Melaleuca alternifolia (Tea Tree) oil: a review of antimicrobial and other medicinal properties

Terpenoids as potential phytoconstituent in the treatment of diabetes: From preclinical to clinical advancement

BACKGROUND

Diabetes mellitus, a hyperglycemic condition associated with multitudinous organ dysfunction, is a hallmark of the metabolic disorder. This life-threatening condition affects millions of individuals globally, harming them financially, physically and psychologically in the course of therapy.

PURPOSES

The course therapy for illnesses has undergone ground-breaking transformations due to recent technical advances and insights. Alternatively, the administration of hyperglycemia-reducing agents results in several complications, including severe cardiovascular disease, kidney failure, hepatic problems, and several dermatological conditions. Consideration of alternate diabetic therapy having minimal side effects or no adverse reactions has been driven by such problems.

STUDY DESIGN

An extensive literature study was conducted in authoritative scientific databases such as PubMed, Scopus, and Web of Science to identify the studies elucidating the bioactivities of terpenoids in diabetic conditions.

METHODS

Keywords including 'terpenoids', 'monoterpenes', 'diterpenes', 'sesquiterpenes', 'diabetes', 'diabetes mellitus', 'clinical trials', 'preclinical studies', and 'increased blood glucose' were used to identify the relevant research articles. The exclusion criteria, such as English language, duplication, open access, abstract only, and studies not involving preclinical and clinical research, were set. Based on these criteria, 937 relevant articles were selected for further evaluation.

RESULTS

Triterpenes can serve as therapeutic agents for diabetic retinopathy, peripheral neuropathy, and kidney dysfunction by inhibiting several pathways linked to hyperglycemia and its complications. Therefore, it is essential to draw special attention to these compounds' therapeutic effectiveness and provide scientific professionals with novel data.

CONCLUSION

This study addressed recent progress in research focussing on mechanisms of terpenoid, its by-products, physiological actions, and therapeutic applications, particularly in diabetic and associated disorders.

A comprehensive review on the pharmacological prospects of Terpinen-4-ol: From nature to medicine and beyond

Owing to their extensive biological potential, essential oils (EOs) and their bioactive phytochemicals have gained attention from the scientific community. Within this domain, Terpinen-4-ol (T-4-ol), a bioactive monoterpene alcohol and the major constituent of tea tree oil (TTO), has made its way into translational research. Recent literature on T-4-ol strongly indicates its diverse pharmacological properties, including but not limited to antimicrobial, antivirulent, anti-oxidant, anti-inflammatory, anti-hypertensive, and anti-cancer effects. Hence, this review is the first to provide a comprehensive overview of the sources, bioavailability, safety, pharmaceutical delivery systems, and multifaceted biological properties of T-4-ol, emphasizing its medicinal potential for widescale application. The antibacterial and antifungal effectiveness of T-4-ol has been discussed, encompassing its role in combating a broad spectrum of bacterial and fungal pathogens. The review delves into the antivirulent prospects of T-4-ol, shedding light on its ability to attenuate virulence and mitigate bacterial pathogenesis. Scientific literature on the anti-oxidant and anti-inflammatory activity of T-4-ol highlighting its role in neutralizing reactive oxygen species and modulating inflammatory pathways has also been collated. Furthermore, the review elaborates on the cardioprotective and anti-hypertensive properties of T-4-ol and augments literature on its anti-cancer mechanism against various cancer cell lines. The review also provides in-depth knowledge of the pharmaceutical formulations of T-4-ol and recent knowledge about its application in clinical/field trials. The exploration of these diverse attributes positions T-4-ol as a promising candidate for further research and therapeutic repurposing in various biomedical applications.

A comprehensive study of food waste management and processing in the Czech Republic: Potential health risks and consumer behavior

Food waste is currently a widely discussed phenomenon with significant economic and social consequences. One third of the food produced in the world is wasted at various points along the food supply chain. This article presents a comprehensive study that examines consumer behavior in dealing with food waste and activities in the composting process that enable waste sanitation. The survey conducted as part of this study showed that consumers want to eliminate odors, are concerned about potential infections, and generally sort less food waste. This study suggested that the addition of appropriate additives could be a solution. The results indicated that additives could eliminate negative side effects such as unpleasant odors, the presence of insects and rodents, and act as a prevention of the occurrence of pathogenic organisms. Tea tree oil showed the best positive physical and chemical properties among the additives tested (CaCO3 and citric acid) with a significant effect on inhibiting the growth of bacterial strains such as Salmonella strains and had the strongest antibacterial effect, neutralized unpleasant odors, and stabilized the waste. The use of additives could be a future solution to meet consumer demands, improve the quality of food waste and advance the circular economy to improve the sustainability of agricultural systems.

Unveiling the phyto-restorative potential of ethereal distillates for atopic dermatitis: an advanced therapeutic approach

Atopic dermatitis is acknowledged as a vital inflammatory disorder associated with the integumentary system of the body and is characterized by the formation of thick reddish-grey scars and erythema formation on skin, prevalent amidst the populace. Numerous synthetic drugs are available for treatment like antihistamines, immunosuppressants, glucocorticoids etc., but contrarily, essential oil therapy is exclusively lime lighted to favour the purpose. The utilization of available engineered drugs, possess the marked adverse effects owing to prolonged duration of therapy and therefore, essential oils are explored well and proved to exhibit the anti-eczematic, anti-inflammatory and antipruritic properties. Ethereal distillates own the assorted and selective therapeutic properties attributable to presence of bioactive compounds liable to treat this torturous and integumentary disorder, likely lavender oil, patchouli oil, frankincense oil etc., have been found to exert their pharmacological actions by impeding the liberation and action of inflammatory mediators and immunological hyperactivities that are engaged in exacerbating this idiopathic illness. The current attempt provided the update with the aim to bring forth the naturally originated treatment that is pertinent to provide the invulnerable therapy by circumventing the noxious symptoms i.e. erythema formation and inflamed lesions.

Nanoemulsions and nanocapsules loaded with Melaleuca alternifolia essential oil for sepsis treatment

Sepsis represents a complex clinical syndrome that results from a harmful host response to infection. The infections most associated with sepsis are pneumonia, intra-abdominal infection, and urinary tract infection. Tea tree oil (TTO) has shown high antibacterial activity; however, it exhibits low aqueous solubility and high volatility, which have motivated its nanoencapsulation. In this study, the performance of nanoemulsions (NE) and nanocapsules (NC) loaded with TTO was compared. These systems were prepared by spontaneous emulsification and nanoprecipitation methods, respectively. Poly-ε-caprolactone or Eudragit® RS100 were tested as polymers for NCs whereas Tween® 80 or Pluronic® F68 as surfactants in NE preparation. Pluronic® F68 and Eudragit® RS100 resulted in more homogeneous and stable nanoparticles. In accelerated stability studies at 4 and 25 °C, both colloidal suspensions (NC and NE) were kinetically stable. NCs showed to be more stable to photodegradation and less cytotoxic than NEs. After sepsis induction by the cecal ligation and puncture (CLP) model, both NE and NC reduced neutrophil infiltration into peritoneal lavage (PL) and kidneys. Moreover, the systems increased group thiols in the kidney and lung tissue and reduced bacterial growth in PL. Taken together, both systems showed to be effective against injury induced by sepsis; however, NCs should be prioritized due to advantages in terms of cytotoxicity and physicochemical stability.

Production of Mono-Hydroxylated Derivatives of Terpinen-4-ol by Bacterial CYP102A1 Enzymes

CYP102A1 from Bacillus megaterium is an important enzyme in biotechnology, because engineered CYP102A1 enzymes can react with diverse substrates and produce human cytochrome P450-like metabolites. Therefore, CYP102A1 can be applied to drug metabolite production. Terpinen-4-ol is a cyclic monoterpene and the primary component of essential tea tree oil. Terpinen-4-ol was known for therapeutic effects, including antibacterial, antifungal, antiviral, and anti-inflammatory. Because terpenes are natural compounds, examining novel terpenes and investigating the therapeutic effects of terpenes represent responses to social demands for eco-friendly compounds. In this study, we investigated the catalytic activity of engineered CYP102A1 on terpinen-4-ol. Among CYP102A1 mutants tested here, the R47L/F81I/F87V/E143G/L188Q/N213S/E267V mutant showed the highest activity to terpinen-4-ol. Two major metabolites of terpinen-4-ol were generated by engineered CYP102A1. Characterization of major metabolites was confirmed by liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry (LC-MS), gas chromatography-MS, and nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy (NMR). Based on the LC-MS results, the difference in mass-to-charge ratio of an ion (m/z) between terpinen-4-ol and its major metabolites was 16. One major metabolite was defined as 1,4-dihydroxy-p-menth-2-ene by NMR. Given these results, we speculate that another major metabolite is also a mono-hydroxylated product. Taken together, we suggest that CYP102A1 can be applied to make novel terpene derivatives.

