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Peng Y, Qiao S, Wang H, Shekhar S, Wang S, Yang J, Fan Y, Yang X. Enhancement of Macrophage Immunity against Chlamydial Infection by Natural Killer T Cells. Cells 2024; 13:133. [PMID: 38247825 PMCID: PMC10813948 DOI: 10.3390/cells13020133] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/15/2023] [Revised: 12/13/2023] [Accepted: 01/08/2024] [Indexed: 01/23/2024] Open
Abstract
Lung macrophage (LM) is vital in host defence against bacterial infections. However, the influence of other innate immune cells on its function, including the polarisation of different subpopulations, remains poorly understood. This study examined the polarisation of LM subpopulations (monocytes/undifferentiated macrophages (Mo/Mφ), interstitial macrophages (IM), and alveolar macrophages (AM)). We further assessed the effect of invariant natural killer T cells (iNKT) on LM polarisation in a protective function against Chlamydia muridarum, an obligate intracellular bacterium, and respiratory tract infection. We found a preferentially increased local Mo/Mφ and IMs with a significant shift to a type-1 macrophage (M1) phenotype and higher expression of iNOS and TNF-α. Interestingly, during the same infection, the alteration of macrophage subpopulations and the shift towards M1 was much less in iNKT KO mice. More importantly, functional testing by adoptively transferring LMs isolated from iNKT KO mice (iNKT KO-Mφ) conferred less protection than those isolated from wild-type mice (WT-Mφ). Further analyses showed significantly reduced gene expression of the JAK/STAT signalling pathway molecules in iNKT KO-Mφ. The data show an important role of iNKT in promoting LM polarisation to the M1 direction, which is functionally relevant to host defence against a human intracellular bacterial infection. The alteration of JAK/STAT signalling molecule gene expression in iNKT KO-Mφ suggests the modulating effect of iNKT is likely through the JAK/STAT pathway.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ying Peng
- Department of Immunology, Rady Max College of Medicine, University of Manitoba, Winnipeg, MB R3E 0T5, Canada
| | - Sai Qiao
- Department of Immunology, Rady Max College of Medicine, University of Manitoba, Winnipeg, MB R3E 0T5, Canada
| | - Hong Wang
- Department of Immunology, Rady Max College of Medicine, University of Manitoba, Winnipeg, MB R3E 0T5, Canada
- Department of Medical Microbiology, School of Medicine, Shandong University, Jinan 250100, China
| | - Sudhanshu Shekhar
- Department of Immunology, Rady Max College of Medicine, University of Manitoba, Winnipeg, MB R3E 0T5, Canada
| | - Shuhe Wang
- Department of Immunology, Rady Max College of Medicine, University of Manitoba, Winnipeg, MB R3E 0T5, Canada
| | - Jie Yang
- Department of Immunology, Rady Max College of Medicine, University of Manitoba, Winnipeg, MB R3E 0T5, Canada
| | - Yijun Fan
- Department of Immunology, Rady Max College of Medicine, University of Manitoba, Winnipeg, MB R3E 0T5, Canada
| | - Xi Yang
- Department of Immunology, Rady Max College of Medicine, University of Manitoba, Winnipeg, MB R3E 0T5, Canada
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Luo Y, Wang C, Du Z, Wang C, Wu Y, Lei A. Nitric Oxide-Producing Polymorphonuclear Neutrophils Confer Protection Against Chlamydia psittaci in Mouse Lung Infection. J Infect Dis 2023; 228:453-463. [PMID: 36961856 DOI: 10.1093/infdis/jiad072] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/18/2023] [Revised: 03/09/2023] [Accepted: 03/22/2023] [Indexed: 03/25/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Whether polymorphonuclear neutrophils (PMN) exert a protective role upon chlamydial infection by expressing inducible nitric oxide (NO) synthase (iNOS) and producing NO remains unclear. METHODS This issue was addressed using BALB/c mice infected with Chlamydia psittaci 6BC strain. Methods included flow cytometry, immunofluorescence, qRT-PCR, and western blot. RESULTS The number of PMN was significantly increased during C. psittaci infection, which was accompanied by increased iNOS expression and NO production in the mouse lungs. PMN were the major source of NO during pulmonary C. psittaci infection and inhibited C. psittaci multiplication in an iNOS/NO-dependent manner. Depletion of PMN aggravated C. psittaci-induced disease and increased C. psittaci burden. Nuclear factor-κB (NF-κB) and STAT1 signaling pathways, but not MAPK signaling pathways, were required for the induction of iNOS expression and NO production in PMN by C. psittaci infection. Thus, our findings highlight the protective role of NO-producing PMN in C. psittaci infection. CONCLUSIONS NO-producing PMN confer a protective role during pulmonary C. psittaci infection in mice, and thus our study sheds new light on PMN function during Chlamydia infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ying Luo
- Institute of Pathogenic Biology, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Hengyang Medical School, University of South China, Hengyang, Hunan, China
- Hunan Provincial Key Laboratory for Special Pathogens Prevention and Control, University of South China, Hengyang, Hunan, China
| | - Cui Wang
- Institute of Pathogenic Biology, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Hengyang Medical School, University of South China, Hengyang, Hunan, China
- Hunan Provincial Key Laboratory for Special Pathogens Prevention and Control, University of South China, Hengyang, Hunan, China
| | - Zhaoxiang Du
- Institute of Pathogenic Biology, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Hengyang Medical School, University of South China, Hengyang, Hunan, China
- Hunan Provincial Key Laboratory for Special Pathogens Prevention and Control, University of South China, Hengyang, Hunan, China
| | - Chuan Wang
- Institute of Pathogenic Biology, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Hengyang Medical School, University of South China, Hengyang, Hunan, China
- Hunan Provincial Key Laboratory for Special Pathogens Prevention and Control, University of South China, Hengyang, Hunan, China
| | - Yimou Wu
- Institute of Pathogenic Biology, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Hengyang Medical School, University of South China, Hengyang, Hunan, China
- Hunan Provincial Key Laboratory for Special Pathogens Prevention and Control, University of South China, Hengyang, Hunan, China
| | - Aihua Lei
- Institute of Pathogenic Biology, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Hengyang Medical School, University of South China, Hengyang, Hunan, China
- Hunan Provincial Key Laboratory for Special Pathogens Prevention and Control, University of South China, Hengyang, Hunan, China
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Qiao S, Zheng N, Sun L, Pang G, Wang S, Jia P, Uzonna JE, Bai H, Yang X. The p110δ isoforme of phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase plays an important role in host defense against chlamydial lung infection through influencing CD4+ T-cell function. Pathog Dis 2018; 76:5035814. [PMID: 29893841 DOI: 10.1093/femspd/fty053] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/17/2018] [Accepted: 06/08/2018] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
PI3Ks display integrant significance in T-cell development and differentiation, which is related to host defense against infections. Here, we investigated the role of p110δ isoform of PI3Ks in host defense against chlamydial lung infection in a mouse model. Our data showed that lung infection with Chlamydia muridarum (Cm) activated PI3K/AKT signaling pathway. Compared to WT mice, p110δD910A mice, mice with an inactivating knockin mutation in the p110δ Isoform of PI3Ks, showed more sever disease phenotype and slower recovery, which was associated with reduced Chlamydia-specific Th1 and Th17 immune responses following infection. Further adoptive transfer experiment showed that mice which received CD4+ T cells from infected p110δD910A mice exhibited greater body weight loss and higher bacterial loads in the lung than those which received CD4+ T cells from WT mice following challenge infection. These results provide in vivo evidence that p110δ isoform of PI3Ks plays an important role in host defense against chlamydial infection by promoting CD4+ T-cell immunity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sai Qiao
- Department of Immunology, Rady College of Medicine, University of Manitoba, Winnipeg, Manitoba R3E0T5, Canada.,Department of Immunology, Tianjin Medical University, 300070 Tianjin, P.R. China
| | - Ningbo Zheng
- Department of Immunology, Tianjin Medical University, 300070 Tianjin, P.R. China
| | - Lida Sun
- Department of Immunology, Tianjin Medical University, 300070 Tianjin, P.R. China
| | - Gaoju Pang
- Department of Immunology, Tianjin Medical University, 300070 Tianjin, P.R. China
| | - Shuhe Wang
- Department of Immunology, Rady College of Medicine, University of Manitoba, Winnipeg, Manitoba R3E0T5, Canada
| | - Ping Jia
- Department of Immunology, Rady College of Medicine, University of Manitoba, Winnipeg, Manitoba R3E0T5, Canada
| | - Jude Ezeh Uzonna
- Department of Immunology, Rady College of Medicine, University of Manitoba, Winnipeg, Manitoba R3E0T5, Canada
| | - Hong Bai
- Department of Immunology, Rady College of Medicine, University of Manitoba, Winnipeg, Manitoba R3E0T5, Canada.,Department of Immunology, Tianjin Medical University, 300070 Tianjin, P.R. China
| | - Xi Yang
- Department of Immunology, Rady College of Medicine, University of Manitoba, Winnipeg, Manitoba R3E0T5, Canada
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Smith-Norowitz TA, Weaver D, Norowitz YM, Hammerschlag MR, Joks R, Durkin HG, Kohlhoff S. Doxycycline suppresses Chlamydia pneumoniae induced interferon-gamma responses in peripheral blood mononuclear cells in children with allergic asthma. J Infect Chemother 2018; 24:470-475. [PMID: 29615379 DOI: 10.1016/j.jiac.2018.02.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/15/2017] [Revised: 01/30/2018] [Accepted: 02/07/2018] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Persistent respiratory infections caused by Chlamydia pneumoniae have been implicated in the pathogenesis of chronic diseases (e.g. asthma). Antibiotics are used to treat C. pneumoniae respiratory infections; however, the use of antibiotics as anti-inflammatory agents in treatment of asthma remains controversial. The current study investigated whether ciprofloxacin, azithromycin, or doxycycline can suppress C. pneumoniae-induced production of immunoglobulin (Ig) E or cytokines in peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMC) obtained from asthmatic children. Apart from blood, nasopharyngeal swab specimens were also collected to test for the presence of C. pneumoniae and/or M. pneumoniae (qPCR). PBMC (1.5 x 106) from asthmatic pediatric patients (N = 18) were infected or mock infected for 1 h ± C. pneumoniae AR-39 at a multiplicity of infection (MOI) = 0.1, and cultured ± ciprofloxacin, azithromycin, or doxycycline (0.1 or 1.0 μg/mLmL) for either 48 h (cytokines) or 10 days (IgE). Interleukin (IL)-4, interferon (IFN)-γ and IgE levels in supernatants were measured (ELISA). When PBMC were infected with C. pneumoniae, IL-4 and IFNγ production increased (p = 0.06 and 0.03, respectively); IgE levels were low. The now-elevated levels of IL-4 didn't decrease significantly after addition of ciprofloxacin, azithromycin, or doxycycline. However, infected PBMC IFNγ formation decreased significantly when 0.1 μg/mL doxycycline was employed (p = 0.04); no dose of ciprofloxacin or azithromycin had any impact. This inhibitory outcome with doxycycline lends support to the use of tetracyclines as immune modulators and anti-inflammatory medications in treatment of C. pneumoniae-infected asthma patients.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tamar A Smith-Norowitz
- Department of Pediatrics, Division of Infectious Diseases, State University of New York Downstate Medical Center, Brooklyn, NY, 11203, USA.
| | - Diana Weaver
- Department of Pediatrics, Division of Infectious Diseases, State University of New York Downstate Medical Center, Brooklyn, NY, 11203, USA.
| | - Yitzchok M Norowitz
- Department of Pediatrics, Division of Infectious Diseases, State University of New York Downstate Medical Center, Brooklyn, NY, 11203, USA.
| | - Margaret R Hammerschlag
- Department of Pediatrics, Division of Infectious Diseases, State University of New York Downstate Medical Center, Brooklyn, NY, 11203, USA.
| | - Rauno Joks
- Department of Medicine State University of New York Downstate Medical Center, Brooklyn, NY, 11203, USA.
| | - Helen G Durkin
- Department of Pathology State University of New York Downstate Medical Center, Brooklyn, NY, 11203, USA.
| | - Stephan Kohlhoff
- Department of Pediatrics, Division of Infectious Diseases, State University of New York Downstate Medical Center, Brooklyn, NY, 11203, USA.
