/13/2016] [Revised: 11/03/2016] [Accepted: 11/04/2016] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
Abstract
Camptothecin (CPT) is a natural product discovered to be active against various cancers through its ability to inhibit Topoisomerase I (TOP1). CPT analogs also have anti-HIV-1 (HIV) activity that was previously shown to be independent of TOP1 inhibition. We show that a cancer inactive CPT analog (O2-16) inhibits HIV infection by disrupting multimerization of the HIV protein Vif. Antiviral activity depended on the expression of the cellular viral restriction factor APOBEC3G (A3G) that, in the absence of functional Vif, has the ability to hypermutate HIV proviral DNA during reverse transcription. Our studies demonstrate that O2-16 has low cytotoxicity and inhibits Vif-dependent A3G degradation, enabling A3G packaging into HIV viral particles that results in A3G signature hypermutations in viral genomes. This antiviral activity was A3G-dependent and broadly neutralizing against sixteen HIV clinical isolates from groups M (subtypes A-G), N, and O as well as seven single and multi-drug resistant strains of HIV. Molecular modeling predicted binding near the PPLP motif crucial for Vif multimerization and activity. O2-16 also was active in blocking Vif degradation of APOBEC3F (A3F). We propose that CPT analogs not active against TOP1 have novel therapeutic potential as Vif antagonists that enable A3G-dependent hypermutation of HIV.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ryan P Bennett
- OyaGen, Inc., 77 Ridgeland Rd., Rochester, NY 14623, USA
| | - Ryan A Stewart
- OyaGen, Inc., 77 Ridgeland Rd., Rochester, NY 14623, USA
| | - Priscilla A Hogan
- Southern Research Institute, Department of Infectious Disease Research, Frederick, MD, USA
| | - Roger G Ptak
- Southern Research Institute, Department of Infectious Disease Research, Frederick, MD, USA
| | - Marie K Mankowski
- Southern Research Institute, Department of Infectious Disease Research, Frederick, MD, USA
| | | | | | - Beth A Snyder
- Southern Research Institute, Department of Infectious Disease Research, Frederick, MD, USA
| | - Jason D Salter
- OyaGen, Inc., 77 Ridgeland Rd., Rochester, NY 14623, USA
| | | | - Harold C Smith
- OyaGen, Inc., 77 Ridgeland Rd., Rochester, NY 14623, USA; Department of Biochemistry and Biophysics and Environmental Health Sciences Center, Center for RNA Biology, Center for AIDS Research, University of Rochester School of Medicine and Dentistry, 601 Elmwood Ave., Rochester, NY 14642, USA.
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26
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Carroll MB, Fields JH, Clerc PG. Rheumatoid arthritis in patients with HIV: management challenges. Open Access Rheumatol 2016; 8:51-59. [PMID: 27843370 PMCID: PMC5098761 DOI: 10.2147/oarrr.s87312] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Over the past few decades, HIV has been transformed from a once-uniformly fatal disease to now a manageable but complex multisystem illness. Before highly active antiretroviral therapy (HAART), reports suggested that HIV-infected patients with rheumatoid arthritis (RA) would experience remission of their disease. It has now become clear that RA can develop in HIV-infected patients at any time, independent of HAART. Choosing the right medication to treat symptoms related to RA while avoiding excess weakening of the immune system remains a clinical challenge. Agents such as hydroxychloroquine and sulfasalazine might best balance safety with efficacy, making them reasonable first choices for therapy in HIV-infected patients with RA. More immune suppressing agents such as methotrexate may balance safety with efficacy, but data are limited. Corticosteroids such as prednisone may also be reasonable but could increase the risk of osteonecrosis. Among biologic response modifiers, tumor necrosis factor α inhibitors may balance safety with efficacy, but perhaps when HIV replication is controlled with HAART. Monitoring RA disease activity remains challenging as only one retrospective study has been published in this area. Those with HIV infection and RA can experience comorbidities such as accelerated heart disease and osteoporosis, a consequence of the chronic inflammatory state that each illness generates. Although HIV-infected patients are at risk for developing the immune reconstitution inflammatory syndrome when starting HAART, it appears that immune reconstitution inflammatory syndrome has a minimal effect on triggering the onset or the worsening of RA.
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Affiliation(s)
- Matthew B Carroll
- Department of Rheumatology, Keesler Medical Center, Keesler Air Force Base, Biloxi, MS, USA
| | - Joshua H Fields
- Department of Rheumatology, Keesler Medical Center, Keesler Air Force Base, Biloxi, MS, USA
| | - Philip G Clerc
- Department of Rheumatology, Keesler Medical Center, Keesler Air Force Base, Biloxi, MS, USA
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27
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Characterization of the Anti-HCV Activities of the New Cyclophilin Inhibitor STG-175. PLoS One 2016; 11:e0152036. [PMID: 27104614 PMCID: PMC4841536 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0152036] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/13/2015] [Accepted: 03/08/2016] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Shortened current direct-acting antiviral (DAA) therapies while less expensive, have not provided satisfactory efficacy in naïve cirrhotics, treatment experienced non-cirrhotics or even genotype-3 (GT3)-infected patients. Since DAA regimens consist of the same classes of inhibitors—NS5A (NS5Ai) and NS5B (NS5Bi) +/- NS3 (NS3i) inhibitors—it is likely that their costs will be high and will provide similar degrees of protection. Integrating drugs with distinct mechanisms of action (MoA) into DAA regimens could provide the solution for shortening the period of treatment. One such class of agents is the cyclophilin inhibitors (CypI), which has shown efficacy in patients. Resistance-associated variants persist for years post-treatment in patients exposed to NS5Ai or NS5Bi who fail to achieve a sustained virologic response, impairing their chance for cure on retreatment with existing DAA combinations. Because of their high barrier to resistance, CypI may be particularly useful as a rescue therapy for patients who have relapsed with DAA resistance-associated variants. In this study, we analyzed the anti-HCV properties of the novel cyclosporine A (CsA) derivate—STG-175. The non-immunosuppressive STG-175 possesses a high (EC50 11.5–38.9 nM) multi-genotypic (GT1a to 4a) anti-HCV activity. STG-175 clears cells from HCV since no viral replication rebound was observed after cessation of drug treatment. It presents a higher barrier to resistance than other CypI or selected DAAs. HCV variants, which emerged under STG-175 pressure, are only ~2-fold resistant to the drug. No cross-resistance was observed with DAAs STG-175 was efficacious against DAA-resistant HCV variants. Drug combination studies revealed that STG-175 provides additive and synergistic effects against GT1a to 4a. STG-175 inhibits the infection of HCV, HIV-1 and HBV in mono-, dual- and triple-infection settings. Altogether these results suggest that the new CypI STG-175 represents an attractive drug partner for IFN-free DAA regimens for the treatment of HCV and co-infections.