Multifunctional gelatin nanoparticle stabilized-Pickering emulsion hydrogel based on dextran and amikacin with controlled drug release and enhanced antibacterial capability for promoting infected wound healing

Plant essential oils possess broad-spectral antimicrobial property, but the applications are impeded by their insolubility in water, extreme volatility, and strong irritation. Nanoparticle-stabilized emulsion (Pickering emulsion) gels are colloidal systems with ability to accommodate two immiscible phases in one system. The thick adsorption nanoparticle layers and the cross-linked networks in continuous phase could provide protective barriers for antibacterial oil and achieve on-demand controlled release. An emulsion hydrogel templated from gelatin nanoparticle-stabilized emulsion is one-pot constructed by conducting a tunable cross-linking process between oxidized dextran (Odex) and amikacin in the continuous phase and concomitantly trapping tea tree essential oil (TO) droplets in the three-dimensional network. The resulted emulsion hydrogel presents tunable gelation time, adequate mechanical strength, fascinating injectability, and self-healing capability. It is pH-responsiveness and presents controlled release of amikacin and TO, exhibiting a long-term bacteriostasis of 144 h. The emulsion hydrogel facilitates the outstanding wound healing efficiency in 14 days (95.2 ± 0.8 % of wound closure), accompanied with enhanced collagen deposition and angiogenic activities. The incorporation of TO into emulsion hydrogel system reduced its irritation and improved its biosafety, showing potential application in bacteria inhibition even as implants in vivo.

Effect of cationic surfactant on the physicochemical and antibacterial properties of colloidal systems (emulsions and microemulsions)

Colloidal systems have been used to encapsulate, protect and release essential oils in mouthwashes. In this study, we investigated the effect of cetylpyridinium chloride (CPC) on the physicochemical properties and antimicrobial activity of oil-in-water colloidal systems containing tea tree oil (TTO) and the nonionic surfactant polysorbate 80. Our main aim was to evaluate whether CPC could improve the antimicrobial activity of TTO, since this activity is impaired when this essential oil is encapsulated with polysorbate 80. These systems were prepared with different amounts of TTO (0-0.5% w/w) and CPC (0-0.5% w/w), at a final concentration of 2% (w/w) polysorbate 80. Dynamic light scattering (DLS) results revealed the formation of oil-swollen micelles and oil droplets as a function of TTO concentration. Increases in CPC concentrations led to a reduction of around 88% in the mean diameter of oil-swollen micelles. Although this variation was of only 20% for the oil droplets, the samples appearance changed from turbid to transparent. The surface charge of colloidal structures was also markedly affected by the CPC as demonstrated by the transition in zeta potential from slightly negative to highly positive values. Electron paramagnetic resonance (EPR) studies showed that this transition is followed by significant increases in the fluidity of surfactant monolayer of both colloidal structures. The antimicrobial activity of colloidal systems was tested against a Gram-negative (Escherichia coli) and Gram-positive (Staphylococcus aureaus) bacteria. Our results revealed that the inhibition of bacterial growth is observed for the same CPC concentration (0.05% w/w for E. coli and 0.3% w/w for S. aureus) regardless of TTO content. These findings suggest that TTO may not act as an active ingredient in polysorbate 80 containing mouthwashes.

Effect of Chlorhexidine and Tea Tree Oil on Reducing the Number of Oral Microorganisms

OBJECTIVES

 Thus, the aim of this study was to compare the effect of using two preoperative mouthwashes (0.12% chlorhexidine and 0.2% tea tree oil) on the number of colonies of oral microorganisms.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

 Forty participants who needed to be rehabilitated with dental implants were included in this study. They were randomly divided into two groups (chlorhexidine group and tea tree group; n = 20, each). For each group, saliva samples were collected at four different times: T0 (initially)-before using the mouthwash, T1-after 1 minute of using the mouthwash, T10-after 10 minutes of using the mouthwash, and T60-after 60 minutes of using the mouthwash. At T0 and T1, saliva samples were collected before implant placement surgery, and at T10 and T60, saliva samples were collected during surgery. In each group, one saliva sample was collected at each evaluated time point for each patient, totaling 4 saliva collections per patient. MSB agar (Mitis-Salivarius-Bacitracin) and BHI agar (Brain Heart Infusion) culture media were used in each group. Microbial colony counts were performed using a magnifying glass and recorded in CFU (colony forming units)/mL. Statistical analyses were performed using the Friedman, Mann-Whitney U and Wilcoxon tests (p < 0.05).

RESULTS

 Based on MSB agar culture medium, at T0, the number of Streptococcus mutans colonies in the chlorhexidine group was significantly higher compared with the tea tree group (p <0.05; MSB agar). The chlorhexidine group showed significantly lower CFU/mL values for Streptococcus mutans at T1, T10, and T60 compared with the tea tree group (p <0.05; MSB agar). Based on BHI agar culture medium, at T0, the chlorhexidine group showed a significantly lower value of CFU/mL compared with the tea tree group (p < 0.05; BHI agar). At T1, T10, and T60, the chlorhexidine group showed significantly lower CFU/mL values compared with the tea tree group (p <0.05; BHI agar).

CONCLUSION

 Chlorhexidine is more indicated as a preoperative mouthwash than tea tree oil, due to its significantly more effective antimicrobial action.

Antimicrobial activity of essential oils (Citrus bergamia Risso & Poiteau, Melaleuca alternifolia and Chenopodium botrys) on pathogen strains isolated in milk samples from mastitic sheep

The aim of this investigation was to study in vitro antibacterial activity of essential oils (EOs) (Citrus bergamia Risso & Poiteau, Melaleuca alternifolia and Chenopodium botrys) on pathogenic strains isolated in milk samples from mastitic sheep. The in vitro antibacterial activity showed that EOs induced higher bacterial inhibition against pathogens isolated in mastitic milk (Staphylococcus xylosus, Staphylococcus epidermidis, Streptococcus salivarius, Enterococcus faecium, Streptococcus agalactiae and Pseudomonas aeruginosa) than common antimicrobial agents used in veterinary medicine, with Minimum Inhibitory Concentration (MIC) and Minimum Bactericidal Concentration (MBC) values significantly lower, excepted for P. Aeruginosa. The antibacterial activity of EOs has been attributed to the chemical composition of each phyto-complexes, constituted by monoterpenes, sesquiterpenes and their associated alcohols, identified by GC-MS analysis, with a synergic action in the bacterial cells. The results obtained confirmed in vitro antimicrobial activity of these EOs and their potential use in the treatment of sheep mastitis infection.

Essential-Oils-Loaded Biopolymeric Nanoparticles as Strategies for Microbial and Biofilm Control: A Current Status

The emergence of bacterial strains displaying resistance to the currently available antibiotics is a critical global concern. These resilient bacteria can form biofilms that play a pivotal role in the failure of bacterial infection treatments as antibiotics struggle to penetrate all biofilm regions. Consequently, eradicating bacteria residing within biofilms becomes considerably more challenging than their planktonic counterparts, leading to persistent and chronic infections. Among various approaches explored, essential oils loaded in nanoparticles based on biopolymers have emerged, promising strategies that enhance bioavailability and biological activities, minimize side effects, and control release through regulated pharmacokinetics. Different available reviews analyze nanosystems and essential oils; however, usually, their main goal is the analysis of their antimicrobial properties, and progress in biofilm combat is rarely discussed, or it is not the primary objective. This review aims to provide a global vision of biofilm conformation and describes mechanisms of action attributed to each EO. Furthermore, we present a comprehensive overview of the latest developments in biopolymeric nanoparticles research, especially in chitosan- and zein-based nanosystems, targeting multidrug-resistant bacteria in both their sessile and biofilm forms, which will help to design precise strategies for combating biofilms.

Exploring alternative strategies for Staphylococcus aureus nasal decolonization: insights from preclinical studies

Nasal decolonization of Staphylococcus aureus with the antibiotic mupirocin is a common clinical practice before complex surgical procedures, to prevent hospital acquired infections. However, widespread use of mupirocin has led to the development of resistant S. aureus strains and there is a limited scope for developing new antibiotics for S. aureus nasal decolonization. It is therefore necessary to develop alternative and nonantibiotic nasal decolonization methods. In this review, we broadly discussed the effectiveness of different nonantibiotic antimicrobial agents that are currently not in clinical practice, but are experimentally proved to be efficacious in promoting S. aureus nasal decolonization. These include lytic bacteriophages, bacteriolytic enzymes, tea tree oil, apple vinegar, and antimicrobial peptides. We have also discussed the possibility of using photodynamic therapy for S. aureus nasal decolonization. This article highlights the importance of further large scale clinical studies for selecting the most suitable and alternative nasal decolonizing agent.