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Smith-Norowitz TA, Perlman J, Norowitz YM, Joks R, Durkin HG, Hammerschlag MR, Kohlhoff S. Chlamydia pneumoniae induces interleukin-12 responses in peripheral blood mononuclear cells in asthma and the role of toll like receptor 2 versus 4: a pilot study. Ir J Med Sci 2016; 186:511-517. [PMID: 28035483 DOI: 10.1007/s11845-016-1549-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/19/2016] [Accepted: 12/26/2016] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Chlamydia pneumoniae causes respiratory infection in adults and children, and has been associated with asthma exacerbations and induction of Immunoglobulin (Ig) E responses. We previously reported that C. pneumoniae enhances T helper (Th) 2 responses of peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMC) from asthmatic patients. It is likely that toll like receptor (TLR)-2 and TLR-4 mediate cytokine responses and host defense against C. pneumoniae. Thus, we sought to determine whether engagement of TLR-2 or TLR-4 may induce IL-12 production in our C. pneumoniae model. METHODS PBMC (1.5 × 106) from asthmatic patients (N = 10) and non-asthmatic controls (N = 5) were infected or mock-infected for 1 h ± C. pneumoniae TW183 at a multiplicity of infection (MOI) = 1 and MOI = 0.1, and cultured for 48 h ± anti- TLR-2 and TLR-4 antibodies (Abs) (1 mg/mL). Interleukin (IL)-12 (48 h p.i.) and total IgE levels (day 10) were measured in supernatants (ELISA). RESULTS High IgE levels were detected in supernatants of C. pneumoniae- infected PBMC from asthmatics on day 10, compared with mock-infected PBMC (p < 0.03). In contrast, IgE was not detected (<0.3 ng/mL) in either C. pneumoniae infected or mock-infected PBMC from non-asthmatics. IL-12 production by C. pneumoniae-infected asthmatic and non-asthmatic PBMC were similar. When anti-TLR4, but not anti-TLR2, was included in culture, IL-12 production by C. pneumoniae- infected asthmatic PBMC decreased. CONCLUSIONS C. pneumoniae infection induces IgE production and modulates IL-12 responses in patients with asthma, which may be caused, in part, by differences in TLR-2 and TLR-4 stimulation.
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Affiliation(s)
- T A Smith-Norowitz
- Division of Infectious Diseases, Department of Pediatrics, State University of New York Downstate Medical Center, Box 49, 450 Clarkson Ave., Brooklyn, NY, 11203, USA.
| | - J Perlman
- Division of Infectious Diseases, Department of Pediatrics, State University of New York Downstate Medical Center, Box 49, 450 Clarkson Ave., Brooklyn, NY, 11203, USA
| | - Y M Norowitz
- Division of Infectious Diseases, Department of Pediatrics, State University of New York Downstate Medical Center, Box 49, 450 Clarkson Ave., Brooklyn, NY, 11203, USA
| | - R Joks
- Department of Medicine, State University of New York Downstate Medical Center, Brooklyn, NY, 11203, USA
| | - H G Durkin
- Department of Pathology, State University of New York Downstate Medical Center, Brooklyn, NY, 11203, USA
| | - M R Hammerschlag
- Division of Infectious Diseases, Department of Pediatrics, State University of New York Downstate Medical Center, Box 49, 450 Clarkson Ave., Brooklyn, NY, 11203, USA
| | - S Kohlhoff
- Division of Infectious Diseases, Department of Pediatrics, State University of New York Downstate Medical Center, Box 49, 450 Clarkson Ave., Brooklyn, NY, 11203, USA
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Peng Y, Gao X, Yang J, Shekhar S, Wang S, Fan Y, Yang X. Chlamydial lung infection induces transient IL-9 production which is redundant for host defense against primary infection. PLoS One 2015; 10:e0115195. [PMID: 25646821 PMCID: PMC4315580 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0115195] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/07/2014] [Accepted: 11/19/2014] [Indexed: 12/01/2022] Open
Abstract
IL-9/Th9 responses are recently found to be important for innate and adaptive immunity particularly in parasitic infections. To date, the study on the role of IL-9 in bacterial infections is limited and the reported data are contradictory. One reported function of IL-9/Th9 is to modulate Th1/Th17 responses. Since our and others’ previous work has shown a critical role of Th1 and Th17 cells in host defense against chlamydial lung infection, we here examined the role of IL-9 responses in Chlamydia muridarum (Cm) lung infection, particularly its effect on Th1 and Th17 responses and outcome infection. Our data showed quick but transient IL-9 production in the lung following infection, peaking at day 3 and back to baseline around day 7. CD4+ T cell was the major source of IL-9 production in the lung infection. Blockade of endogenous IL-9 using neutralizing antibody failed to change Interferon-γ (IFN-γ) and IL-17 production by cultured spleen mononuclear cells isolated from Cm infected mice. Similarly, in vivo neutralization of IL-9 failed to show significant effect on T cell (Th1 and Th17) and antibody responses (IgA, IgG1 and IgG2a). Consistently, the neutralization of IL-9 had no significant effect on disease process, including body weight change, bacterial burden and histopathological score. The data suggest that IL-9 production following chlamydial lung infection is redundant for host defense against the intracellular bacteria.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ying Peng
- Departments of Immunology and Medical Microbiology, University of Manitoba, Winnipeg, Manitoba, Canada
| | - Xiaoling Gao
- Departments of Immunology and Medical Microbiology, University of Manitoba, Winnipeg, Manitoba, Canada
| | - Jie Yang
- Departments of Immunology and Medical Microbiology, University of Manitoba, Winnipeg, Manitoba, Canada
| | - Sudhanshu Shekhar
- Departments of Immunology and Medical Microbiology, University of Manitoba, Winnipeg, Manitoba, Canada
| | - Shuhe Wang
- Departments of Immunology and Medical Microbiology, University of Manitoba, Winnipeg, Manitoba, Canada
| | - Yijun Fan
- Departments of Immunology and Medical Microbiology, University of Manitoba, Winnipeg, Manitoba, Canada
| | - Xi Yang
- Departments of Immunology and Medical Microbiology, University of Manitoba, Winnipeg, Manitoba, Canada
- * E-mail:
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Peng Y, Gao X, Yang J, Shekhar S, Wang S, Fan Y, Zhao W, Yang X. Interleukin-22 promotes T helper 1 (Th1)/Th17 immunity in chlamydial lung infection. Mol Med 2014; 20:109-19. [PMID: 24531835 DOI: 10.2119/molmed.2013.00115] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/01/2013] [Accepted: 01/30/2014] [Indexed: 01/10/2023] Open
Abstract
The role of interleukin-22 (IL-22) in intracellular bacterial infections is a controversial issue, although the contribution of this cytokine to host defense against extracellular bacterial pathogens has been well established. In this study, we focused on an intra-cellular bacterium, Chlamydia, and evaluated the production and function of IL-22 in host defense against chlamydial lung infection using a mouse model. We found that Chlamydia muridarum infection elicited quick IL-22 responses in the lung, which increased during infection and were reduced when bacterial loads decreased. More importantly, blockade of endogenous IL-22 using neutralizing anti-IL-22 monoclonal antibodies (mAb) resulted in more severe disease in the mice, leading to significantly higher weight loss and bacterial growth and much more severe pathological changes than treatment with isotype control antibody. Immunological analyses identified significantly lower T helper 1 (Th1) and Th17 responses in the IL-22-neutralized mice. In contrast, intranasal administration of exogenous IL-22 significantly enhanced protection following chlamydial lung infection, which was associated with a significant increase of Th17 response. The data demonstrate that IL-22 is a critical cytokine, mediating host defense against chlamydial lung infection and coordinating the function of distinct Th-cell subsets, particularly Th1 and Th17, in the process.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ying Peng
- Departments of Medical Microbiology and Immunology, University of Manitoba, Winnipeg, Manitoba, Canada Department of Medical Microbiology, Shandong University School of Medicine, Jinan, Shandong, PR China
| | - Xiaoling Gao
- Departments of Medical Microbiology and Immunology, University of Manitoba, Winnipeg, Manitoba, Canada
| | - Jie Yang
- Departments of Medical Microbiology and Immunology, University of Manitoba, Winnipeg, Manitoba, Canada
| | - Sudhanshu Shekhar
- Departments of Medical Microbiology and Immunology, University of Manitoba, Winnipeg, Manitoba, Canada
| | - Shuhe Wang
- Departments of Medical Microbiology and Immunology, University of Manitoba, Winnipeg, Manitoba, Canada
| | - Yijun Fan
- Departments of Medical Microbiology and Immunology, University of Manitoba, Winnipeg, Manitoba, Canada
| | - Weiming Zhao
- Department of Medical Microbiology, Shandong University School of Medicine, Jinan, Shandong, PR China
| | - Xi Yang
- Departments of Medical Microbiology and Immunology, University of Manitoba, Winnipeg, Manitoba, Canada
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Abstract
Evidence has increasingly shown that the lungs are a major site of immune regulation. A robust and highly regulated immune response in the lung protects the host from pathogen infection, whereas an inefficient or deleterious response can lead to various pulmonary diseases. Many cell types, such as epithelial cells, dendritic cells, macrophages, neutrophils, eosinophils, and B and T lymphocytes, contribute to lung immunity. This review focuses on the recent advances in understanding how T lymphocytes mediate pulmonary host defenses against bacterial, viral, and fungal pathogens.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kong Chen
- Richard King Mellon Foundation Institute for Pediatric Research, Children's Hospital of Pittsburgh of UPMC, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania 15201, USA
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Dzhindzhikhashvili MS, Joks R, Smith-Norowitz T, Durkin HG, Chotikanatis K, Estrella E, Hammerschlag MR, Kohlhoff SA. Doxycycline suppresses Chlamydia pneumoniae-mediated increases in ongoing immunoglobulin E and interleukin-4 responses by peripheral blood mononuclear cells of patients with allergic asthma. J Antimicrob Chemother 2013; 68:2363-8. [PMID: 23749949 DOI: 10.1093/jac/dkt179] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/14/2022] Open
Abstract
OBJECTIVES Chlamydia pneumoniae, an obligate intracellular bacterium, has been associated with asthma and the induction of immunoglobulin E (IgE) responses. Whereas tetracyclines have anti-chlamydial activity, their effect on human IgE responses to C. pneumoniae has not been studied. METHODS Peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs) from serum IgE+ allergic asthmatic subjects (n = 11) and healthy controls (n = 12) were infected with C. pneumoniae and cultured for 12 days with or without doxycycline (0.01-1.0 mg/L). IgE, interferon (IFN)-γ and interleukin (IL)-4 levels in supernatants were determined on days 1-12 post-infection, and C. pneumoniae DNA copy numbers in PBMC culture were measured on day 2 (quantitative PCR). RESULTS C. pneumoniae-infected PBMCs from allergic asthmatic individuals had increased levels of IgE in supernatants compared with uninfected PBMCs (520% on day 10 post-infection, P = 0.008). IgE levels in PBMC cultures from controls were undetectable (<0.3 ng/mL). Increases in C. pneumoniae-induced IgE in asthmatics correlated with those of C. pneumoniae-induced IL-4 (r = 0.98; P < 0.001), but not with IFN-γ. The addition of doxycycline (1.0 mg/L) to the culture strongly suppressed the production of IgE (>70%, P = 0.04) and IL-4 (75%, P = 0.018), but not IFN-γ. The suppressive effect on IL-4 production remained significant even at concentrations of doxycycline that were subinhibitory (0.01 mg/L) for C. pneumoniae. In both asthmatic participants and controls, no significant effect of doxycycline on DNA copy numbers of C. pneumoniae was observed. CONCLUSIONS Doxycycline suppressed the C. pneumoniae-induced production of IgE and IL-4, but not IFN-γ, in PBMCs from IgE+ allergic asthmatic subjects. These findings resulted from the immunomodulatory anti-allergic properties of tetracyclines.
