Microthrix parvicella, a filamentous bacterium isolated from activated sludge: cultivation in a chemically defined medium

Amplicon-guided isolation and cultivation of previously uncultured microbial species from activated sludge

IMPORTANCE

Biological wastewater treatment relies on complex microbial communities that assimilate nutrients and break down pollutants in the wastewater. Knowledge about the physiology and metabolism of bacteria in wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) may therefore be used to improve the efficacy and economy of wastewater treatment. Our current knowledge is largely based on 16S rRNA gene amplicon profiling, fluorescence in situ hybridization studies, and predictions based on metagenome-assembled genomes. Bacterial isolates are often required to validate genome-based predictions as they allow researchers to analyze a specific species without interference from other bacteria and with simple bulk measurements. Unfortunately, there are currently very few pure cultures representing the microbes commonly found in WWTPs. To address this, we introduce an isolation strategy that takes advantage of state-of-the-art microbial profiling techniques to uncover suitable growth conditions for key WWTP microbes. We furthermore demonstrate that this information can be used to isolate key organisms representing global WWTPs.

Bacteriophage-based biocontrol technology to enhance the efficiency of wastewater treatment and reduce targeted bacterial biofilms

Wastewater treatment is an essential process for public health and a sustainable ecosystem. Inadequate wastewater treatment can lead to the release of organic and inorganic pollutants and pathogenic bacteria into the receiving waters which could be further utilized for recreation purposes. The interaction between bacteriophage and bacteria in a wastewater treatment plant plays a major role in maintaining the treatment process. Phage therapy has been proposed as an alternative to conventional treatment methods as bacteriophages can be used on specific targets and leave useful bacteria unharmed. The bacterial species, which are responsible for bulking, foaming, and biofilm formation in a wastewater treatment plant (WWTP) have been identified and their respective phages are isolated to control their growth. Phages with lytic life cycles are preferred to lysogenic. Lytic phages can kill the specific target as they lyse the cell, infect most of the hosts, and have an immediate effect on controlling problems caused by bacteria in a WWTP. The bacteriophages such as T7, SPI1, GTE7, PhaxI, MAG1, MAG2, ϕPh_Se01, ϕPh_Se02, and Bxb1 have been investigated for the removal of bacterial biofilms from wastewater. Novel experimental setups have improved the efficiency of phage therapy in small-scale and pilot-scale experiments. Much more in-depth knowledge of the microbial community and their interaction would help promote the usage of phage therapy in large-scale wastewater treatments. This paper has covered the recent advancements in phage therapy as an effective biocontrol of pathogenic bacteria in the wastewater treatment process and has looked at certain shortcomings that have to be improved.

Low Global Diversity of Candidatus Microthrix, a Troublesome Filamentous Organism in Full-Scale WWTPs

Candidatus Microthrix is one of the most common bulking filamentous microorganisms found in activated sludge wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) across the globe. One species, Ca. M. parvicella, is frequently observed, but global genus diversity, as well as important aspects of its ecology and physiology, are still unknown. Here, we use the MiDAS ecosystem-specific 16S rRNA gene database in combination with amplicon sequencing of Danish and global WWTPs to investigate Ca. Microthrix spp. diversity, distribution, and factors affecting their global presence. Only two species were abundant across the world confirming low diversity of the genus: the dominant Ca. M. parvicella and an unknown species typically present along with Ca. M. parvicella, although usually in lower abundances. Both species were mostly found in Europe at low-to-moderate temperatures and their growth was favored in municipal WWTPs with advanced process designs. As no isolate is available for the novel species, we propose the name "Candidatus Microthrix subdominans." Ten high-quality metagenome-assembled genomes recovered from Danish WWTPs, including 6 representing the novel Ca. M. subdominans, demonstrated high genetic similarity between the two species with a likely preference for lipids, a putative capability to reduce nitrate and nitrite, and the potential to store lipids and poly-P. Ca. M. subdominans had a potentially more versatile metabolism including additional sugar transporters, higher oxygen tolerance, and the potential to use carbon monoxide as energy source. Newly designed fluorescence in situ hybridization probes revealed similar filamentous morphology for both species. Raman microspectroscopy was used to quantify the in situ levels of intracellular poly-P. Despite the observed similarities in their physiology (both by genomes and in situ), the two species showed different seasonal dynamics in Danish WWTPs through a 13-years survey, possibly indicating occupation of slightly different niches. The genomic information provides the basis for future research into in situ gene expression and regulation, while the new FISH probes provide a useful tool for further characterization in situ. This study is an important step toward understanding the ecology of Ca. Microthrix in WWTPs, which may eventually lead to optimization of control strategies for its growth in this ecosystem.