A terpene synthase supergene locus determines chemotype in Melaleuca alternifolia (tea tree)

Leaf oil terpenes vary categorically in many plant populations, leading to discrete phenotypes of adaptive and economic significance, but for most species, a genetic explanation for the concerted fluctuation in terpene chemistry remains unresolved. To uncover the genetic architecture underlying multi-component terpene chemotypes in Melaleuca alternifolia (tea tree), a genome-wide association study was undertaken for 148 individuals representing all six recognised chemotypes. A number of single nucleotide polymorphisms in a genomic region of c. 400 kb explained large proportions of the variation in key monoterpenes of tea tree oil. The region contained a cluster of 10 monoterpene synthase genes, including four genes predicted to encode synthases for 1,8-cineole, terpinolene, and the terpinen-4-ol precursor, sabinene hydrate. Chemotype-dependent null alleles at some sites suggested structural variants within this gene cluster, providing a possible basis for linkage disequilibrium in this region. Genotyping in a separate domesticated population revealed that all alleles surrounding this gene cluster were fixed after artificial selection for a single chemotype. These observations indicate that a supergene accounts for chemotypes in M. alternifolia. A genetic model with three haplotypes, encompassing the four characterised monoterpene synthase genes, explained the six terpene chemotypes, and was consistent with available biparental cross-segregation data.

Enhanced Antimicrobial Activity through Synergistic Effects of Cold Atmospheric Plasma and Plant Secondary Metabolites: Opportunities and Challenges

The emergence of antibiotic resistant microorganisms possesses a great threat to human health and the environment. Considering the exponential increase in the spread of antibiotic resistant microorganisms, it would be prudent to consider the use of alternative antimicrobial agents or therapies. Only a sustainable, sustained, determined, and coordinated international effort will provide the solutions needed for the future. Plant secondary metabolites show bactericidal and bacteriostatic activity similar to that of conventional antibiotics. However, to effectively eliminate infection, secondary metabolites may need to be activated by heat treatment or combined with other therapies. Cold atmospheric plasma therapy is yet another novel approach that has proven antimicrobial effects. In this review, we explore the physiochemical mechanisms that may give rise to the improved antimicrobial activity of secondary metabolites when combined with cold atmospheric plasma therapy.

Effects of adding tea tree oil on growth performance, immune function, and intestinal function of broilers

The aim of this study was to investigate the effects of adding tea tree oil (TTO) in the basal diet on growth performance, immune function, and intestinal function in broilers. This study utilized 1,650 one-day-old broilers with good health and similar body weight. Subjects were randomized into 5 groups with 6 replicates each: the control group (CON, basal diet), positive control group (PCG, basal diet + 100 mg/kg oregano oil in diet), low-dose TTO group (TTO-L, 50 mg/kg TTO added in the basal diet), medium-dose TTO group (TTO-M, 100 mg/kg TTO added in the basal diet), and high-dose TTO group (TTO-H, 200 mg/kg TTO added in the basal diet). The whole test period lasted 28 d. The results showed that the broilers fed with TTO supplemented diet had significantly higher body weight and average daily gain (ADG) (P = 0.013), and had a lower feed conversion ratio (F/G) (P = 0.010) throughout the trial period. The index of thymus in TTO-M increased significantly compared to CON (P = 0.015) on d 28. On d 14 and 28, C3, IFN-γ, TNF-α, and IL-2 levels in TTO-L serum were significantly increased (P < 0.001); the 3 test groups supplemented with TTO had significantly higher titers of avian influenza H9 subtype in their serum (P < 0.05). Tea tree oil supplement in the diet also had a positive and significant effect on the intestinal morphology of broilers throughout the experiment (P < 0.05). These results indicate that TTO has the ability to promote broiler growth, regulate immunity, and improve intestinal morphology. The proposed dosage of adding 50 mg/kg in broiler basal diets provides a theoretical basis for its subsequent use in livestock feeds.

Utilizing intramammary Melaleuca alternifolia as an organic internal sealant for dry-off therapy in Murrah buffaloes

The effects of intramammary dry cow therapy based on the administration of 5% Melaleuca alternifolia tea tree essential oil (TTO) as an internal teat sealant to Murrah cows were evaluated. A longitudinal prospective and retrospective negative control study was performed using 12 buffaloes from a total of 20 Murrah buffaloes on an organic farm, with the cow used as a control for herself. The minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) and minimum bactericidal concentration (MBC) for treatments with pure oil (TTO) and medication containing 5% TTO (O5) were determined. The buffaloes were clinically examined, and the teats were evaluated using thermography and ultrasound. Udder health was monitored during the first 100 days in milk (DIM) using milk somatic cell count (SCC) and California mastitis test (CMT). Laboratory tests against standard strains Staphylococcus aureus ATCC®25,923™, Escherichia coli ATCC®25,922™, and wild bacterial strains showed maximum MIC values of 50 µL/mL for the TTO and O5 treatments. One wild-type S. aureus strain showed no MBC. No adverse effects were observed after the intramammary application of TTO. The CMT and SCC values were similar (P > 0.05) for all observations. The medication containing 5% TTO was effective in vitro and compatible with the intramammary tissue in vivo of Murrah buffaloes. TTO was safe, not inducing inflammatory processes or other modifications of the teat detectable by thermography or ultrasound. It was able to protect buffaloes during the dry period under field conditions, demonstrating potential use as a teat sealant for organic farms.

Development and Validation of a Gas Chromatography-Mass Spectrometry Method for the Analysis of the Novel Plant-Based Substance with Antimicrobial Activity

The research into new pharmaceutical substances based on essential oils, individual biologically active phytochemicals, and plant extracts is a priority in field of pharmaceutical sciences. A novel multicomponent substance based on Melaleuca alternifolia (M. alternifolia) leaf oil (TTO), 1,8-cineole (eucalyptol), and (-)-α-bisabolol with potent synergetic antimicrobial activity was investigated and suggested for the treatment of seborrheic dermatitis (SD) and dandruff. The objective of this research was to establish and validate a specific, accurate, and precise gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS) method for further quantitative and qualitative analysis in order to ensure quality control. The main parameters of validation were suitability, specificity, linearity, accuracy, and intermediate precision according to the European Pharmacopoeia (XI edition), Russian Pharmacopoeia (XIV edition), and some parameters of ICH requirements. The peaks of fifteen chemical phytoconstituents were identified in the test sample solution with the prevalence of (-)-α-bisabolol (27.67%), 1,8-cineole (25.63%), and terpinen-4-ol (16.98%). These phytochemicals in the novel substance were chosen for standardization and validation of the GC-MS method. The chosen chromatographic conditions were confirmed for testing of the plant-based substance in a suitability test. It was established that the GC-MS method provides a significant separation, symmetry of peaks and resolution between phytochemicals. The calibration curves of each phytochemical had good linearity (R2 > 0.999) in five concentrations. In the same concertation range, the accuracy of terpinen-4-ol, 1,8-cineol, and (-)-α-bisabolol determination using the method of additives was 98.3-101.60%; the relative standard deviation (RSD) ranged from 0.89% to 1.51% and corresponded to requirements. The intraday and interday precision was ≤2.56%. Thus, the GC-MS method was validated to be specific, sensitive, linear, accurate, and precise. This GC-MS method could be recommended as a routine analytic technique for multicomponent plant-based substances-enriched terpenes.

Enhancing the Functional Properties of Tea Tree Oil: In Vitro Antimicrobial Activity and Microencapsulation Strategy

In the context of addressing antimicrobial drug resistance in periocular infections, Tea Tree Oil (TTO) has emerged as a promising therapeutic option. This study aimed to assess the efficacy of TTO against bacterial strains isolated from ocular infections, with a particular focus on its ability to inhibit biofilm formation. Additionally, we designed and analyzed microcapsules containing TTO to overcome certain unfavorable physicochemical properties and enhance its inherent biological attributes. The quality of TTO was confirmed through rigorous analysis using GC-MS and UV-Vis techniques. Our agar diffusion assay demonstrated the effectiveness of Tea Tree Oil (TTO) against ocular bacterial strains, including Corynebacterium spp., coagulase-negative Staphylococcus spp., and Staphylococcus aureus, as well as a reference strain of Staphylococcus aureus (ATCC 25923). Notably, the minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) and minimum bactericidal concentration (MBC) for all tested microorganisms were found to be 0.2% and 0.4%, respectively, with the exception of Corynebacterium spp., which exhibited resistance to TTO. Furthermore, TTO exhibited a substantial reduction in biofilm biomass, ranging from 30% to 70%, as determined by the MTT method. Through the spray-drying technique, we successfully prepared two TTO-containing formulations with high encapsulation yields (80-85%), microencapsulation efficiency (90-95%), and embedding rates (approximately 40%). These formulations yielded microcapsules with diameters of 6-12 μm, as determined by laser scattering particle size distribution analysis, and exhibited regular, spherical morphologies under scanning electron microscopy. Importantly, UV-Vis analysis post-encapsulation confirmed the presence of TTO within the capsules, with preserved antioxidant and antimicrobial activities. In summary, our findings underscore the substantial therapeutic potential of TTO and its microcapsules for treating ocular infections.