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28
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Hopkins S, Gallay PA. The role of immunophilins in viral infection. Biochim Biophys Acta Gen Subj 2015; 1850:2103-10. [PMID: 25445708 PMCID: PMC4491039 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbagen.2014.11.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/01/2014] [Accepted: 11/11/2014] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Tremendous progress has been made in the past 20 years in understanding the roles played by immunophilins, and in particular the cyclophilins, in supporting the replication cycles of human viruses. A growing body of genetic and biochemical evidence and data from clinical trials confirm that cyclophilins are essential cofactors that contribute to establishing a permissive environment within the host cell that supports the replication of HIV-1 and HCV. Cyclophilin A regulates HIV-1 replication kinetics and infectivity, modulates sensitivity to host restriction factors, and cooperates in the transit of the pre-integration complex into the nucleus of infected cells. Cyclophilin A is an essential cofactor whose expression supports HCV-specific RNA replication in human hepatocytes. GENERAL SIGNIFICANCE Peptidyl-prolyl isomerase inhibitors have been used in clinical trials to validate cyclophilins as antiviral targets for the treatment of HIV-1 and Chronic Hepatitis C virus infection and as molecular probes to identify the roles played by immunophilins in supporting the replication cycles of human viruses. SCOPE OF REVIEW This review summarizes emerging research that defines the functions of immunophilins in supporting the replication cycles of HIV-1, HCV, HBV, coronaviruses, and other viral pathogens and describes new information that suggests a role for immunophilins in regulating innate immune responses against chronic viral infection. MAJOR CONCLUSIONS The dependence on cyclophilins by evolutionarily distinct viruses for accomplishing various steps in replication such as viral entry, initiation of genomic nucleic acid replication, viral genome uncoating, nuclear import and nuclear entry, emphasizes the potential of cyclophilin inhibitors as therapeutic agents. This article is part of a Special Issue entitled Proline-directed Foldases: Cell Signaling Catalysts and Drug Targets.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sam Hopkins
- Department of Clinical Research, Autoimmune Technologies, New Orleans, LA 70112 USA.
| | - Philippe A Gallay
- Department of Immunology & Microbial Science, The Scripps Research Institute, La Jolla, CA 92037, USA.
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29
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Callebaut C, Stepan G, Tian Y, Miller MD. In Vitro Virology Profile of Tenofovir Alafenamide, a Novel Oral Prodrug of Tenofovir with Improved Antiviral Activity Compared to That of Tenofovir Disoproxil Fumarate. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2015; 59:5909-16. [PMID: 26149992 PMCID: PMC4576064 DOI: 10.1128/aac.01152-15] [Citation(s) in RCA: 73] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/14/2015] [Accepted: 06/29/2015] [Indexed: 12/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Tenofovir alafenamide (TAF) is an investigational oral prodrug of the HIV-1 nucleotide reverse transcriptase inhibitor tenofovir (TFV). Tenofovir disoproxil fumarate (TDF) is another TFV prodrug, widely used for the treatment of HIV-1 infection. TAF is converted mostly intracellularly to TFV and, in comparison to TDF, achieves higher tenofovir diphosphate (TFV-DP) levels in peripheral blood mononuclear cells. As a result, TAF has demonstrated potent anti-HIV-1 activity at lower doses than TDF in monotherapy studies. Here, the in vitro virology profile of TAF was evaluated and compared to that of TDF. TAF displayed potent antiviral activity against all HIV-1 groups/subtypes, as well as HIV-2. TAF exhibited minimal changes in the drug concentration needed to inhibit 50% of viral spread (EC50) upon removal of the prodrug, similar to TDF, demonstrating intracellular antiviral persistence. While TAF and TDF exhibited comparable potencies in the absence of serum pretreatment, TAF maintained activity in the presence of human serum, whereas TDF activity was significantly reduced. This result demonstrates TAF's improved plasma stability over TDF, which is driven by the different metabolic pathways of the two prodrugs and is key to TAF's improved in vivo antiviral activity. The activity of TAF is specific for HIV, as TAF lacked activity against a large panel of human viruses, with the exception of herpes simplex virus 2, where weak TAF antiviral activity was observed, as previously observed with TFV. Finally, in vitro combination studies with antiretroviral drugs from different classes showed additive to synergistic interactions with TAF, consistent with ongoing clinical studies with TAF in fixed-dose combinations with multiple other antiretroviral drugs for the treatment of HIV.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - George Stepan
- High Throughput Biology, Gilead Sciences, Inc., Foster City, California, USA
| | - Yang Tian
- High Throughput Biology, Gilead Sciences, Inc., Foster City, California, USA
| | - Michael D Miller
- Clinical Virology, Gilead Sciences, Inc., Foster City, California, USA
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30
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Gallay PA, Bobardt MD, Chatterji U, Trepanier DJ, Ure D, Ordonez C, Foster R. The Novel Cyclophilin Inhibitor CPI-431-32 Concurrently Blocks HCV and HIV-1 Infections via a Similar Mechanism of Action. PLoS One 2015; 10:e0134707. [PMID: 26263487 PMCID: PMC4532424 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0134707] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/05/2015] [Accepted: 07/13/2015] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
HCV-related liver disease is the main cause of morbidity and mortality of HCV/HIV-1 co-infected patients. Despite the recent advent of anti-HCV direct acting antivirals (DAAs), the treatment of HCV/HIV-1 co-infected patients remains a challenge, as these patients are refractory to most therapies and develop liver fibrosis, cirrhosis and liver cancer more often than HCV mono-infected patients. Until the present study, there was no suitable in vitro assay to test the inhibitory activity of drugs on HCV/HIV-1 co-infection. Here we developed a novel in vitro "co-infection" model where HCV and HIV-1 concurrently replicate in their respective main host target cells--human hepatocytes and CD4+ T-lymphocytes. Using this co-culture model, we demonstrate that cyclophilin inhibitors (CypI), including a novel cyclosporin A (CsA) analog, CPI-431-32, simultaneously inhibits replication of both HCV and HIV-1 when added pre- and post-infection. In contrast, the HIV-1 protease inhibitor nelfinavir or the HCV NS5A inhibitor daclatasvir only blocks the replication of a single virus in the "co-infection" system. CPI-431-32 efficiently inhibits HCV and HIV-1 variants, which are normally resistant to DAAs. CPI-431-32 is slightly, but consistently more efficacious than the most advanced clinically tested CypI--alisporivir (ALV)--at interrupting an established HCV/HIV-1 co-infection. The superior antiviral efficacy of CPI-431-32 over ALV correlates with its higher potency inhibition of cyclophilin A (CypA) isomerase activity and at preventing HCV NS5A-CypA and HIV-1 capsid-CypA interactions known to be vital for replication of the respective viruses. Moreover, we obtained evidence that CPI-431-32 prevents the cloaking of both the HIV-1 and HCV genomes from cellular sensors. Based on these results, CPI-431-32 has the potential, as a single agent or in combination with DAAs, to inhibit both HCV and HIV-1 infections.