A novel dicationic Quinoline-Carzole fluorescent probe: preparation and labelling of Microthrix parvicella

A novel dicationic Quinoline-Carbazole fluorescent probe with hydrophobic long-chain alkane was designed and synthesized based on the property of Microthrix parvicella (M. parvicella) in situ utilizing long-chain fatty acids (LCFA) in the activated sludge system. ¹H NMR spectrum, ultraviolet-visible (UV-Vis) absorption spectra, and fluorescent spectra analysis demonstrated that the probe was successfully obtained. The probe had a large stokes-shift ranging from 102 to 144 nm in different solvents, which were benefit for the fluorescent labelling properties. The labelling experiment indicated that the prepared probe could absorb onto the surface of M. parvicella through hydrophobic bond. Much stronger yellow fluorescence of M. parvicella was observed at the concentration of 1.0 × 10^-5mol/L when compared with the zooglea, which makes it easy to distinguish M. parvicella from the zooglea. In addition, the photostability of the probe was also investigated, and the result showed that the probe was quite stable in a long period of time. All the results indicated that the prepared probe was suitable for the labelling of M. parvicella.

Exploring the operating factors controlling Kouleothrix (type 1851), the dominant filamentous bacterial population, in a full-scale A2O plant

This study reveals that the abundance of the filament Kouleothrix (Eikelboom type 1851) correlated positively with poor settleability of activated sludge biomass in a Japanese full-scale nutrient removal wastewater treatment plant sampled over a one-year period. 16S rRNA amplicon sequence data confirmed that Kouleothrix was the dominant filament in the plant, with a relative abundance of 3.06% positively correlated with sludge volume index (SVI) (R = 0.691). Moreover, Kouleothrix (type 1851) appeared to form interfloc bridges, typical of bulking sludge, regardless of season. Together with earlier studies that indicated the responsibility of Kouleothrix (type 1851) on bulking events, these data suggest that their high relative abundances alone may be responsible for sludge bulking. 16S rRNA qPCR data for this filament showed changes in its relative abundance correlated with changes in several operational parameters, including mixed liquor temperature, sludge retention time, and suspended solids concentration, and it may be that manipulating these may help control Kouleothrix bulking.

Factors influencing Candidatus Microthrix parvicella growth and specific filamentous bulking control: A review

Candidatus Microthrix parvicella has been frequently detected as the dominant filamentous bacteria in bulking sludge and thus seriously affects the stable operation of activated sludge processes. The extremely low growth rate of Ca. M. parvicella and its sensitivity to environmental variations greatly limit the development of effective techniques to control filamentous bulking. Based on previous investigations, a variety of restrictive substrates, operating and culture conditions, environmental factors and other potential inhibitors have varying degrees of impact on the growth of this microorganism. This review systematically summarizes the key factors affecting Ca. M. parvicella growth with a focus on the influencing mechanism. Recent filamentous bulking control strategies are also critically reviewed and discussed. Additionally, research needs for the next few years are proposed with the aim of establishing effective and specific control strategies for filamentous sludge bulking.

Monitoring, isolation and characterization of Microthrix parvicella strains from a Chinese wastewater treatment plant

Microthrix parvicella is a filamentous bacterium that frequently causes severe bulking events in wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) worldwide. In this study, sludge properties and dynamics of filamentous bacteria in a Beijing WWTP seasonally suffering from M. parvicella bulking were continuously monitored over a duration of 15 months, and the correlations between M. parvicella and operating parameters were evaluated. The predominance of M. parvicella was observed at low temperatures (14-18.8 °C) with the relative abundance of around 30% (estimated by both qPCR and FISH analysis). Using micromanipulation technology, 545 filaments of M. parvicella were micromanipulated from bulking sludge (SVI > 180 mL g^-1) on six different media. After 3-month purification and enrichment, six strains, phylogenetically closely related to Candidatus Microthrix parvicella, were successfully acquired on R₂A medium (20 °C) in pure cultures. Considering the limitation and extremely slow growth rate of M. parvicella filaments, newly isolated strains represent valuable sources for further investigations on the physiology and behavior of this filamentous bacterium, with the focus on the establishment of bulking control strategy.