Unraveling the evolutionary dynamics of the TPS gene family in land plants

Terpenes and terpenoids are key natural compounds for plant defense, development, and composition of plant oil. The synthesis and accumulation of a myriad of volatile terpenoid compounds in these plants may dramatically alter the quality and flavor of the oils, which provide great commercial utilization value for oil-producing plants. Terpene synthases (TPSs) are important enzymes responsible for terpenic diversity. Investigating the differentiation of the TPS gene family could provide valuable theoretical support for the genetic improvement of oil-producing plants. While the origin and function of TPS genes have been extensively studied, the exact origin of the initial gene fusion event - it occurred in plants or microbes - remains uncertain. Furthermore, a comprehensive exploration of the TPS gene differentiation is still pending. Here, phylogenetic analysis revealed that the fusion of the TPS gene likely occurred in the ancestor of land plants, following the acquisition of individual C- and N- terminal domains. Potential mutual transfer of TPS genes was observed among microbes and plants. Gene synteny analysis disclosed a differential divergence pattern between TPS-c and TPS-e/f subfamilies involved in primary metabolism and those (TPS-a/b/d/g/h subfamilies) crucial for secondary metabolites. Biosynthetic gene clusters (BGCs) analysis suggested a correlation between lineage divergence and potential natural selection in structuring terpene diversities. This study provides fresh perspectives on the origin and evolution of the TPS gene family.

Tea Tree Essential Oil Kills Escherichia coli and Staphylococcus epidermidis Persisters

Persister cells are a small subpopulation of non-growing bacteria within a population that can survive long exposures to antibiotic treatment. Following antibiotic removal, persister cells can regrow and populate, playing a key role in the chronic reoccurrence of bacterial infections. The development of new molecules and methods to kill bacterial persisters is critical. Essential oils and other natural products have long been studied for their antimicrobial effects. Here, we studied the effectiveness of tea tree essential oil (TTO), a common component in many commercial care products, against Escherichia coli and Staphylococcus epidermidis persister cells. Using biphasic kill curve assays, we found that concentrations of 0.5% and 1.0% TTO for E. coli and S. epidermidis, respectively, completely eradicated persister cells over a period of 24 h, with the component terpinen-4-ol responsible for most of the killing. Using a colorimetric assay, it was determined that the TTO exhibited its anti-persister effects through a membrane disruption mechanism.

Polyphenol Analysis via LC-MS-ESI and Potent Antioxidant, Anti-Inflammatory, and Antimicrobial Activities of Jatropha multifida L. Extracts Used in Benin Pharmacopoeia

Jatropha multifida L., a plant from the Euphorbiaceae family, is commonly used in Benin's traditional medicine due to its therapeutic benefits. This study aims to explore the medicinal efficacy of Jatropha multifida L. by evaluating its various biological activities. An initial phytochemical analysis was conducted, following which the polyphenols and flavonoids were quantified and identified using LC-MS-ESI. The antimicrobial efficacy of the extracts was tested using agar diffusion. Their antioxidant capacity was assessed using several methods: DPPH radical reduction, ABTS radical cation reduction, ferric ion (FRAP) reduction, and lipid peroxidation (LPO). Anti-inflammatory activity was determined based on the inhibition of protein (specifically albumin) denaturation. The study identified several phenolic and flavonoid compounds, including 2-Hydroxybenzoic acid, o-Coumaroylquinic acid, Apigenin-apiosyl-glucoside, and luteolin-galactoside. Notably, the extracts of J. multifida demonstrated bactericidal effects against a range of pathogens, with Concentration Minimally Bactericidal (CMB) values ranging from 22.67 mg/mL (for organisms such as S. aureus and C. albicans) to 47.61 mg/mL (for E. coli). Among the extracts, the ethanolic variant displayed the most potent DPPH radical scavenging activity, with an IC50 value of 0.72 ± 0.03 mg/mL. In contrast, the methanolic extract was superior in ferric ion reduction, registering 46.23 ± 1.10 µgEAA/g. Interestingly, the water-ethanolic extract surpassed others in the ABTS reduction method with a score of 0.49 ± 0.11 mol ET/g and also showcased the highest albumin denaturation inhibition rate of 97.31 ± 0.35% at a concentration of 1000 µg/mL. In conclusion, the extracts of Jatropha multifida L. are enriched with bioactive compounds that exhibit significant biological activities, underscoring their therapeutic potential.

Emerging Insights into the Applicability of Essential Oils in the Management of Acne Vulgaris

The occurrence of pustules, comedones, nodules, and cysts defines acne vulgaris, a prevalent chronic inflammatory dermatological condition. In the past few decades, essential oils extracted from varied natural sources have acquired recognition due to their potential medicinal applications in acne therapy. However, there is not yet sufficient medical data to fully characterize this interaction. Multiple factors contribute to the development of acne vulgaris, including excessive sebaceous production, inflammatory processes, hyperkeratinization, and infection with Cutibacterium acnes. Essential oils, including oregano, lavender, lemon grass, myrtle, lemon, thyme, eucalyptus, rosemary, and tea tree, have been found to possess anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, and antimicrobial properties, which may target the multifactorial causes of acne. Analytical methods for determining antioxidant potential (i.e., total phenolic content, diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl free radical scavenging assay, reducing power assay, ferrous ion chelating activity, thiobarbituric acid reactive species assay, β-carotene bleaching assay, etc.) are essential for the evaluation of these essential oils, and their method optimization is crucial. Further studies could include the development of novel acne treatments incorporating essential oils and an assessment of their efficacy in large clinical trials. In addition, further research is necessary to ascertain the mechanisms of action of essential oils and their optimal doses and safety profiles for optimal implementation in the management of acne vulgaris.

Deciphering the Broad Antimicrobial Activity of Melaleuca alternifolia Tea Tree Oil by Combining Experimental and Computational Investigations

Tea Tree Oil (TTO) is an essential oil obtained from the distillation of Melaleuca alternifolia leaves and branches. Due to its beneficial properties, TTO is widely used as an active ingredient in antimicrobial preparations for topical use or in cosmetic products and contains about 100 different compounds, with terpinen-4-ol, γ-terpinene and 1,8-cineole (or eucalyptol) being the molecules most responsible for its biological activities. In this work, the antimicrobial activity of whole TTO and these three major components was evaluated in vitro against fungi, bacteria and viruses. Molecular dynamics simulations were carried out on a bacterial membrane model and a Coxsackievirus B4 viral capsid, to propose an atomistic explanation of their mechanism of action. The obtained results indicate that the strong antimicrobial activity of TTO is attributable to the induction of an altered membrane functionality, mediated by the incorporation of its components within the lipid bilayer, and to a possible ability of the compounds to bind and alter the structural properties of the viral capsid.

Exploring the antibacterial potential of plant extracts and essential oils against Bacillus thermophilus in beet sugar for enhanced sucrose retention: a comparative assessment and implications

Sugar beet is one of the greatest sources for producing sugar worldwide. However, a group of bacteria grows on beets during the storage process, leading to a reduction in sucrose yield. Our study focused on identifying common bacterial species that grow on beets during manufacturing and contribute to sucrose loss. The ultimate goal was to find a potential antibacterial agent from various plant extracts and oils to inhibit the growth of these harmful bacteria and reduce sucrose losses. The screening of bacterial species that grow on beet revealed that a large group of mesophilic bacteria, such as Bacillus subtilis, Leuconostoc mesenteroides, Pseudomonas fluorescens, Escherichia coli, Acinetobacter baumannii, Staphylococcus xylosus, Enterobacter amnigenus, and Aeromonas species, in addition to a dominant thermophilic species called Bacillus thermophilus, were found to be present during the manufacturing of beets. The application of 20 plant extracts and 13 different oils indicated that the extracts of Geranium gruinum, Datura stramonium, and Mentha spicata were the best antibacterials to reduce the growth of B. thermophilus with inhibition zones equal to 40, 39, and 35 mm, respectively. In contrast, the best active oils for inhibiting the growth of B. thermophilus were Mentha spicata and Ocimum bacilicum, with an inhibitory effect of 50 and 45 mm, respectively. RAPD-PCR with different primers indicated that treating sugar juice with the most effective oils against bacteria resulted in new recombinant microorganisms, confirming their roles as strong antibacterial products. The characterization of Mentha spicata and Ocimum bacilicum oils using GC/MS analysis identified cis-iso pulegone and hexadecanoic acid as the two main bioactive compounds with potential antibacterial activity. An analysis of five genes using DD-PCR that have been affected due to antibacterial activity from the highly effective oil from Mentha spicata concluded that all belonged to the family of protein defense. Our findings indicate that the application of these pure antibacterial plant extracts and oils would minimize the reduction of sucrose during sugar production.

A Sustained-Release Nanosystem with MRSA Biofilm-Dispersing and -Eradicating Abilities Accelerates Diabetic Ulcer Healing

Introduction

Drug-resistant bacterial infections and biofilm formation play important roles in the pathogenesis of diabetic refractory wounds. Tea tree oil (TTO) exhibits antimicrobial, antimycotic, and antiviral activities, especially against common clinically resistant strains, such as methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA), making it a potential natural antimicrobial for the treatment of acute and chronic wounds. However, TTO is insoluble in water, volatile, light-sensitive, and cytotoxic. While previous macroscopic studies have focused on sterilization with TTO, none have sought to alter its structure or combine it with other materials to achieve sustained release.

Methods

Electrospun TTO nanoliposomes (TTO-NLs), arranged linearly via high-pressure homogenization, could stabilize the structure and performance of TTO to achieve slow drug release. Herein, we established a composite nano-sustained release system, TTO-NL/polyvinyl alcohol/chitosan (TTO-NL@PCS), using high-voltage electrospinning.