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Affiliation(s)
- Philippe A. Gallay
- Department of Immunology & Microbial Science, The Scripps Research Institute, La Jolla, California, United States of America
| | - Michael D. Bobardt
- Department of Immunology & Microbial Science, The Scripps Research Institute, La Jolla, California, United States of America
| | - Udayan Chatterji
- Department of Immunology & Microbial Science, The Scripps Research Institute, La Jolla, California, United States of America
| | - Daniel J. Trepanier
- Ciclofilin Pharmaceuticals Inc., San Diego, California, United States of America
| | - Daren Ure
- Ciclofilin Pharmaceuticals Inc., San Diego, California, United States of America
| | - Cosme Ordonez
- Ciclofilin Pharmaceuticals Inc., San Diego, California, United States of America
| | - Robert Foster
- Ciclofilin Pharmaceuticals Inc., San Diego, California, United States of America
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31
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Lindblom R, Higgins G, Coughlan M, de Haan JB. Targeting Mitochondria and Reactive Oxygen Species-Driven Pathogenesis in Diabetic Nephropathy. Rev Diabet Stud 2015; 12:134-56. [PMID: 26676666 DOI: 10.1900/rds.2015.12.134] [Citation(s) in RCA: 67] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Diabetic kidney disease is one of the major microvascular complications of both type 1 and type 2 diabetes mellitus. Approximately 30% of patients with diabetes experience renal complications. Current clinical therapies can only mitigate the symptoms and delay the progression to end-stage renal disease, but not prevent or reverse it. Oxidative stress is an important player in the pathogenesis of diabetic nephropathy. The activity of reactive oxygen and nitrogen species (ROS/NS), which are by-products of the diabetic milieu, has been found to correlate with pathological changes observed in the diabetic kidney. However, many clinical studies have failed to establish that antioxidant therapy is renoprotective. The discovery that increased ROS/NS activity is linked to mitochondrial dysfunction, endoplasmic reticulum stress, inflammation, cellular senescence, and cell death calls for a refined approach to antioxidant therapy. It is becoming clear that mitochondria play a key role in the generation of ROS/NS and their consequences on the cellular pathways involved in apoptotic cell death in the diabetic kidney. Oxidative stress has also been associated with necrosis via induction of mitochondrial permeability transition. This review highlights the importance of mitochondria in regulating redox balance, modulating cellular responses to oxidative stress, and influencing cell death pathways in diabetic kidney disease. ROS/NS-mediated cellular dysfunction corresponds with progressive disease in the diabetic kidney, and consequently represents an important clinical target. Based on this consideration, this review also examines current therapeutic interventions to prevent ROS/NS-derived injury in the diabetic kidney. These interventions, mainly aimed at reducing or preventing mitochondrial-generated oxidative stress, improving mitochondrial antioxidant defense, and maintaining mitochondrial integrity, may deliver alternative approaches to halt or prevent diabetic kidney disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Runa Lindblom
- Glycation, Nutrition and Metabolism Laboratory, Baker IDI Heart and Diabetes Institute, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia
| | - Gavin Higgins
- Glycation, Nutrition and Metabolism Laboratory, Baker IDI Heart and Diabetes Institute, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia
| | - Melinda Coughlan
- Glycation, Nutrition and Metabolism Laboratory, Baker IDI Heart and Diabetes Institute, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia
| | - Judy B de Haan
- Oxidative Stress Laboratory, Baker IDI Heart and Diabetes Institute, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia
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32
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Characterization of HIV-1 Resistance to Tenofovir Alafenamide In Vitro. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2015; 59:5917-24. [PMID: 26149983 DOI: 10.1128/aac.01151-15] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/14/2015] [Accepted: 06/29/2015] [Indexed: 01/05/2023] Open
Abstract
Tenofovir alafenamide (TAF) is an investigational prodrug of the HIV-1 nucleotide reverse transcriptase (RT) inhibitor (NtRTI) tenofovir (TFV), with improved potency and drug delivery properties over the current prodrug, tenofovir disoproxil fumarate (TDF). TAF is currently in phase 3 clinical studies for the treatment of HIV-1 infection, in combination with other antiretroviral agents. Phase 1 and 2 studies have shown that TAF was associated with increased peripheral blood mononuclear cell (PBMC) drug loading and increased suppression of HIV-1 replication compared to treatment with TDF. In this study, selection of in vitro resistance to both TAF and the parent compound, TFV, led to the emergence of HIV-1 with the K65R amino acid substitution in RT with 6.5-fold-reduced susceptibility to TAF. Although TAF is more potent than TFV in vitro, the antiviral susceptibilities to TAF and TFV of a large panel of nucleoside/nucleotide RT inhibitor (NRTI)-resistant mutants were highly correlated (R(2) = 0.97), indicating that the two compounds have virtually the same resistance profile when assessed as fold change from the wild type. TAF showed full antiviral activity in PBMCs against primary HIV-1 isolates with protease inhibitor, nonnucleoside RT inhibitor (NNRTI), or integrase strand transfer inhibitor resistance but reduced activity against isolates with extensive NRTI resistance amino acid substitutions. However, the increased cell loading of TFV with TAF versus TDF observed in vivo suggests that TAF may retain activity against TDF-resistant mutant viruses.