Factors affecting the growth of Microthrix parvicella: Batch tests using bulking sludge as seed sludge

Sludge bulking caused by the overgrowth of filamentous bacteria, particularly Microthrix parvicella, is one of the challenges for the stable operation of municipal wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs). The driving forces for the development of sludge bulking, however, have not been well understood because of the extremely low growth rate of M. parvicella. In this study, batch experiments were performed using bulking sludge (sludge volume index (SVI), around 185mLg^-1) from a full-scale WWTP as the seed sludge to investigate the influences of carbon source, anaerobic/aerobic alternation condition and temperature on the growth of M. parvicella. The qPCR results showed that the use of oleic acid as carbon source, anaerobic/aerobic alternation treatment and low temperature (13°C) were favorable conditions for maintaining the dominance of M. parvicella in the tested activated sludge. Under these conditions, the SVI values remained at comparatively high values of 170.5mLg^-1, 162.5mLg^-1 and 129.5mLg^-1 after operation for approximately two months, and the relative abundances of M. parvicella were 36.7%, 9.74% and 34.07%, respectively, in comparison with the initial values of 33.04%, 29.29% and 54.66%. However, the relative abundances of M. parvicella decreased to 0.86-4.44%, 0.7% and 4.94%, respectively, under the conditions of other carbon sources, aerobic-only treatment and a temperature of 20°C. The FISH analysis gave a similar result. This study was performed with mixed sludge under controlled operating conditions, which provided a valuable information for the pure culture of M. parvicella and further investigations on its physiology and metabolism.

First draft genome sequence of a strain belonging to the Zoogloea genus and its gene expression in situ

The Gram-negative beta-proteobacterium Zoogloea sp. LCSB751 (LMG 29444) was newly isolated from foaming activated sludge of a municipal wastewater treatment plant. Here, we describe its draft genome sequence and annotation together with a general physiological and genomic analysis, as the first sequenced representative of the Zoogloea genus. Moreover, Zoogloea sp. gene expression in its environment is described using metatranscriptomic data obtained from the same treatment plant. The presented genomic and transcriptomic information demonstrate a pronounced capacity of this genus to synthesize poly-β-hydroxyalkanoate within wastewater.

Seasonal Changes in Bacterial Communities Cause Foaming in a Wastewater Treatment Plant

Bio-foaming is a major problem in solid separation in activated sludge (AS) wastewater treatment systems. Understanding the changes in bacterial communities during sludge foaming is vital for explaining foam formation. Changes in bacterial communities in the foam, corresponding foaming AS, and non-foaming AS in a seasonal foaming wastewater treatment plant (WWTP) in Northern China were investigated by high-throughput pyrosequencing and molecular quantification-based approaches. We found that bacterial communities of the foam and the corresponding foaming AS were similar but markedly different from those of the non-foaming AS. Actinobacteria was the predominant phylum in the foam and the corresponding foaming AS, whereas Proteobacteria was predominant in the non-foaming AS. Similar to the results of most previous studies, our results showed that Candidatus "Microthrix parvicella" was the predominant filamentous bacteria in the foam and the corresponding foaming AS and was significantly enriched in the foam compared to the corresponding foaming AS. Its abundance decreased gradually with a slow disappearance of sludge foaming, indicating that its overgrowth had a direct relationship with sludge foaming. In addition to Candidatus M. parvicella, Tetrasphaera and Trichococcus might play a role in sludge foaming, because they supported the changes in AS microbial ecology for foam formation. The effluent water quality of the surveyed plant remained stable during the period of sludge foaming, but the microbial consortia responsible for nitrogen and phosphorus transformation and removal markedly changed compared to that in the non-foaming AS. This study adds to the previous understanding of bacterial communities causing foaming in WWTPs.