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Affiliation(s)
- M S Dzhindzhikhashvili
- Center for Allergy and Asthma Research at SUNY Downstate, State University of New York (SUNY) Downstate Medical Center, 450 Clarkson Ave., Brooklyn, NY 11203, USA
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Chlamydia pneumoniae modulates human monocyte-derived dendritic cells functions driving the induction of a Type 1/Type 17 inflammatory response. Microbes Infect 2013; 15:105-14. [DOI: 10.1016/j.micinf.2012.11.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/05/2012] [Revised: 10/29/2012] [Accepted: 11/07/2012] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
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Cantón G, Bartley P, Bartley K, Todd H, Chianini F, Katzer F. Production of a bovine IL-12p40 probe and application using in situ hybridization on ruminant fixed tissues. Vet Immunol Immunopathol 2012; 151:342-7. [PMID: 23266096 DOI: 10.1016/j.vetimm.2012.11.019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/25/2012] [Revised: 11/09/2012] [Accepted: 11/30/2012] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
Pro-inflammatory cytokines (particularly IL-12) are important for initiating protective T helper 1 (Th1)-type immune responses and hence vital for combating intracellular infections and tumours. In situ hybridization (ISH) provides a powerful diagnostic tool allowing the identification and localization of cells producing these mediators in fixed tissues. The objective of this work was to produce a bovine IL-12p40 probe that allows detection of IL-12p40 mRNA in fixed tissues from different ruminant species. The RNA probe sequence is 447bp in length and from a region with high cross-species-sequence homology (>97.3% homology) to the ovine, cervine, caprine and bubaline IL-12p40 genes. ISH was carried out on paraformaldehyde fixed tissues collected from cattle, sheep and goats. The probe was efficient in identifying IL-12p40 expressing cells in fixed tissues from all these species. In conclusion, the IL-12p40 probe was efficient in identifying and localizing cells that express IL-12p40, and provides a good immuno-diagnostic technique to characterize immune responses in fixed tissues.
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Affiliation(s)
- Germán Cantón
- Moredun Research Institute, Pentlands Science Park, Bush Loan, EH26 0PZ Edinburgh, United Kingdom.
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12
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Wang H, Zhao L, Peng Y, Liu J, Qi M, Chen Q, Yang X, Zhao W. Protective role of α-galactosylceramide-stimulated natural killer T cells in genital tract infection with Chlamydia muridarum. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2012; 65:43-54. [PMID: 22309187 DOI: 10.1111/j.1574-695x.2012.00939.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/20/2011] [Revised: 01/27/2012] [Accepted: 01/27/2012] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
Natural killer T (NKT) cells are a unique lymphocyte subpopulation which has an important role in the response to microbial pathogens. In this study, we used α-galactosylceramide (α-GalCer), a specific ligand of NKT cells, to enhance NKT response and examine its effect on host defense against genital tract Chlamydia muridarum infection. The results showed that α-GalCer treatment before infection led to reduced pathological changes and bacterial burden in the genital tract. Moreover, α-GalCer-treated mice showed greater local Th1 cytokine production [interferon γ (IFN-γ) and interleukin 12 (IL-12)] in local lymph node cells and genital tissues following challenge infection compared with untreated mice, as well as an enhanced level of IFN-γ production by NK and T cells. In addition, NKT cells in the mice with genital tract C. muridarum infection, unlike those from naïve mice, showed a polarized IFN-γ production. These results suggest a promoting role of NKT cells on type 1 T cell immune response and host resistance to Chlamydia in genital tract infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hong Wang
- Department of Medical Microbiology, Shandong University School of Medicine, Jinan, China
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Jupelli M, Selby DM, Guentzel MN, Chambers JP, Forsthuber TG, Zhong G, Murthy AK, Arulanandam BP. The contribution of interleukin-12/interferon-gamma axis in protection against neonatal pulmonary Chlamydia muridarum challenge. J Interferon Cytokine Res 2010; 30:407-15. [PMID: 20187773 DOI: 10.1089/jir.2009.0083] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Neonatal Chlamydia trachomatis pneumonia has been associated with respiratory sequelae in later life. We recently established a mouse model of neonatal pulmonary Chlamydia muridaum infection and found an important contribution of IFN-gamma to protective immunity. In this study, we further characterized the role of Th1-type cytokines; IL-12, IFN-gamma, and IFN-gamma signaling using mice genetically deficient in IL-12, IFN-gamma, or IFN-gamma receptor 1. All 3 knockout (KO) mice challenged intranasally with C. muridarum 1 day after birth exhibited 100% mortality by day 17 post-challenge whereas wild-type (WT) animals survived the monitoring period of 1 month. The KO mice exhibited greater lung bacterial burdens and enhanced dissemination to the liver, compared to WT animals. The inflammatory cellular infiltration in C. muridarum-challenged KO animals was significantly reduced in the lungs, but markedly enhanced in the livers of the KO mice compared to similarly challenged WT mice. It was also found that a deficiency in IL-12 or IFN-gamma resulted in correspondingly reduced IFN-gamma or IL-12 production, respectively, suggesting an intricate interdependence in the induction of these cytokines. Collectively, these results suggest that the IL-12/ IFN-gamma axis induces pulmonary cellular infiltration, induces bacterial clearance from the lung, reduces dissemination to other organs, and promotes the survival of the host during neonatal pulmonary chlamydial infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Madhulika Jupelli
- South Texas Center for Emerging Infectious Diseases, Department of Biology, University of Texas at San Antonio, San Antonio, Texas 78249, USA
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Zhang N, Wang Z, Tang X, Wang H, Li H, Huang H, Bai H, Yang X. Type 1 T-cell responses in chlamydial lung infections are associated with local MIP-1alpha response. Cell Mol Immunol 2010; 7:355-60. [PMID: 20622889 DOI: 10.1038/cmi.2010.32] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
Chemokines and their receptors are important mediators of leukocyte trafficking and recruitment and sometimes work as modulators of T-cell responses during infections and inflammation. Modulating the biological activity of chemokines has been found to influence the course of diseases. However, little is known about the role of chemokine responses during chlamydial lung infections. We therefore analyzed the dynamics of multiple chemokines, which are frequently associated with type 1 (Th1) T cell immune responses, and their receptors for their expression in the lungs during Chlamydia muridarum (Cm) infections. We also examined the relationship between chemokine responses and the development of Th1 responses as well as the clearance of infection. Our results showed that in parallel with the high levels of gamma interferon (IFN-gamma) and IL-12 production in the lungs and draining lymph nodes, and the expansion of IFN-gamma-producing CD4 and CD8+ T cells, the production of the cell-related chemokines RANTES, IFN-gamma-inducible protein-10 (IP-10) and macrophage inflammatory protein-1alpha (MIP-1alpha) and their receptor CCR1 was elevated in the lung tissues after infection. Interestingly, in a later phase of infection, the expression of RANTES and IP-10 remained elevated but the expression of MIP-1alpha and CCR1 decreased to a low level, which suggests a closer association with the pattern of Th1 cytokine responses in the process of infection. These results suggest a close association between the MIP-1alpha response and the Th1-type T-cell responses in chlamydial lung infections.