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33
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Pery E, Sheehy A, Miranda Nebane N, Misra V, Mankowski MK, Rasmussen L, Lucile White E, Ptak RG, Gabuzda D. Redoxal, an inhibitor of de novo pyrimidine biosynthesis, augments APOBEC3G antiviral activity against human immunodeficiency virus type 1. Virology 2015; 484:276-287. [PMID: 26141568 DOI: 10.1016/j.virol.2015.06.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/13/2015] [Revised: 05/05/2015] [Accepted: 06/11/2015] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
APOBEC3G (A3G) is a cytidine deaminase that restricts HIV-1 replication by inducing G-to-A hypermutation in viral DNA; deamination-independent mechanisms are also implicated. HIV-1 Vif protein counteracts A3G by inducing its proteasomal degradation. Thus, the Vif-A3G axis is a potential therapeutic target. To identify compounds that inhibit Vif:A3G interaction, a 307,520 compound library was tested in a TR-FRET screen. Two identified compounds, redoxal and lomofungin, inhibited HIV-1 replication in peripheral blood mononuclear cells. Lomofungin activity was linked to A3G, but not pursued further due to cytotoxicity. Redoxal displayed A3G-dependent restriction, inhibiting viral replication by stabilizing A3G protein levels and increasing A3G in virions. A3G-independent activity was also detected. Treatment with uridine or orotate, intermediates of pyrimidine synthesis, diminished redoxal-induced stabilization of A3G and antiviral activity. These results identify redoxal as an inhibitor of HIV-1 replication and suggest its ability to inhibit pyrimidine biosynthesis suppresses viral replication by augmenting A3G antiviral activity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Erez Pery
- Department of Cancer Immunology and AIDS, Dana Farber Cancer Institute, Boston, MA 02115, United States; Department of Pathology, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02115, United States
| | - Ann Sheehy
- Department of Biology, College of the Holy Cross, Worcester, MA 01610, United States
| | - N Miranda Nebane
- Southern Research Institute High Throughput Screening Center, Birmingham, AL 35205, United States
| | - Vikas Misra
- Department of Cancer Immunology and AIDS, Dana Farber Cancer Institute, Boston, MA 02115, United States
| | - Marie K Mankowski
- Southern Research Institute, Department of Infectious Disease Research, Frederick, MD 21701, United States
| | - Lynn Rasmussen
- Southern Research Institute High Throughput Screening Center, Birmingham, AL 35205, United States
| | - E Lucile White
- Southern Research Institute High Throughput Screening Center, Birmingham, AL 35205, United States
| | - Roger G Ptak
- Southern Research Institute, Department of Infectious Disease Research, Frederick, MD 21701, United States
| | - Dana Gabuzda
- Department of Cancer Immunology and AIDS, Dana Farber Cancer Institute, Boston, MA 02115, United States; Department of Neurology (Microbiology), Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02115, United States.
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34
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Pery E, Sheehy A, Nebane NM, Brazier AJ, Misra V, Rajendran KS, Buhrlage SJ, Mankowski MK, Rasmussen L, White EL, Ptak RG, Gabuzda D. Identification of a novel HIV-1 inhibitor targeting Vif-dependent degradation of human APOBEC3G protein. J Biol Chem 2015; 290:10504-17. [PMID: 25724652 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.m114.626903] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/17/2014] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
APOBEC3G (A3G) is a cellular cytidine deaminase that restricts HIV-1 replication by inducing G-to-A hypermutation in viral DNA and by deamination-independent mechanisms. HIV-1 Vif binds to A3G, resulting in its degradation via the 26 S proteasome. Therefore, this interaction represents a potential therapeutic target. To identify compounds that inhibit interaction between A3G and HIV-1 Vif in a high throughput format, we developed a homogeneous time-resolved fluorescence resonance energy transfer assay. A 307,520 compound library from the NIH Molecular Libraries Small Molecule Repository was screened. Secondary screens to evaluate dose-response performance and off-target effects, cell-based assays to identify compounds that attenuate Vif-dependent degradation of A3G, and assays testing antiviral activity in peripheral blood mononuclear cells and T cells were employed. One compound, N.41, showed potent antiviral activity in A3G(+) but not in A3G(-) T cells and had an IC50 as low as 8.4 μM and a TC50 of >100 μM when tested against HIV-1Ba-L replication in peripheral blood mononuclear cells. N.41 inhibited the Vif-A3G interaction and increased cellular A3G levels and incorporation of A3G into virions, thereby attenuating virus infectivity in a Vif-dependent manner. N.41 activity was also species- and Vif-dependent. Preliminary structure-activity relationship studies suggest that a hydroxyl moiety located at a phenylamino group is critical for N.41 anti-HIV activity and identified N.41 analogs with better potency (IC50 as low as 4.2 μM). These findings identify a new lead compound that attenuates HIV replication by liberating A3G from Vif regulation and increasing its innate antiviral activity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Erez Pery
- From the Departments of Cancer Immunology and AIDS and Departments of Pathology and
| | - Ann Sheehy
- Department of Biology, College of the Holy Cross, Worcester, Massachusetts 01610
| | - N Miranda Nebane
- Southern Research Institute High Throughput Screening Center, Birmingham, Alabama 35205, and
| | | | - Vikas Misra
- From the Departments of Cancer Immunology and AIDS and
| | | | | | - Marie K Mankowski
- Southern Research Institute, Department of Infectious Disease Research, Frederick, Maryland 21701
| | - Lynn Rasmussen
- Southern Research Institute High Throughput Screening Center, Birmingham, Alabama 35205, and
| | - E Lucile White
- Southern Research Institute High Throughput Screening Center, Birmingham, Alabama 35205, and
| | - Roger G Ptak
- Southern Research Institute, Department of Infectious Disease Research, Frederick, Maryland 21701
| | - Dana Gabuzda
- From the Departments of Cancer Immunology and AIDS and Neurology (Microbiology), Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts 02115,