Protozoa and metazoa relations to technological conditions of non-woven textile filters for wastewater treatment

The objective of this study was a preliminary identification of basic groups of micro-organisms in the cross-sectional profile of geotextile filters for septic tank effluent (STE) treatment and their relations to technological conditions. Reactors with textile filters treating wastewater were investigated on a semi-technical scale. Filters were vertically situated and STE was filtered through them under hydrostatic pressure at a wastewater surface height of 7-20 cm. Filters were made of four layers of non-woven TS 20 geotextile of 0.9 mm thickness. Various groups of organisms were observed; the most abundant group comprised free-swimming and crawling ciliates, less abundant were stalked ciliates and the least numerous were nematodes. The individual counts of all groups of micro-organisms investigated during the study were variable according to time and space. The high abundance of Opercularia, a commonly observed genus of stalked ciliates, was related to the high efficiency of wastewater treatment and dissolved oxygen concentration of about 1.0 g/m3. Numbers of free-swimming and crawling ciliates had a tendency to decrease in relation to the depth of filter cross-sectional profile. The variability in counts of particular groups of organisms could be related to the local stress conditions. No correlation between identified organism count and total mass concentration in the cross-sectional filter profile was found.

A Novel Separation Method of Microthrix parvicella Filaments from Activated Sludge by a Hydrophobic Plate

The aim of this paper is to develop a novel method to separate Microthrix parvicella (M. parvicella) filaments from activated sludge easily and quickly, as there are a few difficulties in the isolation of M. parvicella filaments, such as complicated isolation process, time consuming, etc. In this work, a series of hydrophobic plate with and without microchannels have been prepared for the separation of M. parvicella filaments. The results showed that the presence of microchannels and hydrophobic property of the hydrophobic plates affected the separation efficiency of M. parvicella significantly. The scanning electron microscope and Keyence Digital Microscope analysis results showed that the diameter of microchannels was similar to the width of M. parvicella filament, which was beneficial for the fastening of M. parvicella filaments on the plate. The hydrophobic property of the prepared plates was tested by contact angle of water droplets, and the results displayed that the polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS) plate possessed the highest contact angle compared with that of other plates, like polymethylmethacrylate, polystyrene plate, and PDMS plate with no hydrophobic microchannels. Thus, it was concluded that the high separation efficiency of PDMS plates to M. parvicella filaments was due to its best hydrophobic property.

Moderate temperature increase leads to disintegration of floating sludge and lower abundance of the filamentous bacterium Microthrix parvicella in anaerobic digesters

Filamentous bacteria such as Microthrix parvicella can cause serious foaming and floating sludge problems in anaerobic digesters fed with sewage sludge. The sewage sludge and oil co-fermenting laboratory-scale biogas digesters in this study were fed with substrates from a foaming-prone full-scale biogas plant containing the filamentous bacterium M. parvicella. At 37 °C, in both pneumatically mixed digesters a highly viscous and approximately 3 cm thick floating sludge was observed. A gradual increase of the temperature from 37 °C to 56 °C led to a significant decrease in the floating sludge thickness, which correlated with a strong decrease in the abundance of M. parvicella in the digestate. Furthermore, the stepwise temperature increase allowed for an adaption of the microbial community and prevented process failure. The study indicates that already a moderate temperature increase from 37 °C to 41 °C might help to control the M. parvicella abundance in full-scale biogas plants.

Isolation and characterization of bacteriophages infecting nocardioforms in wastewater treatment plant

Activated sludge plants (ASP) are associated with the stable foaming problem worldwide. Apart from the physical and chemical treatment methods, biological treatment method has been least explored and may prove to be a novel and ecofriendly approach to tackle the problem of stable foam formation. In ASP Nocardia species are commonly found and are one of the major causes for forming sticky and stable foam. This study describes the isolation and characterization of three Nocardia bacteriophages NOC1, NOC2, and NOC3 for the control of Nocardia species. The bacteriophages isolated in this study have shown promising results in controlling foam producing bacterial growth under laboratory conditions, suggesting that it may prove useful in the field as an alternative biocontrol agent to reduce the foaming problem. To the best of our knowledge to date no work has been published from India related to biological approach for the control of foaming.