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Affiliation(s)
- Naihong Zhang
- Department of Immunology, Tianjin Medical University, Tianjin Key Laboratory of Cellular and Molecular Immunology, Key Laboratory of Educational Ministry of China, Tianjin, China
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15
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Campbell LA, Yaraei K, Van Lenten B, Chait A, Blessing E, Kuo CC, Nosaka T, Ricks J, Rosenfeld ME. The acute phase reactant response to respiratory infection with Chlamydia pneumoniae: implications for the pathogenesis of atherosclerosis. Microbes Infect 2010; 12:598-606. [PMID: 20417302 DOI: 10.1016/j.micinf.2010.04.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/14/2009] [Revised: 04/05/2010] [Accepted: 04/06/2010] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
The acute phase response to Chlamydia pneumoniae infection was analyzed over a 72 h period post-infection in C57BL/6J mice. A single intra-nasal inoculation stimulated statistically significant increases in the plasma levels of IL-2, IL-5, IL-6, IL-10, IL-12, GM-CSF, IFN-gamma, and serum amyloid A but not TNF-alpha, IL-1beta, IL-4 and serum amyloid P. There was also a decrease in the activity of the HDL protective enzyme paraoxonase as well as a reduced ability of HDL to prevent oxidation of palmitoyl-2-arachidonyl-sn-glycerol-3-phosphocholine by hydroperoxyoctadecadienoic acid at 48 and 72 h post-infection. To determine whether the C. pneumoniae induced acute phase response had any effect on atherosclerotic plaque stability, we measured the frequency of intra-plaque hemorrhage as a marker of plaque disruption in the innominate arteries of apolipoprotein E deficient mice at 29-30 weeks and 1.5-2.0 years of age. There was an increased frequency of intra-plaque hemorrhage only in the older mice infected with the live organism (8/14) as compared to mice treated with killed C. pneumoniae (2/11) or sham inoculated with PBS (2/12). These results suggest that acute phase reactant proteins produced in response to pulmonary infection with C. pneumoniae may contribute to the progression and destabilization of atherosclerotic lesions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lee Ann Campbell
- Department of Epidemiology, School of Public Health, University of Washington, Seattle, WA 98195, USA
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Bai H, Cheng J, Gao X, Joyee AG, Fan Y, Wang S, Jiao L, Yao Z, Yang X. IL-17/Th17 promotes type 1 T cell immunity against pulmonary intracellular bacterial infection through modulating dendritic cell function. THE JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY 2009; 183:5886-95. [PMID: 19812198 DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.0901584] [Citation(s) in RCA: 119] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/07/2023]
Abstract
Although their contribution to host defense against extracellular infections has been well defined, IL-17 and Th17 are generally thought to have limited impact on intracellular infections. In this study, we investigated the role and mechanisms of IL-17/Th17 in host defense against Chlamydia muridarum, an obligate intracellular bacterium, lung infection. Our data showed rapid increase in IL-17 production and expansion of Th17 cells following C. muridarum infection and significant detrimental impact of in vivo IL-17 neutralization by anti-IL-17 mAb on disease course, immune response, and dendritic cell (DC) function. Specifically, IL-17-neutralized mice exhibited significantly greater body weight loss, higher organism growth, and much more severe pathological changes in the lung compared with sham-treated control mice. Immunological analysis showed that IL-17 neutralization significantly reduced Chlamydia-specific Th1 responses, but increased Th2 responses. Interestingly, the DC isolated from IL-17-neutralized mice showed lower CD40 and MHC II expression and IL-12 production, but higher IL-10 production compared with those from sham-treated mice. In two DC-T cell coculture systems, DC isolated from IL-17-neutralized mice induced higher IL-4, but lower IFN-gamma production by Ag-specific T cells than those from sham-treated mice in cell priming and reaction settings. Adoptive transfer of DC isolated from IL-17-neutralized mice, unlike those from sham-treated mice, failed to protect the recipients against challenge infection. These findings provide in vivo evidence that IL-17/Th17 plays an important role in host defense against intracellular bacterial infection, and suggest that IL-17/Th17 can promote type 1 T cell immunity through modulating DC function.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hong Bai
- Laboratory for Infection and Immunity, Departments of Medical Microbiology and Immunology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Manitoba, Winnipeg, Manitoba, Canada
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Jiang X, Shen C, Yu H, Karunakaran KP, Brunham RC. Differences in innate immune responses correlate with differences in murine susceptibility to Chlamydia muridarum pulmonary infection. Immunology 2009; 129:556-66. [PMID: 20102413 DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-2567.2009.03157.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 46] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
We investigated the phenotypic basis for genetically determined differences in susceptibility and resistance to Chlamydia muridarum pulmonary infection using BALB/c and C57BL/6 mice. Following C. muridarum intranasal inoculation, the intensity of infection was very different between BALB/c and C57BL/6 beginning as early as 3 days post-infection. Intrapulmonary cytokine patterns also differed at early time-points (days 2 and 4) between these two strains of mice. The early recruitment of neutrophils to lung tissue was greater in BALB/c than in C57BL/6 mice and correlated with a higher number of inclusion forming units (IFU) of C. muridarum. At day 12 post-infection, BALB/c mice continued to demonstrate a greater burden of infection, significantly higher lung cytokine levels for tumour necrosis factor-alpha and interleukin-17 (IL-17) and a significantly lower level for interferon-gamma than did C57BL/6 mice. In vitro, bone-marrow-derived dendritic cells (BMDCs) from BALB/c mice underwent less functional maturation in response to C. muridarum infection than did BMDCs from C57BL/6 mice. The BMDCs of BALB/c mice expressed lower levels of activation markers (CD80, CD86, CD40 and major histocompatibility complex class II) and secreted less IL-12 and more IL-23 than BMDCs from C57BL/6 mice. Overall, the data demonstrate that the differences exhibited by BALB/c and C57BL/6 mice following C. muridarum pulmonary infection are associated with differences in early innate cytokine and cellular responses that are correlated with late differences in T helper type 17 versus type 1 adaptive immune responses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiaozhou Jiang
- British Columbia Centre for Disease Control, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, Canada
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18
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Critical role of the interleukin-17/interleukin-17 receptor axis in regulating host susceptibility to respiratory infection with Chlamydia species. Infect Immun 2009; 77:5059-70. [PMID: 19737908 DOI: 10.1128/iai.00403-09] [Citation(s) in RCA: 51] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
The specific contribution of interleukin-17/interleukin-17 receptor (IL-17/IL-17R)-mediated responses in regulating host susceptibility against obligatory intracellular Chlamydia infection was investigated in C57BL/6 and C3H/HeN mice during Chlamydia muridarum respiratory infection. We demonstrated that Chlamydia stimulated IL-17/IL-17R-associated responses in both Chlamydia-resistant C57BL/6 and Chlamydia-susceptible C3H/HeN mice. However, C3H/HeN mice developed a significantly greater IL-17/IL-17R-associated response than C57BL/6 mice did. This was reflected by an increase in IL-17 mRNA expression, a higher recall IL-17 production from splenocytes upon antigen restimulation, and higher production of Th17-related cytokines (IL-23 and IL-6) and chemokines (chemokine [C-X-C motif] ligand 2 [CXCL1]/keratinocyte-derived chemokine [KC] and CXCL2/macrophage inflammatory protein 1 [MIP2]) in C3H/HeN mice than in C57BL/6 mice. Furthermore, C3H/HeN mice displayed a massive accumulation of activated and preactivated neutrophils in the airway and lung parenchyma compared to their C57BL/6 counterparts. We further demonstrated that the skewed IL-17/Th17 profile in C3H/HeN mice was predisposed by a higher basal level of IL-17 receptor C (IL-17RC) expression and then further amplified by a higher inducible IL-17RA expression in lungs. Most importantly, in vivo delivery of IL-17RA antagonist that resulted in a 50% reduction in the neutrophilic infiltration in lungs was able to reverse the susceptible phenotype of C3H/HeN mice to respiratory Chlamydia infection. Thus, our data for the first time have demonstrated a critical role for the IL-17/IL-17R axis in regulating host susceptibility to Chlamydia infection in mice.
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Rodriguez N, Lang R, Wantia N, Cirl C, Ertl T, Dürr S, Wagner H, Miethke T. Induction of iNOS by Chlamydophila pneumoniae requires MyD88-dependent activation of JNK. J Leukoc Biol 2008; 84:1585-93. [PMID: 18799752 DOI: 10.1189/jlb.0508304] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Innate immune cells produce NO via inducible NO synthase (iNOS) in response to certain infections or upon stimulation with cytokines such as IFN-gamma and TNF. NO plays an important role in host defense against intracellular bacteria including Chlamydophila pneumoniae as a result of its microbicidal activity. In MyD88-deficient mice, which succumb to C. pneumoniae infection, iNOS induction is impaired 6 days postinfection, although pulmonary levels of IFN-gamma and TNF are elevated as in wild-type mice at this time-point. Here, we demonstrate that induction of iNOS in macrophages upon C. pneumoniae infection is controlled by MyD88 via two pathways: NF-kappaB activation and phosphorylation of the MAPK JNK, which leads to the nuclear translocation of c-Jun, one of the two components of the AP-1 complex. In addition, phosphorylation of STAT1 and expression of IFN regulatory factor 1 (IRF-1) were delayed in the absence of MyD88 after C. pneumoniae infection but not after IFN-gamma stimulation. Taken together, our data show that for optimal induction of iNOS during C. pneumoniae infection, the concerted action of the MyD88-dependent transcription factors NF-kappaB and AP-1 and of the MyD88-independent transcription factors phosphorylated STAT1 and IRF-1 is required.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nuria Rodriguez
- Institut für Medizinische Mikrobiologie, Immunologie und Hygiene, Technische Universität München, München, Germany
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20
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Diverse myeloid and lymphoid cell subpopulations produce gamma interferon during early innate immune responses to Francisella tularensis live vaccine strain. Infect Immun 2008; 76:4311-21. [PMID: 18573901 DOI: 10.1128/iai.00514-08] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Francisella tularensis, a small gram-negative intracellular bacterium responsible for causing tularemia, is highly pathogenic and classified as a category A agent of bioterrorism. As for other intracellular pathogens, successful protective immune responses to Francisella tularensis require rapid and efficient induction of gamma interferon (IFN-gamma) production. Studies using intracellular bacteria such as Listeria monocytogenes as well as Francisella suggest that natural killer (NK) and T cells are important sources of IFN-gamma. However, comprehensive characterization of specific sources of IFN-gamma produced during Francisella infection in vivo remains incomplete, and depletion of NK cells before infection of mice with the F. tularensis live vaccine strain (LVS) has little impact on the course or outcome of infection. In this study, we determined the cell subpopulations that respond quickly to intradermal F. tularensis LVS infection of mice by producing IFN-gamma within hours to a few days. Splenic and liver lymphocytes were obtained from LVS-infected mice and analyzed for IFN-gamma mRNA by reverse transcription-PCR, for intracellular cytokine expression by multiparameter flow cytometry, and for ex vivo production of IFN-gamma protein by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay. Cells producing IFN-gamma were readily detectable by day 3 after infection, and numbers progressively increased through days 5 to 7. Importantly, the cell types responsible for IFN-gamma production were much more varied than expected: these included not only NK cells and T cells, which might be predicted, but also other cells, including dendritic cells (DCs), "NK DCs," NK T cells, and neutrophils. Most importantly, since RAG-1 knockout mice appeared to exhibit a frequency of IFN-gamma-producing cells comparable to that of intact wild-type mice, early IFN-gamma production by innate immune cells does not depend on the presence of T or B cells.