Results

Compared with the control, TTO-NL@PCS exhibits higher concentrations of the active TTO drug components, terpinen-4-ol and 1,8-cineole. Owing to its increased stability and slow release, early exposure to TTO-NL@PCS increases the abundance of reactive oxygen species in vitro, ultimately causing the biofilm to disperse and completely killing MRSA without inducing cytotoxic effects to the host. Moreover, in BKS-Leprem2Cd479/Gpt mice with a whole-layer skin infection, untargeted metabolomics analysis of wound exudates reveals upregulated PGF2α/FP receptor signaling and interleukin (IL)-1β and IL-6 expression following application of the composite system. The composite also ameliorates the chemotaxis disorder in early treatment and attenuates the wound inflammatory response during the repair stage of diabetic inflammatory wounds, and upregulates VEGF expression in the wound bed.

Conclusion

TTO-NL@PCS demonstrates the remarkable potential for accelerating diabetic and MRSA-infected wound healing.

The synergy of tea tree oil nano-emulsion and antibiotics against multidrug-resistant bacteria

AIMS

We determined the synergistic effects of tea tree essential oil nano-emulsion (nanoTTO) and antibiotics against multidrug-resistant (MDR) bacteria in vitro and in vivo. Then, the underlying mechanism of action of nanoTTO was investigated.

METHODS AND RESULTS

Minimum inhibitory concentrations and fractional inhibitory concentration index (FICI) were determined. The transepithelial electrical resistance (TEER) and the expression of tight junction (TJ) protein of IPEC-J2 cells were measured to determine the in vitro efficacy of nanoTTO in combination with antibiotics. A mouse intestinal infection model evaluated the in vivo synergistic efficacy. Proteome, adhesion assays, quantitative real-time PCR, and scanning electron microscopy were used to explore the underlying mechanisms. Results showed that nanoTTO was synergistic (FICI ≤ 0.5) or partial synergistic (0.5 < FICI < 1) with antibiotics against MDR Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria strains. Moreover, combinations increased the TEER values and the TJ protein expression of IPEC-J2 cells infected with MDR Escherichia coli. The in vivo study showed that the combination of nanoTTO and amoxicillin improved the relative weight gain and maintained the structural integrity of intestinal barriers. Proteome showed that type 1 fimbriae d-mannose specific adhesin of E. coli was downregulated by nanoTTO. Then, nanoTTO reduced bacterial adhesion and invasion and inhibited the mRNA expression of fimC, fimG, and fliC, and disrupted bacterial membranes.

From the Bush to the Brain: Preclinical Stages of Ethnobotanical Anti-Inflammatory and Neuroprotective Drug Discovery-An Australian Example

The Australian rainforest is a rich source of medicinal plants that have evolved in the face of dramatic environmental challenges over a million years due to its prolonged geographical isolation from other continents. The rainforest consists of an inherent richness of plant secondary metabolites that are the most intense in the rainforest. The search for more potent and more bioavailable compounds from other plant sources is ongoing, and our short review will outline the pathways from the discovery of bioactive plants to the structural identification of active compounds, testing for potency, and then neuroprotection in a triculture system, and finally, the validation in an appropriate neuro-inflammatory mouse model, using some examples from our current research. We will focus on neuroinflammation as a potential treatment target for neurodegenerative diseases including multiple sclerosis (MS), Parkinson's (PD), and Alzheimer's disease (AD) for these plant-derived, anti-inflammatory molecules and highlight cytokine suppressive anti-inflammatory drugs (CSAIDs) as a better alternative to conventional nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) to treat neuroinflammatory disorders.

TFOS Lifestyle: Impact of elective medications and procedures on the ocular surface

The word "elective" refers to medications and procedures undertaken by choice or with a lower grade of prioritization. Patients usually use elective medications or undergo elective procedures to treat pathologic conditions or for cosmetic enhancement, impacting their lifestyle positively and, thus, improving their quality of life. However, those interventions can affect the homeostasis of the tear film and ocular surface. Consequently, they generate signs and symptoms that could impair the patient's quality of life. This report describes the impact of elective topical and systemic medications and procedures on the ocular surface and the underlying mechanisms. Moreover, elective procedures performed for ocular diseases, cosmetic enhancement, and non-ophthalmic interventions, such as radiotherapy and bariatric surgery, are discussed. The report also evaluates significant anatomical and biological consequences of non-urgent interventions to the ocular surface, such as neuropathic and neurotrophic keratopathies. Besides that, it provides an overview of the prophylaxis and management of pathological conditions resulting from the studied interventions and suggests areas for future research. The report also contains a systematic review investigating the quality of life among people who have undergone small incision lenticule extraction (SMILE). Overall, SMILE refractive surgery seems to cause more vision disturbances than LASIK in the first month post-surgery, but less dry eye symptoms in long-term follow up.

Tea Tree Oil: Properties and the Therapeutic Approach to Acne-A Review

Acne vulgaris is an inflammatory dermatological pathology that affects mostly young people. However, it can also appear in adulthood, mainly in women. It has a high psychosocial impact, not only at the time of active lesions but also due to the consequences of lesions such as scarring and hyperpigmentation. Several factors are involved in the physiopathology of acne and the constant search for active ingredients is a reality, namely phytotherapeutic ingredients. Tea tree oil is an essential oil extracted from Melaleuca alternifolia (Maiden & Betch) Cheel with known antibacterial, anti-inflammatory, and antioxidant properties, making it a candidate for the treatment of acne. This review aims to describe the various properties of tea tree oil that make it a possible ingredient to use in the treatment of acne and to present several human studies that have evaluated the efficacy and safety of using tea tree oil in the treatment of acne. It can be concluded that tea tree oil has good antibacterial, anti-inflammatory, and antioxidant properties that result in a decrease in the number of inflammatory lesions, mainly papules, and pustules. However, given the diversity of study designs, it is not possible to draw concrete conclusions on the efficacy and safety of this oil in the treatment of acne.

Antifungal Potential of Melaleuca alternifolia against Fungal Pathogen Fusarium oxysporum f. sp. cubense Tropical Race 4

Fusarium wilt of bananas caused by Fusarium oxysporum f. sp. cubense Tropical Race 4 (Foc TR4) poses the most serious threat to banana production globally. The disease has been managed using chemical fungicides, yet the control levels are still unsatisfactory. This study investigated the antifungal activities of tea tree (Melaleuca alternifolia) essential oil (TTO) and hydrosol (TTH) against Foc TR4 and their bioactive components. The potential of TTO and TTH in inhibiting the growth of Foc TR4 was evaluated in vitro using agar well diffusion and spore germination assays. Compared to the chemical fungicide, TTO effectively suppressed the mycelial growth of Foc TR4 at 69%. Both the minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) and minimum fungicidal concentration (MFC) of TTO and TTH were established at 0.2 µg/µL and 50% v/v, respectively, suggesting the fungicidal nature of the plant extracts. The disease control efficacies were also demonstrated by a (p ≤ 0.05) delayed Fusarium wilt symptom development in the susceptible banana plants with reduced LSI dan RDI scores from 70% to around 20-30%. A GC/MS analysis of TTO identified terpinen-4-ol, eucalyptol, and α-terpineol as the major components. In contrast, an LC/MS analysis of TTH identified different compounds, including dihydro-jasmonic acid and methyl ester. Our findings indicate the potential of tea tree extracts as natural alternatives to chemical fungicides to control Foc TR4.

In vitro evaluation of multiple antibacterial agents for the treatment of chronic staphylococcal anterior blepharitis

OBJECTIVE

To evaluate the bactericidal efficacy of several compounds used in the treatment of chronic staphylococcal anterior blepharitis through an in vitro study.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Standard commercial strains of Staphylococcus aureus (SAu) (ATCC 25923 Culti-Loops) and coagulase-negative Staphylococcus (CoNS) (ATCC 12228 Culti-Loops) were cultured. Susceptibility tests were performed to vancomycin 30 μg, netilmicin 30 μg, hypochlorous acid (HOCl) 0.01% (Ocudox™, Brill®), Melaleuca alternifolia leaf oil (MeAl) (Navyblef® Daily Care, NOVAX ®) and 1% chlorhexidine digluconate (DGCH) (Cristalmina™, Salvat®) using the agar disk diffusion method (Rosco Neo-Sensitabs®). After 24 hours, the induced halos were measured with automatic calipers. The results were analyzed using the EUCAST- and CLSI potency Neo-Sensitabs® guidelines.

RESULTS

Vancomycin induced a halo of 22.37 mm and 21.81 mm in SAu and CoNS, respectively. Netilmicin produced halos of 24.45 mm in SAu and 32.49 mm in CoNS. MeAl induced halos of 12.65 mm in SAu and 15.83 mm in CoNS. A 12.11 mm halo was found in SAu and an 18.38 mm halo in CoNS using HOCl. DGCH produced halos of 26.55 mm and 23.12 mm in SAu and CoNS, respectively.

CONCLUSION

Netilmicin and vancomycin demonstrated antibiotic activity against both pathogens, so they can be alternative rescue therapies to treat chronic staphylococcal blepharitis. DGCH has efficacy against both comparable to antibiotics, while HOCl and MeAl show less efficacy.