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35
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Bioengineering and semisynthesis of an optimized cyclophilin inhibitor for treatment of chronic viral infection. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2015; 22:285-92. [PMID: 25619934 PMCID: PMC4336584 DOI: 10.1016/j.chembiol.2014.10.023] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/22/2014] [Revised: 10/08/2014] [Accepted: 10/22/2014] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
Inhibition of host-encoded targets, such as the cyclophilins, provides an opportunity to generate potent high barrier to resistance antivirals for the treatment of a broad range of viral diseases. However, many host-targeted agents are natural products, which can be difficult to optimize using synthetic chemistry alone. We describe the orthogonal combination of bioengineering and semisynthetic chemistry to optimize the drug-like properties of sanglifehrin A, a known cyclophilin inhibitor of mixed nonribosomal peptide/polyketide origin, to generate the drug candidate NVP018 (formerly BC556). NVP018 is a potent inhibitor of hepatitis B virus, hepatitis C virus (HCV), and HIV-1 replication, shows minimal inhibition of major drug transporters, and has a high barrier to generation of both HCV and HIV-1 resistance. Optimization and preclinical analysis of a bacterial natural product Combination of bioengineering and semisynthetic chemistry Preclinical analysis revealing potent antiviral activity
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36
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Tedbury PR, Freed EO. HIV-1 gag: an emerging target for antiretroviral therapy. Curr Top Microbiol Immunol 2015; 389:171-201. [PMID: 25731773 DOI: 10.1007/82_2015_436] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/07/2022]
Abstract
The advances made in the treatment of HIV-1 infection represent a major success of modern biomedical research, prolonging healthy life and reducing virus transmission. There remain, however, many challenges relating primarily to side effects of long-term therapy and the ever-present danger of the emergence of drug-resistant strains. To counter these threats, there is a continuing need for new and better drugs, ideally targeting multiple independent steps in the HIV-1 replication cycle. The most successful current drugs target the viral enzymes: protease (PR), reverse transcriptase (RT), and integrase (IN). In this review, we outline the advances made in targeting the Gag protein and its mature products, particularly capsid and nucleocapsid, and highlight possible targets for future pharmacological intervention.
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Affiliation(s)
- Philip R Tedbury
- Virus-Cell Interaction Section, HIV Drug Resistance Program, National Cancer Institute, Center for Cancer Research, Frederick, MD, 21702-1201, USA
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37
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Kortagere S, Xu JP, Mankowski MK, Ptak RG, Cocklin S. Structure-activity relationships of a novel capsid targeted inhibitor of HIV-1 replication. J Chem Inf Model 2014; 54:3080-90. [PMID: 25302989 PMCID: PMC4245176 DOI: 10.1021/ci500437r] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
![]()
Despite the considerable successes
of highly active antiretroviral
therapy (HAART) for the treatment of HIV/AIDS, cumulative drug toxicities
and the development of multidrug-resistant virus necessitate the search
for new classes of antiretroviral agents with novel modes of action.
The HIV-1 capsid (CA) protein has been structurally and functionally
characterized as a druggable target. We have recently designed a novel
small molecule inhibitor I-XW-053 using the hybrid structure based
method to block the interface between CA N-terminal domains (NTD–NTD
interface) with micromolar affinity. In an effort to optimize and
improve the efficacy of I-XW-053, we have developed the structure
activity relationship of I-XW-053 compound series using ligand efficiency
methods. Fifty-six analogues of I-XW-053 were designed that could
be subclassified into four different core domains based on their ligand
efficiency values computed as the ratio of binding efficiency (BEI)
and surface efficiency (SEI) indices. Compound 34 belonging
to subcore-3 showed an 11-fold improvement over I-XW-053 in blocking
HIV-1 replication in primary human peripheral blood mononuclear cells
(PBMCs). Surface plasmon resonance experiments confirmed the binding
of compound 34 to purified HIV-1 CA protein. Molecular
docking studies on compound 34 and I-XW-053 to HIV-1
CA protein suggested that they both bind to NTD–NTD interface
region but with different binding modes, which was further validated
using site-directed mutagenesis studies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sandhya Kortagere
- Department of Microbiology & Immunology and ‡Department of Biochemistry & Molecular Biology, Drexel University College of Medicine , Philadelphia, Pennsylvania 19104, United States
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38
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Abstract
Dengue virus (DENV) is an emerging mosquito-borne human pathogen that affects millions of individuals each year by causing severe and potentially fatal syndromes. Despite intense research efforts, no approved vaccine or antiviral therapy is yet available. Overcoming this limitation requires detailed understanding of the intimate relationship between the virus and its host cell, providing the basis to devise optimal prophylactic and therapeutic treatment options. With the advent of novel high-throughput technologies including functional genomics, transcriptomics, proteomics, and lipidomics, new important insights into the DENV replication cycle and the interaction of this virus with its host cell have been obtained. In this chapter, we provide a comprehensive overview on the current status of the DENV research field, covering every step of the viral replication cycle with a particular focus on virus-host cell interaction. We will also review specific chemical inhibitors targeting cellular factors and processes of relevance for the DENV replication cycle and their possible exploitation for the development of next generation antivirals.