Integration of culture-based and molecular analysis of a complex sponge-associated bacterial community

The bacterial communities of sponges have been studied using molecular techniques as well as culture-based techniques, but the communities described by these two methods are remarkably distinct. Culture-based methods describe communities dominated by Proteobacteria, and Actinomycetes while molecular methods describe communities dominated by predominantly uncultivated groups such as the Chloroflexi, Acidobacteria, and Acidimicrobidae. In this study, we used a wide range of culture media to increase the diversity of cultivable bacteria from the closely related giant barrel sponges, Xestospongia muta collected from the Florida Keys, Atlantic Ocean and Xestospongia testudinaria, collected from Indonesia, Pacific Ocean. Over 400 pure cultures were isolated and identified from X. muta and X. testudinaria and over 90 bacterial species were represented. Over 16,000 pyrosequences were analyzed and assigned to 976 OTUs. We employed both cultured-based methods and pyrosequencing to look for patterns of overlap between the culturable and molecular communities. Only one OTU was found in both the molecular and culturable communities, revealing limitations inherent in both approaches.

Foam formation in a downstream digester of a cascade running full-scale biogas plant: Influence of fat, oil and grease addition and abundance of the filamentous bacterium Microthrix parvicella

The microbial community composition in a full-scale biogas plant fed with sewage sludge and fat, oil and grease (FOG) was investigated over a 15-month period, including two foam formation events. Addition of FOG as a substrate in the biogas plant together with high abundances of Microthrix parvicella were found to promote foam formation in the downstream digester of a cascade of two biogas digesters. Genetic fingerprinting and quantitative PCR (qPCR) indicated a higher abundance of M. parvicella in the digester, when the digestion process was accompanied by excessive foaming relative to the reference digesters without disturbance. The creation of foam depended on the introduced proportion of FOG and the abundance of M. parvicella. Furthermore, shifts in the abundance of M. parvicella in the biogas plant were observed within the 15-month monitoring period corresponding to its seasonal abundance in the sludge of the wastewater treatment plant (WWTP).

Development and evaluation of a TaqMan duplex real-time PCR quantification method for reliable enumeration of Candidatus Microthrix

Candidatus Microtrhix parvicella is one of the most common filamentous bacteria reported to be involved in bulking and foaming problems in activated sludge plants worldwide. In order to detect and quantify both M. parvicella and Microthrix calida by quantitative PCR (qPCR), primers targeting 16S rDNA genes were designed. The qPCR reaction was optimized by using the TaqMan technology and an internal positive control was included to ensure the absence of PCR inhibitors. A total of 29 samples originating from different wastewater treatment plants were analyzed and the results were compared by using conventional microscopy, fluorescent in situ hybridization and an existing SYBR Green-based assay. Our assay showed a 100% specificity for both M. parvicella and M. calida, a sensitivity of 2.93×10(9) to 29 copy numbers/reaction, an amplification efficiency of 93% and no PCR inhibition. By performing a spiking experiment including different Microthrix concentrations, recovery rates ranging from 65 to 98% were obtained. A positive correlation with the SYBR Green assay (R(2)=0.85) was found and most of the samples were in accordance with the microscopical observation. In comparison with SYBR Green assay, the probe-based TaqMan assay had a much lower detection limit. Compared with microscopy, some samples had a lower or higher enumeration when using qPCR. In conclusion, a qPCR method is forwarded here that could be useful as an early warning tool for fast and reliable detection of Microthrix in for instance sludge bulking events.

A comparative analysis of the characteristics of a range of real and synthetic wastewaters

Synthetic wastewaters are widely used in many fields of wastewater research and operational management. However, few comparative studies have been conducted on the large number of published formulations. Eleven synthetic formulations simulating municipal wastewaters were selected based on their frequency of use, relative complexity, ease of formulation and cost and compared to two real municipal wastewaters. Synthetic wastewaters vary significantly in their compositions and characteristics, especially in terms of alkalinity, BOD K 1, SOUR, BODU, COD/BOD and C/N/P ratio, although they are portrayed as 'typical' in terms of characteristics and suitability for use. The pH, alkalinity and the presence of Ca and Mg should be considered in combination with the diluent used. Where the diluent is tap water, then the presence of treatment chemicals should also be considered. The effects of the micronutrients present are also an important factor. The study found that no single formulation is appropriate for all situations. Both the Syntho and Synthes formulations attempt to simulate real wastewater, whereas other formulations primarily act as readily biodegradable vectors for toxicity analyses, characterisation studies and treatment process evaluations. The criteria for choosing a particular synthetic wastewater very much depend on its intended application and require careful selection.