The Role of Natural Compounds in Optimizing Contemporary Dental Treatment-Current Status and Future Trends

For a long period of time, natural remedies were the only ailment available for a multitude of diseases, and they have proven effective even after the emergence of modern medicine. Due to their extremely high prevalence, oral and dental disorders and anomalies are recognized as major public health concerns. Herbal medicine is the practice of using plants with therapeutic characteristics for the purpose of disease prevention and treatment. Herbal agents have made a significant entry into oral care products in recent years, complementing traditional treatment procedures due to their intriguing physicochemical and therapeutic properties. There has been a resurgence of interest in natural products because of recent updates, technological advancements, and unmet expectations from current strategies. Approximately eighty percent of the world's population uses natural remedies, especially in poorer nations. When conventional treatments have failed, it may make sense to use natural drugs for the treatment of pathologic oral dental disorders, as they are readily available, inexpensive, and have few negative effects. The purpose of this article is to provide a comprehensive analysis of the benefits and applications of natural biomaterials in dentistry, to gather relevant information from the medical literature with an eye toward its practical applicability, and make suggestions for the directions for future study.

HPTLC Analysis and Chemical Composition of Selected Melaleuca Essential Oils

Tea tree oil (TTO) is a volatile essential oil obtained by distillation, mainly from the Australian native plant Melaleuca alternifolia (Maiden & Betche) Cheel (Myrtaceae). In this study, a comparative analysis of the chemical constituents of seven tea tree oils (M. alternifolia) and four other Melaleuca spp. oils (M. cajuputi, (M_Ca), two chemotypes of M. quinquenervia, (M_Ne and M_Ni), and M. ericifolia (M_Ro)) was carried out using gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS) and high-performance thin-layer chromatography (HPTLC). Among the seven TTOs, terpinen-4-ol (37.66-44.28%), γ-terpinene (16.42-20.75%), α-terpinene (3.47-12.62%), α-terpineol (3.11-4.66%), and terpinolene (2.75-4.19%) were the most abundant compounds. On the other hand, the most abundant compounds of the other Melaleuca oils varied, such as 1,8-cineole (64.63%) in M_Ca oil, (E)-nerolidol (48.40%) and linalool (33.30%) in M_Ne oil, 1,8-cineole (52.20%) in M_Ni oil, and linalool (38.19%) and 1,8-cineole (27.57%) in M_Ro oil. HPTLC fingerprinting of Melaleuca oils enabled the discrimination of TTO oils from other Melaleuca spp. oils. Variation was observed in the profile of the R_f values among EOs. The present study shows that HPTLC is one of the best ways to identify and evaluate the quality control in authenticating TTOs, other Melaleuca EOs, or EOs from other species within the Myrtaceae.

Synergistic Inhibition of Methicillin-Resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) by Melaleuca alternifolia Chell (Tea Tree) and Eucalyptus globulus Labill. Essential Oils in Association with Oxacillin

The presence of antibiotic-resistant bacteria has become a major therapeutic priority. This trend indicates the need for alternative agents to antibiotics, such as natural compounds of plant origin. By assessing membrane permeability, we investigated the antimicrobial activity of Melaleuca alternifolia and Eucalyptus globulus essential oils (EOs) against three strains of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA). Using the checkerboard method, the efficacy of single EOs, in association with each other or in combination with oxacillin, was quantified by calculating the fractional inhibitory concentrations (FIC Index). All EOs showed a reduction in bacterial load, an alteration of membrane permeability which leads to an increase in its function, resulting in the release of nucleic acids and proteins. The treatment with EO-oxacillin combinations and associated EO-EO resulted in a synergistic effect in most of the tests performed. EO-EO association showed a high activity in the alteration of the membrane, increasing the permeability to about 80% in all the MRSA strains treated. In conclusion, the combination of EOs and antibiotics represents a valid therapeutic support against MRSA bacteria, allowing for a decrease in the antibiotic concentration needed for therapeutic use.

Comparison of the effect of tea tree oil eye gel with standard treatment in patients with anterior blepharitis: An open-label clinical trial

Purpose

Daily cleansing of eyelids is very important to carry out a successful blepharitis treatment. However, there are no therapeutic guidelines for blepharitis. The aim was to compare the symptomatic relief of anterior blepharitis using Blephamed eye gel, a cosmetic product, versus standard treatment.

Methods

The study was a prospective, interventional open label clinical trial at a university-based hospital. The test population was subjects aged 18-65 years who presented with mild to moderate anterior blepharitis. Eyelid hygiene was applied twice a day. At each visit, a detailed assessment of symptomatology was carried out. A two-way repeated measure mixed model ANOVA was used to compare two groups by time.

Results

In total, 61 patients with mean age of 60.08 ± 16.69 years were enrolled in the study including 30 patients in standard group and 31 patients in Blephamed group. Two groups did not differ in terms of age (P = 0.31) and eye laterality (P = 0.50). The baseline scores of erythema, edema, debris, and symptoms as well as total score were similar between two groups (all P values >0.50). Two groups became different for all these parameters at day 45 (all P values <0.001). Significant interaction was detected between time and intervention groups for all severity parameters of blepharitis as well as total score (all P values <0.001).

Conclusion

Eyelid hygiene with Blephamed more significantly decreased symptoms of anterior blepharitis compared to standard treatment.

Optimizing the Antimicrobial Synergism of Melaleuca alternifolia (Tea Tree) Essential Oil Combinations for Application against Respiratory Related Pathogens

Antimicrobial research into the use of Melaleuca alternifolia essential oil has demonstrated broad-spectrum activity; however, much of the research published focuses on identifying the potential of this essential oil individually, rather than in combination for an enhanced antimicrobial effect. This study aimed to determine the antimicrobial activity of four essential oil combinations, all inclusive of M. alternifolia, against nine pathogens associated with the respiratory tract. The minimum inhibitory concentration assay was used to determine the antimicrobial activity of four essential oil combinations, M. alternifolia in combination with Cupressus sempervirens, Origanum majorana, Myrtus communis, and Origanum vulgare essential oils. The interactions between essential oil combinations were analyzed using isobolograms and SynergyFinder 2.0 software to visualize the synergistic potential at varied ratios. The antimicrobial activity of the different combinations of essential oils all demonstrated the ability to produce an enhanced antimicrobial effect compared to the essential oils when investigated independently. The findings of this study determined that isobolograms provide a more in-depth analysis of an essential oil combination interaction; however, the value of that interaction should be further quantified using computational modelling such as SynergyFinder. This study further supports the need for more studies where varied ratios of essential oils are investigated for antimicrobial potential.

Pharmacologic effects approach of essential oils and their components on respiratory diseases

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Essential oils (EOs) are concentrated hydrophobic liquids with volatility and a unique aroma. Formed by aromatic plants as secondary metabolites, EOs have been used as traditional medicines to treat various health problems worldwide. Historical records show that herbs rich in EOs have been widely used to treat respiratory diseases in China, Europe, and many other regions.

AIM OF THE REVIEW

This review summarizes the traditional applications and modern pharmacological mechanisms of EOs derived from aromatic herbs and their active ingredients in respiratory diseases in preclinical and clinical trials through multitarget synergy.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Information about EOs and respiratory diseases was collected from electronic databases, such as ScienceDirect, Web of Science, PubMed, Google Scholar, Baidu Scholar, and the China National Knowledge Infrastructure (CNKI).

RESULTS

This review presents the preventive and therapeutic effects of EOs on respiratory diseases, including chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, bronchial asthma, acute lung injury, pulmonary infection, and pulmonary fibrosis. The molecular mechanisms of EOs in treating different lung diseases are summarized, including anti-inflammation, anti-oxidation, mucolytic, and immune regulatory mechanisms.

CONCLUSIONS

EOs show potential as supplements or substitutes for treating lung diseases.

The healing effect of topical tea tree oil on pressure ulcers in a rat model

Objective: The effects of topical tea tree oil (TTO) on the healing of pressure ulcers (PUs) in an animal model was evaluated. Method: To induce PUs, ischaemia-reperfusion cycles were performed by the external application of magnetic plates, with an ischaemic period of eight hours and a reperfusion period of 16 hours. Male and female Wistar rats were divided into three equally sized groups (n=20): one group received topical glycerin twice daily, another group received topical 10% (volume/volume (v/v)) TTO in glycerin twice daily; and the remaining group was untreated. The animals were assessed after one, four, seven and 14 cycles of ischaemia-reperfusion by thermal camera imaging, and then euthanised and sampled to investigate the degree of inflammation, collagen synthesis and apoptosis in the PUs. Results: Although topical glycerin alone suppressed local inflammation and apoptosis, this suppressive effect was accentuated at all timepoints by the application of topical TTO + glycerin. Similarly, an increase in collagen synthesis was observed in the glycerin group and this was accentuated by TTO at all timepoints. Parallel to the histological findings, the local temperature had decreased significantly on days 4 and 7 for both treatment groups (glycerin and TTO+glycerin). Conclusion: In this study, treatment with 10% (v/v) TTO in glycerin effectively suppressed skin inflammation and apoptosis, while it increased collagen synthesis during PU formation.