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Abstract
Little is known about the role of the cytokine interleukin-12 (IL-12) in Pneumocystis pneumonia or its potential use as immunotherapy. We asked whether release of IL-12 is part of the normal host response to this infection and whether local treatment with IL-12 or gene transfer of IL-12 could accelerate clearance of infection. IL-12 was assayed by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay in normal mice and in mice deficient in IL-12 after inoculation of Pneumocystis carinii. P. carinii-infected mice were treated with local instillation of IL-12 and gene transfer of the IL-12 gene. Inoculation of P. carinii into normal mice evoked a brisk release of IL-12 into lung tissue, and IL-12 P35-deficient mice showed delayed clearance of infection measured by PCR for P. carinii rRNA. In control mice, intranasal recombinant IL-12 accelerated clearance of infection, and this was associated with increased recruitment of inflammatory cells into lavage fluid and increased release of tumor necrosis factor alpha, IL-12, and gamma interferon. Similar results were observed in infected mice depleted of CD4+ lymphocytes by using in vivo transfer of the IL-12 gene in a replication-deficient adenoviral vector. IL-12 is part of the normal host response to infection with P. carinii. IL-12 therapy can enhance host resistance to infection in both normal mice and mice depleted of CD4+ T lymphocytes. A treatment effect of IL-12 is mediated through enhanced inflammatory cell recruitment into lung tissue and increased tissue concentrations of proinflammatory cytokines.
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22
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Genetic control of susceptibility to pulmonary infection with Chlamydia pneumoniae in the mouse. Genes Immun 2007; 9:383-8. [PMID: 18075514 DOI: 10.1038/sj.gene.6364450] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
A mouse model was used to study the genetic control of differential host response to pulmonary infection with Chlamydia pneumoniae. The A/J and C57BL/6 strains show differential response to intranasal infection with respect to their ability to clear pulmonary bacterial load and the extent of lung pathology developed by 2 weeks post infection. The genetic basis of this interstrain difference was studied by whole-genome scan in an informative [A/J x C57BL/6J] F2 cross using the pulmonary microbial load as a phenotypic readout of host response. We detected a highly significant linkage (LOD score=11.5) on chromosome 17 that overlaps with the major histocompatibility (MHC) locus. This quantitative trait locus (QTL) accounts for approximately 30% of the phenotypic variance with B6 alleles conferring susceptibility and inherited in a recessive fashion. Significant linkage was also detected to chromosome 5 in female mice, while chromosome 6 showed suggestive linkage in male mice, pointing to additional complexity in the genetic control of the difference in susceptibility observed in A/J and C57BL/6J.
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Horvat JC, Beagley KW, Wade MA, Preston JA, Hansbro NG, Hickey DK, Kaiko GE, Gibson PG, Foster PS, Hansbro PM. Neonatal chlamydial infection induces mixed T-cell responses that drive allergic airway disease. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2007; 176:556-64. [PMID: 17600276 DOI: 10.1164/rccm.200607-1005oc] [Citation(s) in RCA: 102] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/13/2023] Open
Abstract
RATIONALE Chlamydial lung infection has been associated with asthma in children and adults. However, how chlamydial infection influences the development of immune responses that promote asthma remains unknown. OBJECTIVES To determine the effect of chlamydial infection at various ages on the development of allergic airway disease (AAD). METHODS Mouse models of chlamydial lung infection and ovalbumin-induced AAD were established in neonatal and adult BALB/c mice. Neonatal or adult mice were given a chlamydial infection and 6 weeks later were sensitized and subsequently challenged with ovalbumin. Features of AAD and inflammation were compared between uninfected or unsensitized controls. MEASUREMENTS AND MAIN RESULTS Mild Chlamydia-induced lung disease was observed 10-15 days after infection, as evidenced by increased bacterial numbers and histopathology in the lung and a reduction in weight gain. After 6 weeks, infection and histopathology had resolved and the rate of weight gain had recovered. Neonatal but not adult infection resulted in significant decreases in interleukin-5 production from helper T cells and by the numbers of eosinophils recruited to the lung in response to ovalbumin exposure. Remarkably, the effects of early-life infection were associated with the generation of both type 1 and 2 ovalbumin-specific helper T-cell cytokine and antibody responses. Furthermore, although neonatal infection significantly attenuated eosinophilia, the generation of the mixed T-cell response exacerbated other hallmark features of asthma: mucus hypersecretion and airway hyperresponsiveness. Moreover, infection prolonged the expression of AAD and these effects were restricted to early-life infection. CONCLUSIONS Early-life chlamydial infection induces a mixed type 1 and 2 T-cell response to antigen, which differentially affects the development of key features of AAD in the adult.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jay C Horvat
- Priority Research Centre for Asthma and Respiratory Disease, School of Biomedical Sciences, Faculty of Health, University of Newcastle, Newcastle, Australia
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Eickhoff M, Thalmann J, Hess S, Martin M, Laue T, Kruppa J, Brandes G, Klos A. Host cell responses to Chlamydia pneumoniae in gamma interferon-induced persistence overlap those of productive infection and are linked to genes involved in apoptosis, cell cycle, and metabolism. Infect Immun 2007; 75:2853-63. [PMID: 17353287 PMCID: PMC1932845 DOI: 10.1128/iai.01045-06] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/30/2023] Open
Abstract
The respiratory pathogen Chlamydia (Chlamydophila) pneumoniae is associated with chronic diseases, including atherosclerosis and giant-cell arteritis, which are accompanied by the occurrence of these obligate intracellular bacteria in blood vessels. There, C. pneumoniae seems to be present in a persistent state. Persistence is characterized by modified bacterial metabolism and morphology, as well as a reversible arrest of chlamydial development. In cell culture, this persistent state can be induced by gamma interferon (IFN-gamma). To elucidate this long-term interaction between chlamydiae and their host cells, microarray screening on epithelial HeLa cells was performed. Transcription of persistently (and productively) infected cells was compared with that of mock-infected cells. Sixty-six host cell genes were regulated at 24 h and/or 96 h of IFN-gamma-induced persistence. Subsequently, a set of 17 human host cell genes related to apoptosis, cell cycle, or metabolism was identified as permanently up- or down-regulated by real-time PCR. Some of these chlamydia-dependent host cell responses were diminished or even absent in the presence of rifampin. However, other expression patterns were not altered by the inhibition of bacterial RNA polymerase, suggesting two different modes of host cell activation. Thus, in the IFN-gamma model, the persisting bacteria cause long-lasting changes in the expression of genes coding for functionally important proteins. They might be potential drug targets for the treatment of persistent C. pneumoniae infections.
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Affiliation(s)
- Meike Eickhoff
- Department of Medical Microbiology, Medical School Hannover, 30625 Hannover, Germany
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25
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Joyee AG, Qiu H, Wang S, Fan Y, Bilenki L, Yang X. Distinct NKT cell subsets are induced by different Chlamydia species leading to differential adaptive immunity and host resistance to the infections. THE JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY 2007; 178:1048-58. [PMID: 17202368 DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.178.2.1048] [Citation(s) in RCA: 57] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/05/2023]
Abstract
We investigated the role of NKT cells in immunity to Chlamydia pneumoniae and Chlamydia muridarum infections using a combination of knockout mice and specific cellular activation approaches. The NKT-deficient mice showed exacerbated susceptibility to C. pneumoniae infection, but more resistance to C. muridarum infection. Activation of NKT reduced C. pneumoniae in vivo growth, but enhanced C. muridarum infection. Cellular analysis of invariant NKT cells revealed distinct cytokine patterns following C. pneumoniae and C. muridarum infections, i.e., predominant IFN-gamma in the former, while predominant IL-4 in the latter. The cytokine patterns of CD4(+) and CD8(+) T cells matched those of NKT cells. Our data provide in vivo evidence for a functionally diverse role of NKT cells in immune response to two intracellular bacterial pathogens. These results suggest that distinct NKT subsets are induced by even biologically closely related pathogens, thus leading to differential adaptive immune response and infection outcomes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Antony George Joyee
- Laboratory for Infection and Immunity, Departments of Medical Microbiology and Immunology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Manitoba, 730 William Avenue, Winnipeg, Manitoba, Canada
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Sathiyaseelan J, Goenka R, Parent M, Benson RM, Murphy EA, Fernandes DM, Foulkes AS, Baldwin CL. Treatment of Brucella-susceptible mice with IL-12 increases primary and secondary immunity. Cell Immunol 2006; 243:1-9. [PMID: 17184756 DOI: 10.1016/j.cellimm.2006.10.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/29/2006] [Revised: 10/16/2006] [Accepted: 10/23/2006] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
Brucella spp. cause disease in humans and livestock and are potential biowarfare agents. Defining the protective immune response is necessary to design vaccines. This has largely been done with mice, brucella-susceptible BALB/c and resistant C57BL strains. Since interferon-gamma is key to brucella resistance, contrary to expectations, we found that ex vivo splenocytes from naïve BALB/c mice produced IL-12 and interferon-gamma in cultures with brucellae at levels comparable to those of splenocytes from the more resistant C57BL/10 mice. Moreover, both IL-12 and interferon-gamma were produced in the first week following infection of BALB/c mice. However, by the third week of infection we found decreased IL-12Rbeta2 expression by BABL/c splenocytes, corresponding to their inability to produce interferon-gamma in Brucella recall responses at this time as reported previously. Administering recombinant IL-12 to these mice ameliorated the interferon-gamma hiatus, resulted in a 1000-fold reduction in CFU during primary infection and increased survival following secondary challenge.