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39
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Zhou G, Sofiyev V, Kaur H, Snyder BA, Mankowski MK, Hogan PA, Ptak RG, Gochin M. Structure-activity relationship studies of indole-based compounds as small molecule HIV-1 fusion inhibitors targeting glycoprotein 41. J Med Chem 2014; 57:5270-81. [PMID: 24856833 PMCID: PMC4216203 DOI: 10.1021/jm500344y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/11/2023]
Abstract
![]()
We
previously described indole-containing compounds with the potential
to inhibit HIV-1 fusion by targeting the hydrophobic pocket of transmembrane
glycoprotein gp41. Here we report optimization and structure–activity
relationship studies on the basic scaffold, defining the role of shape,
contact surface area, and molecular properties. Thirty new compounds
were evaluated in binding, cell–cell fusion, and viral replication
assays. Below a 1 μM threshold, correlation between binding
and biological activity was diminished, indicating an amphipathic
requirement for activity in cells. The most active inhibitor 6j exhibited 0.6 μM binding affinity and 0.2 μM
EC50 against cell–cell fusion and live virus replication
and was active against T20 resistant strains. Twenty-two compounds
with the same connectivity displayed a consensus pose in docking calculations,
with rank order matching the biological activity. The work provides
insight into requirements for small molecule inhibition of HIV-1 fusion
and demonstrates a potent low molecular weight fusion inhibitor.
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Affiliation(s)
- Guangyan Zhou
- Department of Basic Sciences, Touro University-California , 1310 Club Drive, Mare Island, Vallejo, California 94592, United States
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40
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Abstract
Myxovirus resistance 2 (Mx2/MxB) has recently been uncovered as an effector of the anti-HIV-1 activity of type I interferons (IFNs) that inhibits HIV-1 at an early stage postinfection, after reverse transcription but prior to proviral integration into host DNA. The mechanistic details of Mx2 antiviral activity are not yet understood, but a few substitutions in the HIV-1 capsid have been shown to confer resistance to Mx2. Through a combination of in vitro evolution and unbiased mutagenesis, we further map the determinants of sensitivity to Mx2 and reveal that multiple capsid (CA) surfaces define sensitivity to Mx2. Intriguingly, we reveal an unanticipated sensitivity determinant within the C-terminal domain of capsid. We also report that Mx2s derived from multiple primate species share the capacity to potently inhibit HIV-1, whereas selected nonprimate orthologs have no such activity. Like TRIM5α, another CA targeting antiretroviral protein, primate Mx2s exhibit species-dependent variation in antiviral specificity against at least one extant virus and multiple HIV-1 capsid mutants. Using a combination of chimeric Mx2 proteins and evolution-guided approaches, we reveal that a single residue close to the N terminus that has evolved under positive selection can determine antiviral specificity. Thus, the variable N-terminal region can define the spectrum of viruses inhibited by Mx2. Importance: Type I interferons (IFNs) inhibit the replication of most mammalian viruses. IFN stimulation upregulates hundreds of different IFN-stimulated genes (ISGs), but it is often unclear which ISGs are responsible for inhibition of a given virus. Recently, Mx2 was identified as an ISG that contributes to the inhibition of HIV-1 replication by type I IFN. Thus, Mx2 might inhibit HIV-1 replication in patients, and this inhibitory action might have therapeutic potential. The mechanistic details of how Mx2 inhibits HIV-1 are currently unclear, but the HIV-1 capsid protein is the likely viral target. Here, we determine the regions of capsid that specify sensitivity to Mx2. We demonstrate that Mx2 from multiple primates can inhibit HIV-1, whereas Mx2 from other mammals (dogs and sheep) cannot. We also show that primate variants of Mx2 differ in the spectrum of lentiviruses they inhibit and that a single residue in Mx2 can determine this antiviral specificity.
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41
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Ambrose Z, Aiken C. HIV-1 uncoating: connection to nuclear entry and regulation by host proteins. Virology 2014; 454-455:371-9. [PMID: 24559861 DOI: 10.1016/j.virol.2014.02.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 124] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/17/2013] [Revised: 12/27/2013] [Accepted: 02/04/2014] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
The RNA genome of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) is enclosed by a capsid shell that dissociates within the cell in a multistep process known as uncoating, which influences completion of reverse transcription of the viral genome. Double-stranded viral DNA is imported into the nucleus for integration into the host genome, a hallmark of retroviral infection. Reverse transcription, nuclear entry, and integration are coordinated by a capsid uncoating process that is regulated by cellular proteins. Although uncoating is not well understood, recent studies have revealed insights into the process, particularly with respect to nuclear import pathways and protection of the viral genome from DNA sensors. Understanding uncoating will be valuable toward developing novel antiretroviral therapies for HIV-infected individuals.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zandrea Ambrose
- Division of Infectious Diseases, Department of Medicine, University of Pittsburgh, School of Medicine, Pittsburgh, PA 15261, USA.
| | - Christopher Aiken
- Department of Pathology, Microbiology and Immunology, Vanderbilt University, School of Medicine, Nashville, TN 37232, USA
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42
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Lou Z, Sun Y, Rao Z. Current progress in antiviral strategies. Trends Pharmacol Sci 2014; 35:86-102. [PMID: 24439476 PMCID: PMC7112804 DOI: 10.1016/j.tips.2013.11.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 162] [Impact Index Per Article: 16.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/16/2013] [Revised: 11/23/2013] [Accepted: 11/26/2013] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Antiviral agents function as either viral targets or host factors. Virus-targeting antivirals (VTAs) function through a direct (DVTAs) or an indirect (InDVTAs) method in the viral life cycle. Host-targeting antivirals (HTAs) include reagents that target the host proteins that are involved in the viral life cycle.