Specific binding of aluminium and iron ions to a cation-selective cell wall channel of Microthrix parvicella

Heavy metal salts containing aluminium or iron are used in wastewater treatment to control excessive growth of the Gram-positive bacterium Microthrix parvicella, frequently observed in wastewater plants suffering from bulking, foaming and scum. Microthrix parvicella belongs to the class Actinobacteria but not to mycolata, although its taxonomic position in this class is not identified. Investigations using the microspheres adhesion to cells method (MAC) suggested that M. parvicella is as strongly hydrophobic as the mycolic acid containing actinomycetes. The cell wall of M. parvicella was investigated for the presence of water-filled channels using the lipid bilayer assay. An ion-permeable channel called MppA with a conductance of 600 pS in 1 M KCl was identified in cell wall extracts and purified to homogeneity. The cation-selective channel showed no voltage-dependent closure at higher voltages. Interestingly, MPPA could be blocked by heavy metal ions. Binding of polyvalent cations such as iron and aluminium was studied in titration experiments and revealed stability constants for their binding to MppA up to 700 M(-1). The cell wall channel of M. parvicella contains a binding site for polyvalent cations which may play a crucial role for the effect of heavy metals salts on M. parvicella-dominated activated sludge.

Metabolic model for the filamentous 'Candidatus Microthrix parvicella' based on genomic and metagenomic analyses

'Candidatus Microthrix parvicella' is a lipid-accumulating, filamentous bacterium so far found only in activated sludge wastewater treatment plants, where it is a common causative agent of sludge separation problems. Despite attracting considerable interest, its detailed physiology is still unclear. In this study, the genome of the RN1 strain was sequenced and annotated, which facilitated the construction of a theoretical metabolic model based on available in situ and axenic experimental data. This model proposes that under anaerobic conditions, this organism accumulates preferentially long-chain fatty acids as triacylglycerols. Utilisation of trehalose and/or polyphosphate stores or partial oxidation of long-chain fatty acids may supply the energy required for anaerobic lipid uptake and storage. Comparing the genome sequence of this isolate with metagenomes from two full-scale wastewater treatment plants with enhanced biological phosphorus removal reveals high similarity, with few metabolic differences between the axenic and the dominant community 'Ca. M. parvicella' strains. Hence, the metabolic model presented in this paper could be considered generally applicable to strains in full-scale treatment systems. The genomic information obtained here will provide the basis for future research into in situ gene expression and regulation. Such information will give substantial insight into the ecophysiology of this unusual and biotechnologically important filamentous bacterium.

Profiling bulking and foaming bacteria in activated sludge by high throughput sequencing

Bulking and foaming bacteria (BFB) are notorious in wastewater treatment although they are always presented in the normal activated sludge and playing certain roles other than being harmful. Previous studies using microscopy or conventional molecular methods could hardly get the full profile of the BFB in the normal activated sludge. In this study, high throughput sequencing was adopted to investigate the BFB community, which was sub-dominant in activated sludge from 14 global wastewater treatment plants. The full-length 16S rRNA gene sequences of BFB groups were collected from previous studies to build a database for local BLAST and subsequent taxonomic assignment. The total BFB percentage in each sample ranged from 1.86% to 8.99% according to the 16S rRNA gene V4 pyrotags detected at the BLAST similarity cutoff of 97%. The most abundant and frequent BFB groups are 'Nostocoida limicola' I and II, Mycobacterium fortuitum, Type 1863, and 'Microthrix parvicella'. The BFB among the activated sludge samples were both biogeographically and technological distributed to some extent. An extending application was performed to evaluate and design oligonucleotides probes based on the rich information of high similar sequences. Our study also gave an exemplified case of investigation on the specific sub-dominant functional groups in complex bacterial communities revealed by high throughput sequencing.