The healing effect of topical tea tree oil on pressure ulcers in a rat model

Objective: The effects of topical tea tree oil (TTO) on the healing of pressure ulcers (PUs) in an animal model was evaluated. Method: To induce PUs, ischaemia-reperfusion cycles were performed by the external application of magnetic plates, with an ischaemic period of eight hours and a reperfusion period of 16 hours. Male and female Wistar rats were divided into three equally sized groups (n=20): one group received topical glycerin twice daily, another group received topical 10% (volume/volume (v/v)) TTO in glycerin twice daily; and the remaining group was untreated. The animals were assessed after one, four, seven and 14 cycles of ischaemia-reperfusion by thermal camera imaging, and then euthanised and sampled to investigate the degree of inflammation, collagen synthesis and apoptosis in the PUs. Results: Although topical glycerin alone suppressed local inflammation and apoptosis, this suppressive effect was accentuated at all timepoints by the application of topical TTO + glycerin. Similarly, an increase in collagen synthesis was observed in the glycerin group and this was accentuated by TTO at all timepoints. Parallel to the histological findings, the local temperature had decreased significantly on days 4 and 7 for both treatment groups (glycerin and TTO+glycerin). Conclusion: In this study, treatment with 10% (v/v) TTO in glycerin effectively suppressed skin inflammation and apoptosis, while it increased collagen synthesis during PU formation.

Evaluating the efficacy of internal teat sealants at dry-off for the prevention of new intra-mammary infections during the dry-period or clinical mastitis during early lactation in dairy cows: A systematic review update and sequential meta-analysis

A systematic review and Bayesian sequential pair-wise meta-analyses were conducted to assess the efficacy of internal teat sealants (ITS) administered at dry-off in comparison to no treatment for preventing new intramammary infections (IMI) and clinical mastitis (CM) in dairy cattle. This work updated a previous systematic review and network meta-analysis conducted in 2019 but employed a narrowed scope and eligibility. The updated eligibility included studies that used ITS without concurrent therapy compared to a no treatment control (NTC), a study population of dairy cows or prepartum heifers, controlled trial design, and assessed one of the following outcomes: incidence of new IMI at calving or CM during the first 30 days in milk (DIM). Risk of bias was assessed through the Cochrane Risk of Bias 2.0 tool. Evidence quality was assessed using Grading of Recommendations Assessment, Development, and Evaluation (GRADE). There were 141 potentially relevant records identified from the updated search conducted on April 29, 2021, with a publication date restriction of 2018 or later; one study passed full-text screening and was included. Of the 32 studies included in the previous review, 12 studies were relevant after applying the modified eligibility criteria, totaling 13 studies included in this review (12 addressing IMI at calving outcome, 4 addressing CM at 30 DIM outcome). Sequential meta-analysis was conducted for both outcomes in R 3.6.0. Decisions for stopping were assessed at each analysis for intervention effect or futility in finding an effect based on a priori minimum clinically relevant values (OR_δ =0.5, 0.75). ITS at dry-off significantly reduced odds of new IMI at calving compared to NTC at the second meta-analysis (OR₂ =0.27, 95% CI=0.22-0.34), and onward (OR₁₂ =0.29, 95% CI=0.27-0.32). For CM at 30 DIM, significance was reached at the second meta-analysis (OR₂ =0.59, 95% CI=0.47-0.73), and onward (OR₃ =0.47, 95% CI=0.42-0.51). Stopping for effect occurred at the second analysis in both outcomes and OR_δs, but low-quality evidence and heterogeneity concerns were noted. A continuity-correction to include zero-event CM studies showed significance at the third meta-analysis (OR₃ =0.79, 95% CI=0.73-0.86), stopping for effect at the fourth for OR_δ = 0.75 (OR₄ =0.77, 95% CI=0.72-0.83), and stopping for futility at the second for OR_δ = 0.5 (OR₂ =0.94, 95% CI=0.75-1.20), but the main CM analysis was considered more appropriate due to the sensitivity analysis' very low-quality evidence assessment. Based on sequential evidence available, sufficient research currently exists for practical use, and cessation of future research until substantial changes to ITS application occur may be appropriate.

The Role of MbEGS1 and MbEGS2 in Methyleugenol Biosynthesis by Melaleuca bracteata

Many aromatic plant volatile compounds contain methyleugenol, which is an attractant for insect pollination and has antibacterial, antioxidant, and other properties. The essential oil of Melaleuca bracteata leaves contains 90.46% methyleugenol, which is an ideal material for studying the biosynthetic pathway of methyleugenol. Eugenol synthase (EGS) is one of the key enzymes involved in the synthesis of methyleugenol. We recently reported two eugenol synthase genes (MbEGS1 and MbEGS2) present in M. bracteata, where MbEGS1 and MbEGS2 were mainly expressed in flowers, followed by leaves, and had the lowest expression levels in stems. In this study, the functions of MbEGS1 and MbEGS2 in the biosynthesis of methyleugenol were investigated using transient gene expression technology and virus-induced gene silencing (VIGS) technology in M. bracteata. Here, in the MbEGSs genes overexpression group, the transcription levels of the MbEGS1 gene and MbEGS2 gene were increased 13.46 times and 12.47 times, respectively, while the methyleugenol levels increased 18.68% and 16.48%. We further verified the function of the MbEGSs genes by using VIGS, as the transcript levels of the MbEGS1 and MbEGS2 genes were downregulated by 79.48% and 90.35%, respectively, and the methyleugenol content in M. bracteata decreased by 28.04% and 19.45%, respectively. The results indicated that the MbEGS1 and MbEGS2 genes were involved in the biosynthesis of methyleugenol, and the transcript levels of the MbEGS1 and MbEGS2 genes correlated with the methyleugenol content in M. bracteata.

Chemical Composition and Antimicrobial Potential of a Plant-Based Substance for the Treatment of Seborrheic Dermatitis

Seborrheic dermatitis (SD) is the most prevalent dermatological disease, occurring in up to 50% of newborns, children, and adults around the world. The antibacterial and antifungal resistance contributed to the search for new natural substances and the development of a novel substance based on Melaleuca alternifolia (M. alternifolia) leaf oil (TTO), 1,8-cineole (eucalyptol), and α-(-)-bisabolol. Thus, this work aimed to determine the chemical composition of the novel plant-based substance and to evaluate its antimicrobial activity against standard microorganisms involved in the pathogenesis of SD. Moreover, the chemical composition of the substance was analyzed by gas chromatography coupled with mass spectrometry (GC/MS). Staphylococcus epidermidis (S. epidermidis), Staphylococcus aureus (S. aureus), Micrococcus luteus (M. luteus), and Candida albicans (C. albicans) were used for antimicrobial and antifungal assays by means of the broth microdilution method to determine the minimal inhibitory concentration (MIC). Finally, the substance’s ability to inhibit Malassezia furfur (M. furfur) was evaluated. Eighteen compounds from different chemical groups were identified by GC/MS. The major biologically active compounds of the substance were terpinen-4-ol (20.88%), 1,8-cineole (22.28%), (-)-α-bisabolol (25.73%), and o-cymene (8.16%). The results showed that the substance has a synergistic antimicrobial and antifungal activity, while S. epidermidis and C. albicans strains were the most susceptible. Furthermore, the substance inhibited M. furfur, which is a main pathogen involved in the pathogenesis of SD and clinical manifestations. It can be concluded that the novel plant-based substance has a promising potential against M. furfur and scalp commensal bacteria and may be helpful for the development of new drugs for treatment of dandruff and SD.

Therapeutic interventions target the NLRP3 inflammasome in ulcerative colitis: Comprehensive study

One of the significant health issues in the world is the prevalence of ulcerative colitis (UC). UC is a chronic disorder that mainly affects the colon, beginning with the rectum, and can progress from asymptomatic mild inflammation to extensive inflammation of the entire colon. Understanding the underlying molecular mechanisms of UC pathogenesis emphasizes the need for innovative therapeutic approaches based on identifying molecular targets. Interestingly, in response to cellular injury, the NLR family pyrin domain containing 3 (NLRP3) inflammasome is a crucial part of the inflammation and immunological reaction by promoting caspase-1 activation and the release of interleukin-1β. This review discusses the mechanisms of NLRP3 inflammasome activation by various signals and its regulation and impact on UC.

Effects of Melaleuca alternifolia Chell (Tea Tree) and Eucalyptus globulus Labill. Essential Oils on Antibiotic-Resistant Bacterial Biofilms

In the present investigation, the anti-biofilm potential of two essential oils (EOs), Melaleuca alternifolia Chell (Tea-Tree) (TTO) and Eucalyptus globulus Labill. (EEO) was characterized and tested "in vitro" against both mature biofilms and biofilms in the process of formation, produced by strains belonging to three main categories of antibiotic resistant bacteria (ARB): Vancomycin-resistant enterococci (VRE), methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) and broad-spectrum β-lactamase-producing Escherichia coli (ESBL). The study was carried out in 96-well microtiter-plates using EOs alone, in association with each other and in combination with antibiotics against both single and multi-species biofilm. The study demonstrated the ability of TTO and EEO to counteract the ARB strains in sessile form, with promising results in particular against the biofilm in formation. Mature biofilm by ESBL E. coli was the most sensitive in the results from the quantification study of viable cells performed in multi-species biofilms. Lastly, in all tests, carried out using TTO/EEO associations and EOs/antibiotic combinations, the synergistic effect which emerged from the FIC-index has been confirmed, and both the reduction of biofilm in formation, and the removal of mature structure was obtained at very low concentrations, with values from 4 to >512-fold lower than the minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) of the single compounds.