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Affiliation(s)
- Janaki Sathiyaseelan
- Department of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, University of Massachusetts, Amherst, MA 01003, USA
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27
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Rodriguez N, Wantia N, Fend F, Dürr S, Wagner H, Miethke T. Differential involvement of TLR2 and TLR4 in host survival during pulmonary infection with Chlamydia pneumoniae. Eur J Immunol 2006; 36:1145-55. [PMID: 16609927 DOI: 10.1002/eji.200535152] [Citation(s) in RCA: 52] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
Abstract
The relevance of TLR2 and TLR4 for recognizing Chlamydia pneumoniae in vivo during pulmonary infection and to survive the infection was explored. We found that early immune responses triggered by C. pneumoniae partially depended on TLR2, but not on TLR4. The chemokines MIP-2 and MIP-1alpha were not induced, while IL-12p40 levels were higher in TLR2(-/-) mice compared to wild-type mice. Secretion of TNF, keratinocyte-derived chemokine and monocyte chemoattractant protein-1 was attenuated in TLR2(-/-) mice, while IFN-gamma was increased as in wild-type mice. The pulmonary cyto- and chemokine response of TLR2(-/-) x TLR4(d/d) was similar to TLR2(-/-) mice. TLR2(-/-) and TLR2(-/-) x TLR4(d/d) mice also attracted fewer polymorphonuclear neutrophils into the lung, while TLR4(d/d) mice recruited them. Attenuated recruitment of polymorphonuclear neutrophils correlated with reduced weight loss in TLR2(-/-) and TLR2(-/-) x TLR4(d/d) mice and a lower chlamydial burden 3 days post infection. At 9 days post infection, TLR2(-/-) and TLR2(-/-) x TLR4(d/d) mice produced cyto- and chemokines as efficiently as wild-type mice, indicating that the involvement of TLR in inflammation varies over time. All TLR2(-/-) x TLR4(d/d) mice succumbed to the infection, while about 50% of TLR2(-/-) mice died. Taken together, the function of TLR2 and TLR4 is required to survive pulmonary infection with C. pneumoniae.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nuria Rodriguez
- Institute of Medical Microbiology, Immunology and Hygiene, Technical University of Munich, Munich, Germany
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28
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Happel KI, Dubin PJ, Zheng M, Ghilardi N, Lockhart C, Quinton LJ, Odden AR, Shellito JE, Bagby GJ, Nelson S, Kolls JK. Divergent roles of IL-23 and IL-12 in host defense against Klebsiella pneumoniae. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2005; 202:761-9. [PMID: 16157683 PMCID: PMC2212952 DOI: 10.1084/jem.20050193] [Citation(s) in RCA: 476] [Impact Index Per Article: 25.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
Interleukin (IL)-23 is a heterodimeric cytokine that shares the identical p40 subunit as IL-12 but exhibits a unique p19 subunit similar to IL-12 p35. IL-12/23 p40, interferon γ (IFN-γ), and IL-17 are critical for host defense against Klebsiella pneumoniae. In vitro, K. pneumoniae–pulsed dendritic cell culture supernatants elicit T cell IL-17 production in a IL-23–dependent manner. However, the importance of IL-23 during in vivo pulmonary challenge is unknown. We show that IL-12/23 p40–deficient mice are exquisitely sensitive to intrapulmonary K. pneumoniae inoculation and that IL-23 p19−/−, IL-17R−/−, and IL-12 p35−/− mice also show increased susceptibility to infection. p40−/− mice fail to generate pulmonary IFN-γ, IL-17, or IL-17F responses to infection, whereas p35−/− mice show normal IL-17 and IL-17F induction but reduced IFN-γ. Lung IL-17 and IL-17F production in p19−/− mice was dramatically reduced, and this strain showed substantial mortality from a sublethal dose of bacteria (103 CFU), despite normal IFN-γ induction. Administration of IL-17 restored bacterial control in p19−/− mice and to a lesser degree in p40−/− mice, suggesting an additional host defense requirement for IFN-γ in this strain. Together, these data demonstrate independent requirements for IL-12 and IL-23 in pulmonary host defense against K. pneumoniae, the former of which is required for IFN-γ expression and the latter of which is required for IL-17 production.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kyle I Happel
- Section of Pulmonary and Critical Care Medicine, Louisiana State University Health Sciences Center, New Orleans, LA 70112, USA
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29
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Rodriguez N, Fend F, Jennen L, Schiemann M, Wantia N, Prazeres da Costa CU, Dürr S, Heinzmann U, Wagner H, Miethke T. Polymorphonuclear neutrophils improve replication of Chlamydia pneumoniae in vivo upon MyD88-dependent attraction. THE JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY 2005; 174:4836-44. [PMID: 15814710 DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.174.8.4836] [Citation(s) in RCA: 46] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
Abstract
Chlamydia pneumoniae, an obligate intracellular bacterium, causes pneumonia in humans and mice. In this study, we show that GR1+/CD45+ polymorphonuclear neutrophils (PMN) surprisingly increase the bacterial load of C. pneumoniae in vivo. Upon intranasal infection of wild-type mice, the lung weight is increased; the cytokines TNF, IL-12p40, and IFN-gamma, as well as the chemokines keratinocyte-derived chemokine, MCP-1, and MIP-2 are secreted; and GR1+/CD45+ PMN are recruited into lungs 3 days postinfection. In contrast, in infected MyD88-deficient mice, which lack a key adaptor molecule in the signaling cascade of TLRs and IL-1R family members, the increase of the lung weight is attenuated, and from the analyzed cyto- and chemokines, only IL-12p40 is detectable. Upon infection, almost no influx of inflammatory cells into lungs of MyD88-deficient mice can be observed. Six days postinfection, however, MyD88-deficient mice were able to produce TNF, IFN-gamma, keratinocyte-derived chemokine, and MCP-1 in amounts similar to wild-type mice, but failed to secrete IL-12p40 and MIP-2. At this time point, the infection increased the lung weight to a level similar to wild-type mice. Curiously, the chlamydial burden in MyD88-deficient mice 3 days postinfection is lower than in wild-type mice, a finding that can be reproduced in wild-type mice by depletion of GR1+ cells. In analyzing how PMN influence the chlamydial burden in vivo, we find that PMN are infected and enhance the replication of C. pneumoniae in epithelial cells. Thus, the lower chlamydial burden in MyD88-deficient mice can be explained by the failure to recruit PMN.
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MESH Headings
- Adaptor Proteins, Signal Transducing
- Animals
- Antigens, Differentiation/genetics
- Antigens, Differentiation/metabolism
- Chlamydophila Infections/immunology
- Chlamydophila Infections/microbiology
- Chlamydophila Infections/pathology
- Chlamydophila pneumoniae/immunology
- Chlamydophila pneumoniae/pathogenicity
- Colony Count, Microbial
- Humans
- Lung/immunology
- Lung/microbiology
- Lung/pathology
- Mice
- Mice, Inbred C57BL
- Mice, Knockout
- Myeloid Differentiation Factor 88
- Neutrophils/immunology
- Neutrophils/microbiology
- Neutrophils/pathology
- Pneumonia, Bacterial/immunology
- Pneumonia, Bacterial/microbiology
- Pneumonia, Bacterial/pathology
- Receptors, Immunologic/deficiency
- Receptors, Immunologic/genetics
- Receptors, Immunologic/metabolism
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Affiliation(s)
- Nuria Rodriguez
- Institute of Medical Microbiology, Immunology and Hygiene, Technical University of Munich, Munich, Germany
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30
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Fonseca-Aten M, Ríos AM, Mejías A, Chávez-Bueno S, Katz K, Gómez AM, McCracken GH, Hardy RD. Mycoplasma pneumoniae induces host-dependent pulmonary inflammation and airway obstruction in mice. Am J Respir Cell Mol Biol 2004; 32:201-10. [PMID: 15626776 DOI: 10.1165/rcmb.2004-0197oc] [Citation(s) in RCA: 53] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Respiratory tract infections result in wheezing in a subset of patients. Mycoplasma pneumoniae is a common etiologic agent of acute respiratory infection in children and adults that has been associated with wheezing in 20-40% of individuals. The current study was undertaken to elucidate the host-dependent pulmonary and immunologic response to M. pneumoniae respiratory infection by studying mice with different immunogenetic backgrounds (BALB/c mice versus C57BL/6 mice). After M. pneumoniae infection, only BALB/c mice developed significant airway obstruction (AO) compared with controls. M. pneumoniae-infected BALB/c mice manifested significantly elevated airway hyperresponsiveness (AHR) compared with C57BL/6 mice 4 and 7 d after inoculation as well as BALB/c control mice. Compared with C57BL/6 mice, BALB/c mice developed worse pulmonary inflammation, including greater peribronchial infiltrates. Infected BALB/c mice had significantly higher concentrations of tumor necrosis factor-alpha, interferon-gamma, interleukin (IL)-1beta, IL-6, IL-12, KC (functional IL-8), and macrophage inflammatory protein 1alpha in the bronchoalveolar lavage fluid compared with infected C57BL/6 mice. No differences in IL-2, IL-4, IL-5, IL-10, and granulocyte/macrophage colony-stimulating factor concentrations were found. The mice in this study exhibited host-dependent infection-related AO and AHR associated with chemokine and T-helper type (Th)1 pulmonary host response and not Th2 response after M. pneumoniae infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Monica Fonseca-Aten
- Department of Pediatrics, University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center, 5323 Harry Hines Boulevard, Dallas, TX 75390-9063, USA.
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31
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Netea MG, Kullberg BJ, Jacobs LEH, Verver-Jansen TJG, van der Ven-Jongekrijg J, Galama JMD, Stalenhoef AFH, Dinarello CA, Van der Meer JWM. Chlamydia pneumoniae stimulates IFN-gamma synthesis through MyD88-dependent, TLR2- and TLR4-independent induction of IL-18 release. THE JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY 2004; 173:1477-82. [PMID: 15240744 DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.173.2.1477] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
Recent studies suggest that inflammation plays a central role in the pathogenesis of atherosclerosis, and IFN-gamma is a prominent proinflammatory mediator in this context. However, it is unclear what stimuli are responsible for initial stimulation of IFN-gamma synthesis in the vessel wall. In the present study, we demonstrate that Chlamydia pneumoniae is an important stimulus for IFN-gamma synthesis, and this production depends on release of endogenous IL-18, IL-12, and IL-1, but not of TNF. The production of the proinflammatory cytokines TNF and IL-1beta from PBMC by sonicated C. pneumoniae was mediated through TLR2-dependent pathways. In contrast, C. pneumoniae stimulated the production of IL-18 through MyD88-dependent, TLR2-, TLR4-, and CD14-independent pathways, mediated by posttranscriptional mechanisms not involving de novo protein synthesis. In conclusion, C. pneumoniae is a potent stimulus of IFN-gamma production, in addition to the proinflammatory cytokines TNF and IL-1beta, which may contribute to its proatherogenic effects. Most interestingly, C. pneumoniae is also a potent inducer of IL-18 production through pathways independent of TLR2 and TLR4.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mihai G Netea
- Department of Medicine, University Medical Center Nijmegen, The Netherlands.
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32
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Burián K, Hegyesi H, Buzás E, Endrész V, Kis Z, Falus A, Gönczöl E. Chlamydophila (Chlamydia) pneumoniae induces histidine decarboxylase production in the mouse lung. Immunol Lett 2004; 89:229-36. [PMID: 14556983 DOI: 10.1016/s0165-2478(03)00154-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/30/2023]
Abstract
Chlamydophila (Chlamydia) pneumoniae (C. pneumoniae) is the third most common cause of community-acquired pneumonia and is probably involved in the development of certain chronic inflammatory diseases, including atherosclerosis and adult-onset asthma. Histamine, synthesized by histidine decarboxylase (HDC) from L-histidine, plays an essential role in allergic and inflammatory processes and in cell differentiation. The effect of C. pneumoniae infection on the expression of HDC has not been examined. In the present study, normal Balb/c mice and HDC knockouts, and control mice with a CD1 background were infected intranasally with C. pneumoniae. On days 1, 3, 7, 16 and 31 after infection, the normal Balb/c mice were sacrificed and divided into three groups. In the homogenized lungs of the first group, C. pneumoniae titres were determined and demonstrated peak levels on day 7. HDC production was revealed by a Western blot assay throughout the observation period of 1-16 days, and cytokine concentrations were determined by ELISA. The interleukin-3 (IL-3) and interleukin-6 (IL-6) levels were highest on day 1 and on days 1-3, respectively; the interferon-gamma (IFN-gamma) and interleukin-4 (IL-4) levels reached the maximum on day 7, but the quantity of IL-4 was still three times higher than that in the control group 16 days after infection. The lungs of the mice in the second group were processed for the in situ demonstration of HDC activity, while the lungs in the third group were stained for C. pneumoniae antigen. The HDC activity was increased predominantly in the bronchial epithelial cells, while C. pneumoniae antigens were expressed especially in the interstitial macrophages. The HDC knockout mice exhibited a higher survival rate after C. pneumoniae infection than did the control mice. These results point to a strong association between local histamine production and other inflammatory mediators and are novel in demonstrating the role of histamine in the pathomechanism of C. pneumoniae infections.