The prevalence of chronic viral infectious diseases, such as human immunodeficiency virus (HIV), hepatitis C virus (HCV), and influenza virus; the emergence and re-emergence of new viral infections, such as picornaviruses and coronaviruses; and, particularly, resistance to currently used antiviral drugs have led to increased demand for new antiviral strategies and reagents. Increased understanding of the molecular mechanisms of viral infection has provided great potential for the discovery of new antiviral agents that target viral proteins or host factors. Virus-targeting antivirals can function directly or indirectly to inhibit the biological functions of viral proteins, mostly enzymatic activities, or to block viral replication machinery. Host-targeting antivirals target the host proteins that are involved in the viral life cycle, regulating the function of the immune system or other cellular processes in host cells. Here we review key targets and considerations for the development of both antiviral strategies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhiyong Lou
- Laboratory of Structural Biology and MOE Laboratory of Protein Science, School of Medicine, Tsinghua University, Beijing, 100084, China.
| | - Yuna Sun
- National Laboratory of Macromolecules, Institute of Biophysics, Chinese Academy of Science, Beijing, 100101, China
| | - Zihe Rao
- Laboratory of Structural Biology and MOE Laboratory of Protein Science, School of Medicine, Tsinghua University, Beijing, 100084, China; National Laboratory of Macromolecules, Institute of Biophysics, Chinese Academy of Science, Beijing, 100101, China.
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43
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Launay H, Parent B, Page A, Hanoulle X, Lippens G. Dissociation Kinetics of a Binary Complex in Solution by Protein Displacement. Angew Chem Int Ed Engl 2013. [DOI: 10.1002/ange.201306253] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
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44
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Chamoun-Emanuelli AM, Bobardt M, Moncla B, Mankowski MK, Ptak RG, Gallay P, Chen Z. Evaluation of PD 404,182 as an anti-HIV and anti-herpes simplex virus microbicide. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2013; 58:687-97. [PMID: 24217696 PMCID: PMC3910842 DOI: 10.1128/aac.02000-13] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/13/2013] [Accepted: 11/05/2013] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
PD 404,182 (PD) is a synthetic compound that was found to compromise HIV integrity via interaction with a nonenvelope protein viral structural component (A. M. Chamoun et al., Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 56:672-681, 2012). The present study evaluates the potential of PD as an anti-HIV microbicide and establishes PD's virucidal activity toward another pathogen, herpes simplex virus (HSV). We show that the anti-HIV-1 50% inhibitory concentration (IC50) of PD, when diluted in seminal plasma, is ∼1 μM, similar to the IC50 determined in cell culture growth medium, and that PD retains full anti-HIV-1 activity after incubation in cervical fluid at 37°C for at least 24 h. In addition, PD is nontoxic toward vaginal commensal Lactobacillus species (50% cytotoxic concentration [CC50], >300 μM), freshly activated human peripheral blood mononuclear cells (CC50, ∼200 μM), and primary CD4(+) T cells, macrophages, and dendritic cells (CC50, >300 μM). PD also exhibited high stability in pH-adjusted Dulbecco's phosphate-buffered saline with little to no activity loss after 8 weeks at pH 4 and 42°C, indicating suitability for formulation for transportation and storage in developing countries. Finally, for the first time, we show that PD inactivates herpes simplex virus 1 (HSV-1) and HSV-2 at submicromolar concentrations. Due to the prevalence of HSV infection, the ability of PD to inactivate HSV may provide an additional incentive for use as a microbicide. The ability of PD to inactivate both HIV-1 and HSV, combined with its low toxicity and high stability, warrants additional studies for the evaluation of PD's microbicidal candidacy in animals and humans.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ana M. Chamoun-Emanuelli
- Artie McFerrin Department of Chemical Engineering, Texas A&M University, College Station, Texas, USA
| | - Michael Bobardt
- Department of Immunology and Microbial Sciences, IMM-9, The Scripps Research Institute, La Jolla, California, USA
| | - Bernard Moncla
- Department of Obstetrics, Gynecology & Reproductive Sciences, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, USA, and Magee-Womens Research Institute Foundation, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, USA
| | - Marie K. Mankowski
- Southern Research Institute, Infectious Disease Research Department, Frederick, Maryland, USA
| | - Roger G. Ptak
- Southern Research Institute, Infectious Disease Research Department, Frederick, Maryland, USA
| | - Philippe Gallay
- Department of Immunology and Microbial Sciences, IMM-9, The Scripps Research Institute, La Jolla, California, USA
| | - Zhilei Chen
- Artie McFerrin Department of Chemical Engineering, Texas A&M University, College Station, Texas, USA
- Department of Microbial and Molecular Pathogenesis, Texas A&M Health Science Center, College Station, Texas, USA
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45
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Launay H, Parent B, Page A, Hanoulle X, Lippens G. Dissociation Kinetics of a Binary Complex in Solution by Protein Displacement. Angew Chem Int Ed Engl 2013; 52:12587-91. [DOI: 10.1002/anie.201306253] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/18/2013] [Indexed: 01/10/2023]
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46
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Peel M, Scribner A. Cyclophilin inhibitors as antiviral agents. Bioorg Med Chem Lett 2013; 23:4485-92. [PMID: 23849880 PMCID: PMC7125669 DOI: 10.1016/j.bmcl.2013.05.101] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/29/2012] [Revised: 05/29/2013] [Accepted: 05/31/2013] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Cyclophilins (Cyps) are ubiquitous proteins that effect the cis-trans isomerization of Pro amide bonds, and are thus crucial to protein folding. CypA is the most prevalent of the ~19 human Cyps, and plays a crucial role in viral infectivity, most notably for HIV-1 and HCV. Cyclophilins have been shown to play key roles in effective replication of a number of viruses from different families. A drug template for CypA inhibition is cyclosporine A (CsA), a cyclic undecapeptide that simultaneously binds to both CypA and the Ca(2+)-dependent phosphatase calcineurin (CN), and can attenuate immune responses. Synthetic modifications of the CsA scaffold allows for selective binding to CypA and CN separately, thus providing access to novel, non-immunosuppressive antiviral agents.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michael Peel
- SCYNEXIS Inc., Research Triangle Park, NC 27709, USA.