Phylogeny, physiology and distribution of 'Candidatus Microthrix calida', a new Microthrix species isolated from industrial activated sludge wastewater treatment plants

Twelve strains of filamentous bacteria morphologically identified as 'Microthrix parvicella' were isolated from industrial activated sludge wastewater treatment plants. 16S rRNA gene sequences analysis showed that these strains were all closely related to 'Candidatus Microthrix parvicella'. Six of them, however, had a 16S rRNA gene similarity of only 95.7% and 96.7% to 'Candidatus Microthrix parvicella' suggesting the presence of a new species. The name 'Candidatus Microthrix calida' is proposed for this new microorganism. The physiological properties of these six isolates supported the description of a new taxon. The 'Candidatus Microthrix calida' strains produced thin filaments (0.3-0.7 microm diameter), they did not grow on the media supporting the growth of 'Candidatus Microthrix parvicella' and could be cultivated at higher temperature (up to 36.5 degrees C). Preliminary data on substrate uptake were obtained by microautoradiography on pure culture. Two new fluorescence in situ hybridization (FISH) probes, Mpa-T1-1260 specific for 'Candidatus Microthrix calida' and Mpa-all-1410 targeting both Microthrix species, were designed. The presence of Microthrix spp. was investigated in 114 activated sludge plants. 'Microthrix parvicella' morphotype was detected in 23% of the analysed samples and FISH analysis revealed that 'Candidatus Microthrix calida' was present in 5% of them. The remaining 'M. parvicella' filaments were positive with probe Mpa-all-1410 but could not all be identified as 'Candidatus Microthrix parvicella' suggesting the presence of more hitherto undescribed biodiversity within this morphotype.

Behavior of lipids in biological wastewater treatment processes

Lipids (characterized as oils, greases, fats and long-chain fatty acids) are important organic components of wastewater. Their amount, for example, in municipal wastewater is approximately 30-40% of the total chemical oxygen demand. The concern over the behavior of lipids in biological treatment systems has led to many studies, which have evaluated their removal, but still the exact behavior of lipids in these processes is not well understood. In this review, we discuss the current knowledge of how lipids/fatty acids affect both aerobic and anaerobic processes and specific methods that have been used in an attempt to enhance their removal from wastewater. Overall, the literature shows that lipids/fatty acids are readily removed by biological treatment methods, inhibitory to microbial growth as well as the cause of foaming, growth of filamentous bacteria and floc flotation.

Effect of hypochloride on microbial ecology of bulking and foaming activated sludge treatment for tannery wastewater

This study investigates the effect of hypochloride application for controlling bulking and foaming on the microbial ecology of an activated sludge system treating tannery wastewater. Detailed characterization of the wastewater treatment influent and effluent is also reported for the study period. During the study, bulking and foaming are first monitored with a sudden burst in the sludge volume index over 250 mL g(-1), creating a significant deterioration of the effluent quality. The corresponding upset in the microbial ecology is the combined excessive proliferation of M. parvicella, N. limicola II and Gordona (Nocardia) spp., but mainly triggered by Gordona contamination of the floc structure and the rapid outward growth of this filamentous microorganism extending to adjacent flocs. Chlorine application at an average rate of 3 g Cl(-1)(kg MLSS.day)(-1) for 12 days provide an effective solution for bulking and foaming, restoring the effluent quality. It destroys filamentous texture between the flocs, leaving only a lot of loose and chopped filament fragments and, totally removes the Gordona spp. from solution which retrieves back into the flocs. Therefore, chlorine remediation of bulking and foaming, although temporarily effective, is only superficial as the Gordona seeding inside the floc remains intact and potentially available for excessive growth in the next favorable conditions.