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Affiliation(s)
- Katalin Burián
- Department of Medical Microbiology and Immunobiology, University of Szeged, Szeged, Hungary
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33
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Affiliation(s)
- Anne O'Garra
- National Institute for Medical Research London NW7 1AA, UK
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34
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Trinchieri G. Interleukin-12 and the regulation of innate resistance and adaptive immunity. Nat Rev Immunol 2003; 3:133-46. [PMID: 12563297 DOI: 10.1038/nri1001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2711] [Impact Index Per Article: 129.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
Interleukin-12 (IL-12) is a heterodimeric pro-inflammatory cytokine that induces the production of interferon-gamma (IFN-gamma), favours the differentiation of T helper 1 (T(H)1) cells and forms a link between innate resistance and adaptive immunity. Dendritic cells (DCs) and phagocytes produce IL-12 in response to pathogens during infection. Production of IL-12 is dependent on differential mechanisms of regulation of expression of the genes encoding IL-12, patterns of Toll-like receptor (TLR) expression and cross-regulation between the different DC subsets, involving cytokines such as IL-10 and type I IFN. Recent data, however, argue against an absolute requirement for IL-12 for T(H)1 responses. Our understanding of the relative roles of IL-12 and other factors in T(H)1-type maturation of both CD4+ and CD8+ T cells is discussed here, including the participation in this process of IL-23 and IL-27, two recently discovered members of the new family of heterodimeric cytokines.
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Affiliation(s)
- Giorgio Trinchieri
- Laboratory for Immunological Research, Schering-Plough Research Institute, 27 Chemin des Peupliers, B.P. 11, 69571 Dardilly, France.
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35
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Yang J, Hooper WC, Phillips DJ, Tondella ML, Talkington DF. Induction of proinflammatory cytokines in human lung epithelial cells during Chlamydia pneumoniae infection. Infect Immun 2003; 71:614-20. [PMID: 12540537 PMCID: PMC145357 DOI: 10.1128/iai.71.2.614-620.2003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 48] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Chlamydia pneumoniae is an obligate intracellular human pathogen that causes acute respiratory diseases such as pneumonia and bronchitis. Previous studies have established that C. pneumoniae can induce cytokines in mouse and/or human cells, but little information is available on the cytokine response of respiratory epithelial cells, a first line of infection. In this study, heparin treatment of C. pneumoniae significantly reduced its ability to induce interleukin 8 (IL-8) and tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNF-alpha) mRNA in human lung carcinoma cells, indicating that cytadherence is an important early stimulus for induction of proinflammatory mediators. Although the IL-8, gamma interferon, and TNF-alpha message was consistently induced by infection of A549 cells not treated with heparin, only an elevation of IL-8 protein was detected in A549 supernatants. A549 IL-beta and IL-6 mRNA and supernatant protein profiles were not significantly changed by infection. Heat or UV inactivation of C. pneumoniae only partially reduced the cytokine response, and inhibition of C. pneumoniae protein or DNA synthesis did not affect its ability to induce cytokine gene expression. To prevent stress-induced cytokine release by the A549 cells, centrifugation was not utilized for infection experiments. These experiments establish the importance of cytadherence in cytokine release by cells of respiratory epithelial origin and suggest that further work in the area of cytokine mediators is warranted to gain valuable pathogenic and therapeutic insights.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jun Yang
- Division of Bacterial and Mycotic Diseases, National Center for Infectious Diseases, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, Georgia 30333, USA
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36
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Interleukin-12 and the regulation of innate resistance and adaptive immunity. Nat Rev Immunol 2003. [DOI: 10.1038/nri1001 'a=0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
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37
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Abstract
Aging is associated with chronic low-grade increases in circulating levels of inflammatory markers. A wide range of environmental factors, including smoking, infections, and obesity, genetic factors, and the declining function of sex hormones may contribute to systemic low-grade inflammatory activity in older individuals. Age-associated disease may exacerbate this phenomenon. The multifunctional cytokines TNF-alpha and IL-6 have been associated with morbidity and mortality in the elderly. Evidence supports the direct role of TNF-alpha in the pathogeneses of atherosclerosis, type 2 DM, and AD in older individuals. Age-related increases in systemic levels of TNF-alpha could provide a unifying basis for these disorders. Furthermore, TNF-alpha induces a catabolic state that causes frailty. Circulating levels of IL-6 seem to be a strong risk factor for frailty in the elderly, which could reflect its association with increased production of TNF-alpha. IL-6 also may be a risk factor for thromboembolic complications. In healthy, elderly populations, high circulating levels of TNF-alpha and IL-6 predict mortality, independent of comorbidity, indicating that TNF-alpha and IL-6 cause morbidity and mortality. In cohorts of frail, older individuals, TNF-alpha and IL-6 also act as disease markers. Circulating levels of TNF-alpha seem to be the best predictor of mortality in frail, elderly populations with a high mortality rate, whereas IL-6 seems to be the strongest risk marker in healthy, elderly populations. This finding could reflect that in relatively healthy old populations the increase in circulating levels of IL-6 represent a systemic response to local proinflammatory activities; however, when age-related inflammatory diseases progress, levels of TNF-alpha increase in the circulation and become gradually a stronger risk marker than IL-6. In conclusion low-grade elevations in levels of circulating cytokines are strong independent risk factors of morbidity and mortality in the elderly, and lifestyle factors and comorbidities may modulate these levels. Exercise and dietary interventions may be possible strategies to decrease inflammatory activity and improve the health status of the elderly.
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Affiliation(s)
- Helle Brüünsgaard
- Department of Infectious Diseases M7641, Rigshospitalet, University of Copenhagen, Blegdamsvej 9, DK-2100 Copenhagen, Denmark
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38
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Rottenberg ME, Gigliotti-Rothfuchs A, Wigzell H. The role of IFN-gamma in the outcome of chlamydial infection. Curr Opin Immunol 2002; 14:444-51. [PMID: 12088678 DOI: 10.1016/s0952-7915(02)00361-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 150] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/27/2022]
Abstract
Chlamydia are intracellular bacteria which infect many vertebrates, including humans. They cause a myriad of severe diseases, ranging from asymptomatic infection to pneumonia, blindness or infertility. IFN-gamma plays an important role in defense against acute infection and in the establishment of persistence. Chlamydia have evolved mechanisms to escape IFN-gamma functions. IFN-gamma-mediated effector mechanisms may involve effects on the metabolism of tryptophan or iron, on the inducible NO synthase (iNOS), on the secretion of chemokines and adhesion molecules or on the regulation of T-cell activities. IFN-gamma is secreted by the innate and the adaptive arms of the immune system. Within the former, Chlamydia-infected macrophages express IFN-gamma that in turn mediates resistance to infection. IFN-alpha/beta are pivotal for both IFN-gamma- and iNOS-mediated resistance to chlamydial infection in macrophages.
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Affiliation(s)
- Martín E Rottenberg
- Microbiology & Tumorbiology Center, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden.
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39
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Kis Z, Burián K, Virók D, Kari G, Endrész V, Gönczöl E. Chronic infections and atherosclerosis. Acta Microbiol Immunol Hung 2002; 48:497-510. [PMID: 11791347 DOI: 10.1556/amicr.48.2001.3-4.16] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
The inability of traditional risk factors such as hypercholesterolemia, hypertension, and smoking to explain the incidence of atherosclerosis (AT) in about 50% of the cases prompted a search for additional putative risk factors involved in the development of the disease. Infectious agents have long been suspected to initiate/contribute to the process of AT. It has also been suggested that inflammation, either related to infectious agents or independent from infection, may mediate the atherogenic process [1, 2].
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Affiliation(s)
- Z Kis
- Department of Medical Microbiology, Szeged University, Dóm tér 10, H-6720 Szeged, Hungary
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40
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Sarén A, Pascolo S, Stevanovic S, Dumrese T, Puolakkainen M, Sarvas M, Rammensee HG, Vuola JM. Identification of Chlamydia pneumoniae-derived mouse CD8 epitopes. Infect Immun 2002; 70:3336-43. [PMID: 12065471 PMCID: PMC128055 DOI: 10.1128/iai.70.7.3336-3343.2002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/25/2002] [Revised: 03/15/2002] [Accepted: 04/18/2002] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Chlamydia pneumoniae is a common intracellular human pathogen that has been associated with several severe pathological conditions, including coronary heart disease and atherosclerosis. There is no vaccine against C. pneumoniae infection, but CD8(+) T cells have been shown to be crucial for protection during experimental infection. However, the effector functions and epitope specificity of the protective CD8(+) T cell remain unknown. The aim of this study was to identify C. pneumoniae-derived mouse CD8 epitopes by using a recent epitope prediction method. Of four C. pneumoniae proteins (the major outer membrane protein, outer membrane protein 2, polymorphic outer membrane protein 5, and heat shock protein 60), 53 potential CD8(+) T-cell epitopes were predicted by H-2 class I binding algorithms. Nineteen of the 53 peptides were identified as CD8 epitopes by testing for induction of a cytotoxic response after immunization. To test whether the predicted epitopes are naturally processed and presented by C. pneumoniae-infected cells, we generated a panel of seven peptide-specific cytotoxic T lymphocyte lines that were subsequently tested for recognition of C. pneumoniae-infected target cells. By using this strategy, we were able to identify three C. pneumoniae CD8 epitopes that were, indeed, processed and presented on infected cells. Identification of these natural CD8 epitopes provides tools for characterization of CD8(+) T-cell function in vivo and generation of epitope-specific prevention strategies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anne Sarén
- Department of Vaccines, National Public Health Institute, Helsinki, Finland.