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47
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Rajagopal A, Scherer A, Homyk A, Kartalov E. Supercolor coding methods for large-scale multiplexing of biochemical assays. Anal Chem 2013; 85:7629-36. [PMID: 23763357 DOI: 10.1021/ac401304t] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
We present a novel method for the encoding and decoding of multiplexed biochemical assays. The method enables a theoretically unlimited number of independent targets to be detected and uniquely identified in any combination in the same sample. For example, the method offers easy access to 12-plex and larger PCR assays, as contrasted to the current 4-plex assays. This advancement would allow for large panels of tests to be run simultaneously in the same sample, saving reagents, time, consumables, and manual labor, while also avoiding the traditional loss of sensitivity due to sample aliquoting. Thus, the presented method is a major technological breakthrough with far-reaching impact on biotechnology, biomedical science, and clinical diagnostics. Herein, we present the mathematical theory behind the method as well as its experimental proof of principle using Taqman PCR on sequences specific to infectious diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aditya Rajagopal
- California Institute of Technology, Department of Electrical Engineering, Pasadena, California 91125, United States.
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48
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Peel M, Scribner A. Optimization of Cyclophilin Inhibitors for Use in Antiviral Therapy. SUCCESSFUL STRATEGIES FOR THE DISCOVERY OF ANTIVIRAL DRUGS 2013. [DOI: 10.1039/9781849737814-00384] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/30/2023]
Abstract
Cyclophilins are members of the Propyl Peptidase Isomerase (PPIase) family of proteins and have recently been found to be required for efficient replication and/or infectivity of several viruses. Cyclosporine A (CsA), the prototypical inhibitor of cyclophilins has shown good activity against several key viruses, including HIV‐1 and HCV, however the immunosuppressive activity of CsA precludes its use as an effective anti‐viral agent. Structural information derived from the ternary complex formed by CsA, cyclophilin A and calcineurin has allowed the design of non‐immunosuppressive derivatives of CsA that retain, and in some cases improve, antiviral activity toward hepatitis C. Chemical modification of CsA has led to compounds with improved pharmacokinetic properties and with reduced drug‐drug interaction potential. Non‐CsA derived inhibitors of cyclophilin A have recently been identified and hold promise as synthetically more tractable leads for cyclophilin‐based discovery projects.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michael Peel
- SCYNEXIS Inc., Research Triangle Park, NC 27709 USA
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49
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Okello MO, Mishra S, Nishonov M, Mankowski MK, Russell JD, Wei J, Hogan PA, Ptak RG, Nair V. A novel anti-HIV active integrase inhibitor with a favorable in vitro cytochrome P450 and uridine 5'-diphospho-glucuronosyltransferase metabolism profile. Antiviral Res 2013; 98:365-72. [PMID: 23602851 PMCID: PMC3677213 DOI: 10.1016/j.antiviral.2013.04.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/22/2013] [Revised: 04/03/2013] [Accepted: 04/04/2013] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
Abstract
Research efforts on the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) integrase have resulted in two approved drugs. However, co-infection of HIV with Mycobacterium tuberculosis and other microbial and viral agents has introduced added complications to this pandemic, requiring favorable drug-drug interaction profiles for antiviral therapeutics targeting HIV. Cytochrome P450 (CYP) and uridine 5'-diphospho-glucuronosyltransferase (UGT) are pivotal determining factors in the occurrence of adverse drug-drug interactions. For this reason, it is important that anti-HIV agents, such as integrase inhibitors, possess favorable profiles with respect to CYP and UGT. We have discovered a novel HIV integrase inhibitor (compound 1) that exhibits low nM antiviral activity against a diverse set of HIV-1 isolates, and against HIV-2 and the simian immunodeficiency virus (SIV). Compound 1 displays low in vitro cytotoxicity and its resistance and related drug susceptibility profiles are favorable. Data from in vitro studies revealed that compound 1 was not a substrate for UGT isoforms and that it was not an inhibitor or activator of key CYP isozymes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maurice O. Okello
- The Center for Drug Discovery and the College of Pharmacy University of Georgia, Athens, GA 30602, USA
| | - Sanjay Mishra
- The Center for Drug Discovery and the College of Pharmacy University of Georgia, Athens, GA 30602, USA
| | - Malik Nishonov
- The Center for Drug Discovery and the College of Pharmacy University of Georgia, Athens, GA 30602, USA
| | - Marie K. Mankowski
- Infectious Disease Research Department, Southern Research Institute, Frederick, MD 21701, USA
| | - Julie D. Russell
- Infectious Disease Research Department, Southern Research Institute, Frederick, MD 21701, USA
| | - Jiayi Wei
- Infectious Disease Research Department, Southern Research Institute, Frederick, MD 21701, USA
| | - Priscilla A. Hogan
- Infectious Disease Research Department, Southern Research Institute, Frederick, MD 21701, USA
| | - Roger G. Ptak
- Infectious Disease Research Department, Southern Research Institute, Frederick, MD 21701, USA
| | - Vasu Nair
- The Center for Drug Discovery and the College of Pharmacy University of Georgia, Athens, GA 30602, USA
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50
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Suppression of coronavirus replication by cyclophilin inhibitors. Viruses 2013; 5:1250-60. [PMID: 23698397 PMCID: PMC3712306 DOI: 10.3390/v5051250] [Citation(s) in RCA: 127] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/18/2013] [Revised: 05/02/2013] [Accepted: 05/08/2013] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Coronaviruses infect a variety of mammalian and avian species and cause serious diseases in humans, cats, mice, and birds in the form of severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS), feline infectious peritonitis (FIP), mouse hepatitis, and avian infectious bronchitis, respectively. No effective vaccine or treatment has been developed for SARS-coronavirus or FIP virus, both of which cause lethal diseases. It has been reported that a cyclophilin inhibitor, cyclosporin A (CsA), could inhibit the replication of coronaviruses. CsA is a well-known immunosuppressive drug that binds to cellular cyclophilins to inhibit calcineurin, a calcium-calmodulin-activated serine/threonine-specific phosphatase. The inhibition of calcineurin blocks the translocation of nuclear factor of activated T cells from the cytosol into the nucleus, thus preventing the transcription of genes encoding cytokines such as interleukin-2. Cyclophilins are peptidyl-prolyl isomerases with physiological functions that have been described for many years to include chaperone and foldase activities. Also, many viruses require cyclophilins for replication; these include human immunodeficiency virus, vesicular stomatitis virus, and hepatitis C virus. However, the molecular mechanisms leading to the suppression of viral replication differ for different viruses. This review describes the suppressive effects of CsA on coronavirus replication.
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