Antimicrobial Natural Hydrogels in Biomedicine: Properties, Applications, and Challenges-A Concise Review

Natural hydrogels are widely used as biomedical materials in many areas, including drug delivery, tissue scaffolds, and particularly wound dressings, where they can act as an antimicrobial factor lowering the risk of microbial infections, which are serious health problems, especially with respect to wound healing. In this review article, a number of promising strategies in the development of hydrogels with biocidal properties, particularly those originating from natural polymers, are briefly summarized and concisely discussed. Common strategies to design and fabricate hydrogels with intrinsic or stimuli-triggered antibacterial activity are exemplified, and the mechanisms lying behind these properties are also discussed. Finally, practical antibacterial applications are also considered while discussing the current challenges and perspectives.

The Role of Essential Oils in Homemade Cosmetics: A Study of 140 Recipes

Two recent trends that have developed simultaneously are a mistrust of health products by some of the population and the growing popularity of essential oils. The objective of this study was to analyze recipes with essential oils found on the internet and to assess their level of photoprotective efficacy. Therefore, we conducted a study of 140 recipes for personal care and hygiene products that incorporate one or more essential oils. This analysis revealed that numerous essential oils are called for in these recipes, derived from plants belonging to a wide diversity of botanical families. There was a significant difference (p=0.0026) in the number of essential oils listed in the recipes for facial care and body care recipes. There was also a statistically significant difference (p=2.54E-5) in the amount of essential oil to be added, expressed in drops, according to the type of product being made. A common characteristic of most of the recipes was the absence of any antimicrobial agents or antioxidants, which poses serious issues of preservation for the finished products. Recipes with essential oils pose many issues. The first issue lies in the quantities of the different raw materials to be incorporated; it influences the final essential oil concentration. The second issue concerns the adverse effects (photosensitization, for example) and contraindications (pregnant women, nursing women) of certain essential oils. Finally, it is not possible to carry out physicochemical testing raw materials and finish preparation.

Cosmetic Formulations with Melaleuca alternifolia Essential Oil for the Improvement of Photoaged Skin: A Double-Blind, Randomized, Placebo-Controlled Clinical Study

This aim of this study was to evaluate the penetration depth, antioxidant capacity and the clinical efficacy of Melaleuca alternifolia pure essential oil and in a nanoemulsion to prevent skin photoaging. For this, 2% of pure essential oil or 2% of this essential oil in a nanoemulsion were vehiculated in a formulation. The skin penetration was evaluated using confocal Raman microspectroscopy. The radical protection factor was evaluated using electron paramagnetic resonance spectroscopy. For a clinical study, 40 male participants, aged 18-28 years, were enrolled, being divided into three groups: vehicle formulation, M. alternifolia pure essential oil and M. alternifolia Nanoemulsion. All the participants also received a sunscreen SPF 50 to use during the day. Before and after 90 days of study, skin hydrolipidics and morphological characteristics were performed by skin imaging and biophysical techniques. The nanoemulsion presented a lower antioxidant capacity and a higher penetration through the stratum corneum, reaching the viable epidermis, improving the stratum granulosum morphology. The groups presented an increase in the papillary depth, improving in the dermis echogenicity and the collagen fibers. Melaleuca alternifolia essential provides the potential to improve photoaged skin, being the application of nanoemulsion able to reach deeper skin layers.

Complementary and alternative medicine for alopecia areata: A systematic review

BACKGROUND

Despite high use of complementary and alternative medicine (CAM) for alopecia areata (AA), efficacy and safety remain unclear.

OBJECTIVE

To identify all CAM therapies studied for treatment of AA. Outcomes of interest included disease course and psychologic well-being.

METHODS

PubMed and Embase were searched to identify English articles containing original data investigating CAM in individuals with AA from 1950-2018. Quality was assessed with Oxford Centre for Evidence Based Medicine criteria.

RESULTS

Of 1015 initial citations, 16 articles met inclusion criteria: 5 randomized controlled trials, 5 prospective controlled cohorts, 4 prospective noncontrolled cohorts, 1 retrospective cohort, and 1 case series. CAM therapies with best evidence and efficacy for hair growth in AA include essential oil aromatherapy, topical garlic, and oral glucosides of peony with compound glycyrrhizin. Hypnosis and mindfulness psychotherapy represent low-quality evidence for improvement of psychologic and quality of life outcomes. Adverse events were rare and mild for all therapies evaluated.

LIMITATIONS

Inconsistent or poorly reported study methodology and nonstandardized outcomes limit the conclusions that can be made from these studies.

CONCLUSIONS

This work serves to inform physician treatment of patients with AA seeking CAM while encouraging further investigation into these therapies to address some of the therapeutic challenges of AA.

Enhanced antimicrobial and antioxidant capacity of Thymus vulgaris, Lippia sidoides, and Cymbopogon citratus emulsions when combined with mannosylerythritol a lipid biosurfactant

Essential oils (EOs) are natural and effective agents for controlling microorganisms which cause biodeterioration and disease. However, their application is hampered/restricted due to hydrophobicity and rapid vaporization of these compounds. Encapsulation technology provides an effective approach to maintain EO stabilization and prevent the loss of volatile ingredients. Meanwhile, using a synthetic surfactant is seen as counter-productive; therefore, a natural biosurfactant is more reasonable and can potentially increase activity due to its other biological proprieties. This work aims to evaluate the mannosylerythritol lipid (MEL) biosurfactant combined with Thymus vulgaris, Lippia sidoides, and Cymbopogon citratus essential oil emulsions (O/W) and evaluate its antimicrobial and antioxidant capacity. The biosurfactant MEL demonstrated activity against Bacillus subtilis and Penicillium sp. After emulsification, the antimicrobial activity of Thymus vulgaris and Lippia sidoides was increased against Escherichia coli (500 µg/mL), Staphylococcus aureus (600 µg/mL), Bacillus subtilis (120 µg/mL), Pseudomonas aeruginosa (1500 µg/mL), Penicillium sp. (62.25 µg/mL), Aspergillus flavus (250 µg/mL), Fusarium oxysporum (100 and 250 µg/mL), and Candida albicans (125 and 250 µg/mL). We report that emulsions prepared with MEL have high inhibitory activity, maintain the active concentration, and increase antioxidant capacity by 7.33% (Thymus vulgaris), 13.71% (Lippia sidoides), and 3.15% (Cymbopogon citratus).

Efficacy and safety of Melaleuca alternifolia (tea tree) oil for human health-A systematic review of randomized controlled trials

Introduction: Leaves of the Australian tea tree plant Melaleuca alternifolia were used traditionally by First Nations Australians for treating wounds, burns, and insect bites. Tea tree oil, the essential oil steam-distilled from M. alternifolia, is well-known for its medicinal properties, the evidence for most applications however is limited. This review aimed to critically appraise evidence from clinical trials examining the therapeutic efficacy and safety of tea tree oil on outcomes. Methods: Randomized controlled trials with participants of any age, gender, or health status, comparing tea tree oil to any control were included, without limit on publication date. Electronic databases were searched on 12 August 2022 with additional records sourced from article reference sections, reviews, and industry white papers. Risk of bias was assessed by two authors independently using the Cochrane risk-of-bias 1.0 tool. Results were summarized and synthesized thematically. Results: Forty-six articles were eligible from the following medical fields (Dentistry n = 18, Dermatology n = 9, Infectious disease n = 9, Ophthalmology n = 6, Podiatry n = 3; and Other n = 1). Results indicate that oral mouthwashes with 0.2%-0.5% tea tree oil may limit accumulation of dental plaque. Gels containing 5% tea tree oil applied directly to the periodontium may aid treatment of periodontitis as an adjunctive therapy to scaling and root planing. More evidence is needed to confirm the benefits of tea tree oil for reducing acne lesions and severity. Local anti-inflammatory effects on skin, if any, also require further elucidation. Topical tea tree oil regimens show similar efficacy to standard treatments for decolonizing the body from methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus, although intra-nasal use of tea tree oil may cause irritation to mucous membranes. Tea tree oil with added iodine may provide an effective treatment for molluscum contagiosum lesions in young children. More evidence on efficacy of tea tree oil-based eyelid wipes for Demodex mite control are needed. Side effects were reported in 60% of included studies and were minor, except where tea tree oil was applied topically in concentrations ≥ 25%. Discussion: Overall, the quality of research was poor to modest and higher quality trials with larger samples and better reporting are required to substantiate potential therapeutic applications of tea tree oil. Systematic Review Registration: PROSPERO, identifier [CRD42021285168].