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41
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Erkkilä L, Laitinen K, Laurila A, Saikku P, Leinonen M. Experimental Chlamydia pneumoniae infection in NIH/S mice: effect of reinoculation with chlamydial or cell preparation on culture, PCR and histological findings of lung tissue. Vaccine 2002; 20:2318-24. [PMID: 12009287 DOI: 10.1016/s0264-410x(02)00098-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/27/2022]
Abstract
The cellular components present in chlamydial preparations may contribute to the course of the experimental infection. NIH/S mice were inoculated and reinoculated intranasally with Chlamydia pneumoniae or a cellular preparation. The mock inoculation induced only mild histological changes in the lungs, which possibly induced partial protection against subsequent C. pneumoniae infection and, when given as reinoculation, possibly reactivated the culture-negative infection as culture-positive. In addition, serum antibodies against mouse heat shock protein 60 (Hsp60) were found in a few mice. In conclusion, the main immunopathogenic factors in a C. pneumoniae mouse model are chlamydial components. However, a cellular preparation may participate in an inflammatory reaction. Autoimmunity against Hsp60 may also play a role in the pathogenesis of C. pneumoniae infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Leena Erkkilä
- Department of Microbiology, National Public Health Institute, Oulu, Finland.
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42
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Elkins KL, Cooper A, Colombini SM, Cowley SC, Kieffer TL. In vivo clearance of an intracellular bacterium, Francisella tularensis LVS, is dependent on the p40 subunit of interleukin-12 (IL-12) but not on IL-12 p70. Infect Immun 2002; 70:1936-48. [PMID: 11895957 PMCID: PMC127864 DOI: 10.1128/iai.70.4.1936-1948.2002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 104] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
To determine the role of interleukin-12 (IL-12) in primary and secondary immunity to a model intracellular bacterium, we have comprehensively evaluated infection with Francisella tularensis LVS in three murine models of IL-12 deficiency. Mice lacking the p40 protein of IL-12 (p40 knockout [KO] mice) and mice treated in vivo with neutralizing anti-IL-12 antibodies survived large doses of primary and secondary LVS infection but never cleared bacteria and exhibited a chronic infection. In dramatic contrast, mice lacking the p35 protein (p35 KO mice) of heterodimeric IL-12 readily survived large doses of primary sublethal LVS infection as well as maximal secondary lethal challenge, with only a slight delay in clearance of bacteria. LVS-immune wild-type (WT) lymphocytes produced large amounts of gamma interferon (IFN-gamma), but p35 KO and p40 KO lymphocytes produced much less; nonetheless, similar amounts of NO were found in all cultures containing immune lymphocytes, and all immune lymphocytes were equally capable of controlling intracellular growth of LVS in vitro. Purified CD4(+) and CD8(+) T cells from both WT and p40 KO mice controlled intracellular growth, even though T cells from WT mice produced much more IFN-gamma than those from p40 KO mice, and p40 KO T cells did not adopt a Th2 phenotype. Thus, while IL-12 p70 stimulation of IFN-gamma production may be important for bacteriostasis, IL-12 p70 is not necessary for appropriate development of LVS-immune T cells that are capable of controlling intracellular bacterial growth and for clearance of primary or secondary LVS infection. Instead, an additional mechanism dependent on the IL-12 p40 protein, either alone or in another complex such as the newly discovered heterodimer IL-23, appears to be responsible for actual clearance of this intracellular bacterium.
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Affiliation(s)
- Karen L Elkins
- Laboratory of Mycobacteria, Division of Bacterial, Parasitic, and Allergenic Products, CBER/FDA, Rockville, Maryland 20852, USA.
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43
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Haranaga S, Yamaguchi H, Friedman H, Izumi S, Yamamoto Y. Chlamydia pneumoniae infects and multiplies in lymphocytes in vitro. Infect Immun 2001; 69:7753-9. [PMID: 11705957 PMCID: PMC98871 DOI: 10.1128/iai.69.12.7753-7759.2001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
The obligate intracellular pathogen Chlamydia (Chlamydophila) pneumoniae is known to be associated with some chronic inflammatory diseases, such as atherosclerosis. Interaction between C. pneumoniae and immune cells is important in the development of such diseases. However, susceptibility of immune cells, particularly lymphocytes, to C. pneumoniae infection has not been reported, even though lymphocytes play a pivotal role in the development of the diseases caused by this bacterium. In this regard, we examined the susceptibility of lymphocytes to C. pneumoniae infection in vitro. The results demonstrated that human peripheral blood lymphocytes as well as mouse spleen lymphocytes could be infected with C. pneumoniae. Furthermore, purified T lymphocytes as well as established T-lymphocyte cell line cells showed an obvious susceptibility to C. pneumoniae infection, indicating that T cells could be one of the host cells for this bacterial infection. These findings reveal a new infection site for C. pneumoniae, i.e., lymphocytes.
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Affiliation(s)
- S Haranaga
- Department of Medical Microbiology and Immunology, University of South Florida College of Medicine, Tampa, Florida 33612, USA
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44
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Rothfuchs AG, Gigliotti D, Palmblad K, Andersson U, Wigzell H, Rottenberg ME. IFN-alpha beta-dependent, IFN-gamma secretion by bone marrow-derived macrophages controls an intracellular bacterial infection. JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY (BALTIMORE, MD. : 1950) 2001; 167:6453-61. [PMID: 11714812 DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.167.11.6453] [Citation(s) in RCA: 98] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
Several reports have indicated that cell lineages apart from NK and T cells can also express IFN-gamma. However, the biological relevance of this finding is uncertain. We show in this study that bone marrow-derived macrophages (BMMs) express IFN-gamma at the mRNA and protein level early after infection with Chlamydia pneumoniae. Increased IFN-gamma mRNA accumulation by infected BMMs is early, transient, and requires both bacterial and host protein synthesis. The induction of IFN-gamma mRNA levels is independent of IL-12 and was dramatically enhanced in IL-10(-/-) BMMs. Such IL-10(-/-) BMMs contained less bacteria than the wild-type controls, whereas IFN-gammaR(-/-) BMMs showed increased C. pneumoniae load. Inducible NO synthase (iNOS) also participates in the control of bacterial load, as shown by the enhanced numbers of C. pneumoniae in iNOS(-/-) BMMs. However, the increased accumulation of iNOS mRNA and NO in C. pneumoniae-infected BMMs depended on the presence of IFN-alphabeta, but was independent of IFN-gamma. Interestingly, IFN-alphabeta are also required for increased IFN-gamma mRNA accumulation in C. pneumoniae-infected BMMs. Accordingly, IFN-alphabetaR(-/-) BMMs showed higher levels of C. pneumoniae than wild-type BMMs. Our findings unravel an autocrine/paracrine macrophage activation pathway by showing an IFN-alphabeta-dependent IFN-gamma and iNOS induction in response to infection, which protects macrophages against intracellular bacterial growth.
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Affiliation(s)
- A G Rothfuchs
- Microbiology and Tumorbiology Center, Astrid Lindgren's Hospital, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden
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45
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Burian K, Berencsi K, Endresz V, Gyulai Z, Valyi-Nagy T, Valyi-Nagy I, Bakay M, Geng Y, Virok D, Kari L, Hajnal-Papp R, Trinchieri G, Gonczol E. Chlamydia pneumoniae exacerbates aortic inflammatory foci caused by murine cytomegalovirus infection in normocholesterolemic mice. CLINICAL AND DIAGNOSTIC LABORATORY IMMUNOLOGY 2001; 8:1263-6. [PMID: 11687473 PMCID: PMC96259 DOI: 10.1128/cdli.8.6.1263-1266.2001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
Inflammatory foci induced by murine cytomegalovirus infection in normocholesterolemic mice were present temporarily in the aortic wall, but some of these foci developed into advanced lesions that persisted late after infection. The early foci induced by virus infection were significantly exacerbated following a single inoculation with Chlamydia pneumoniae.
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Affiliation(s)
- K Burian
- Department of Medical Microbiology, Szeged, Hungary
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46
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Del Río L, Buendía AJ, Sánchez J, Gallego MC, Caro MR, Ortega N, Seva J, Pallarés FJ, Cuello F, Salinas J. Endogenous interleukin-12 is not required for resolution of Chlamydophila abortus (Chlamydia psittaci serotype 1) infection in mice. Infect Immun 2001; 69:4808-15. [PMID: 11447154 PMCID: PMC98568 DOI: 10.1128/iai.69.8.4808-4815.2001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
A Th1 immune response involving gamma interferon (IFN-gamma) production is required to eliminate Chlamydophila abortus infections. In this study, the role of interleukin-12 (IL-12) in protecting against C. abortus infection was investigated using IL-12(-/-) and wild-type (WT) C57BL/6 mice to determine the role of this Th1-promoting cytokine. IL-12(-/-) mice were able to eliminate the C. abortus infection in a primary infection. However, there was a delay in the clearance of bacteria when IL-12(-/-) mice were infected with a sublethal dose of C. abortus, the delay being associated with a lower production of IFN-gamma. The low level of IFN-gamma was essential for survival of IL-12(-/-) infected mice. Both WT and IL-12(-/-) mice developed a Th1 immune response against C. abortus infection, since they both produced IFN-gamma and immunoglobulin G2a antibody isotype. In addition, when mice were given a secondary infectious challenge with C. abortus, a protective host response which resolved the secondary infection was developed by both WT and IL-12(-/-) mice. The lack of IL-12 resulted in few infiltrating CD4(+) T cells in the liver relative to the number in WT mice, although the number of CD8(+) T cells was slightly higher. The more intense Th1 response presented by WT mice may have a pathogenic effect, as the animals showed higher morbidity after the infection. In conclusion, these results suggest that although IL-12 expedites the clearance of C. abortus infection, this cytokine is not essential for the establishment of a protective host response against the infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- L Del Río
- Departamento de Patología Animal (Sanidad Animal), Facultad de Veterinaria, Universidad de Murcia, Campus de Espinardo, 30100 Murcia, Spain
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47
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Abstract
The last decade has seen the emergence of immunomodulators as promising therapeutic agents in infectious diseases. A diverse array of recombinant, synthetic and natural immunomodulatory preparations for prophylaxis and treatment of various infections are available today. Some of these substances, such as granulocyte colony-stimulating factor (G-CSF), interferons, imiquimod and bacterial-derived preparations are already licensed for use in patients. Others including IL-12, various chemokines, synthetic cytosine phosphate-guanosine (CpG) oligodeoxynucleotides and glucans are being investigated extensively in clinical and preclinical studies. Immunomodulatory regimens offer an attractive approach as an adjunct modality for control of microbial diseases in the era of antibiotic resistance. Practical application of the advances in molecular biology, bioinformatics, genomic mining and high-throughput peptide synthesis should foster future discovery and development of novel immunomodulators contingent upon scientific evidence rather than dictates of discursive empiricism.
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Affiliation(s)
- K N Masihi
- Robet Koch Institute, Nordufer 20, D-13353 Berlin, Germany.
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