Bulking sludge in biological nutrient removal systems

Bulking sludge problems are commonly reported in biological nutrient removal (BNR) systems. This has led to the general belief that intrinsic BNR conditions favor the growth of undesirable and excessive filamentous bacteria. The present study shows that other factors have a major role in bulking, and not the BNR conditions. These factors have been verified in well-controlled, strictly anoxic-aerobic and strictly anaerobic-aerobic sequencing batch reactor systems. The experimental results show that conditions known to be responsible for bulking sludge in aerobic systems (i.e., low concentration of electron donor and/or electron acceptor) did not lead to bulking. Even when acetate was present at very low concentrations in the aerobic stage of an anaerobic-aerobic bio-P system, the sludge settleability remained very good. This clearly demonstrates that good bio-P activity can stabilize and improve sludge settleability. The presence of microaerophilic conditions in the anoxic stage of the anoxic-aerobic system was the only factor leading to worsening sludge settling characteristics. The results are discussed in light of our previous hypothesis about the importance of diffusion-limited substrate uptake for the development of filamentous structures in biological flocs. The hypothesis is extended to anaerobic-aerobic and anoxic-aerobic conditions, typical of BNR-activated sludge systems. Taking into account the effect of feeding patterns on biochemical rates and on the development of filamentous bacterial structures, we recommend the adoption of plug-flow selector configurations, with strictly anaerobic and/or strictly anoxic conditions, wherein microaerophilic conditions are excluded, in order to maintain reliable and robust BNR performance.

Application of microautoradiography to the study of substrate uptake by filamentous microorganisms in activated sludge

Excessive growth of filamentous microorganisms in activated-sludge treatment plants is a major operational problem which causes poor settlement of activated sludge. An enhanced understanding of the factors controlling growth of different filamentous microorganisms is necessary in order to establish more successful control strategies. In the present study, the in situ substrate uptake was investigated by means of microautoradiography. It was demonstrated that the uptake of labeled organic substrates by the filamentous microorganisms, during short-term incubation, could be detected by microautoradiography. Viability and respiratory activity of the filaments were also detected by reduction of CTC (5-cyano-2,3-ditolyl tetrazolium chloride) and by incorporation of [(sup3)H]thymidine. Gram, Neisser, and fluorescence staining techniques were used for the localization and identification of the filaments. Activated-sludge samples from five wastewater treatment plants with bulking problems due to filamentous microorganisms were investigated. Microthrix parvicella, Nostocoida limicola, and Eikelboom's type 0041 and type 021N were investigated for their ability to take up organic substrates. A panel of six substrates, i.e., [(sup14)C]acetate, [(sup3)H]glucose, [(sup14)C]ethanol, [(sup3)H]glycine, [(sup3)H]leucine, and [(sup3)H]oleic acid, was tested. The uptake response was found to be very specific not only between the different filamentous types but also among filaments of the same type from different treatment plants. Interestingly, M. parvicella consistently took up only oleic acid among the tested substrates. It is concluded that microautoradiography is a useful method for investigation of in situ substrate uptake by filamentous microorganisms in activated sludge.

Group-specific small-subunit rRNA hybridization probes to characterize filamentous foaming in activated sludge systems

Foaming in activated sludge systems is characterized by the formation of a thick, chocolate brown-colored scum that floats on the surface of aeration basins and secondary clarifiers. These viscous foams have been associated with the presence of filamentous mycolic acid-containing actinomycetes. To aid in evaluating the microbial representation in foam, we developed and characterized group-, genus-, and species-specific oligonucleotide probes targeting the small subunit rRNA of the Mycobacterium complex, Gordona spp., and Gordona (Nocardia) amarae, respectively. The use of a universal base analog, 5-nitroindole, in oligonucleotide probe design was evaluated by comparing the characteristics of two different versions of the Mycobacterium complex probe. The temperature of dissociation of each probe was determined. Probe specificity studies with a diverse collection of 67 target and nontarget rRNAs demonstrated the specificity of the probes to the target groups. Whole-cell hybridizations with fluorescein- and rhodamine-labeled probes were performed with pure cultures of various members of the Mycobacterium complex as well as with environmental samples from a full-scale activated sludge plant which experienced foaming. Quantitative membrane hybridizations with activated sludge and anaerobic digester foam showed that 15.0 to 18.3% of the total small-subunit rRNAs could be attributed to members of the Mycobacterium complex, of which a vast majority consisted of Gordona rRNA. Several G. amarae strains made up only a very small percentage of the Gordona strains present. We demonstrated that group-specific rRNA probes are useful tools for the in situ monitoring and identification of filamentous bacteria in activated sludge systems.