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Wang X, Yu D, Chui L, Zhou T, Feng Y, Cao Y, Zhi S. A Comprehensive Review on Shiga Toxin Subtypes and Their Niche-Related Distribution Characteristics in Shiga-Toxin-Producing E. coli and Other Bacterial Hosts. Microorganisms 2024; 12:687. [PMID: 38674631 PMCID: PMC11052178 DOI: 10.3390/microorganisms12040687] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/23/2024] [Revised: 03/25/2024] [Accepted: 03/27/2024] [Indexed: 04/28/2024] Open
Abstract
Shiga toxin (Stx), the main virulence factor of Shiga-toxin-producing E. coli (STEC), was first discovered in Shigella dysenteriae strains. While several other bacterial species have since been reported to produce Stx, STEC poses the most significant risk to human health due to its widespread prevalence across various animal hosts that have close contact with human populations. Based on its biochemical and molecular characteristics, Shiga toxin can be grouped into two types, Stx1 and Stx2, among which a variety of variants and subtypes have been identified in various bacteria and host species. Interestingly, the different Stx subtypes appear to vary in their host distribution characteristics and in the severity of diseases that they are associated with. As such, this review provides a comprehensive overview on the bacterial species that have been recorded to possess stx genes to date, with a specific focus on the various Stx subtype variants discovered in STEC, their prevalence in certain host species, and their disease-related characteristics. This review provides a better understanding of the Stx subtypes and highlights the need for rapid and accurate approaches to toxin subtyping for the proper evaluation of the health risks associated with Shiga-toxin-related bacterial food contamination and human infections.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xuan Wang
- School of Public Health, Ningbo University, Ningbo 315000, China; (X.W.); (T.Z.); (Y.F.)
| | - Daniel Yu
- School of Public Health, Univeristy of Alberta, Edmonton, AB T6G 2R3, Canada;
| | - Linda Chui
- Alberta Precision Laboratories-ProvLab, Edmonton, AB T6G 2J2, Canada;
- Department of Laboratory Medicine and Pathology, University of Alberta, Edmonton, AB T6G 2B7, Canada
| | - Tiantian Zhou
- School of Public Health, Ningbo University, Ningbo 315000, China; (X.W.); (T.Z.); (Y.F.)
| | - Yu Feng
- School of Public Health, Ningbo University, Ningbo 315000, China; (X.W.); (T.Z.); (Y.F.)
| | - Yuhao Cao
- School of Basic Medical Sciences, Ningbo University, Ningbo 315000, China;
| | - Shuai Zhi
- School of Public Health, Ningbo University, Ningbo 315000, China; (X.W.); (T.Z.); (Y.F.)
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2
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Konieczny K, Pomorska-Mól M. A Literature Review of Selected Bacterial Diseases in Alpacas and Llamas-Epidemiology, Clinical Signs and Diagnostics. Animals (Basel) 2023; 14:45. [PMID: 38200776 PMCID: PMC10778254 DOI: 10.3390/ani14010045] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/02/2023] [Revised: 12/17/2023] [Accepted: 12/19/2023] [Indexed: 01/12/2024] Open
Abstract
The breeding of South American Camelids (SACs), particularly llamas and alpacas, is becoming increasingly popular in regions that are not their natural habitat, including Europe. These animals are considered to be relatively disease resistant. However, due to their growing popularity, special attention should be given to infections in llamas and alpacas. Knowledge of bacterial infections is very important to veterinarians and breeders. Many of these diseases also have zoonotic potential, so these animals must be considered as sources of potential zoonotic infections. Due to the limited information on many diseases occurring in llamas and alpacas, veterinarians often rely on data collected in other animal species, focusing on cattle, sheep and horses. This work aims to summarise the knowledge of diseases caused by Clostridium spp., Mycobacterium tuberculosis complex, Mycobacterium avium subsp. paratuberculosis, Streptococcus spp., Escherichia coli, Pasteurella multocida, Manheimia haemolytica and Corynebacterium pseudotuberculosis in llamas and alpacas, with particular attention to epidemiology, clinical signs and diagnostics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kacper Konieczny
- Department of Internal Diseases and Diagnostics, Poznan University of Life Sciences, Wolynska 35, 60-637 Poznan, Poland;
| | - Małgorzata Pomorska-Mól
- Department of Preclinical Sciences and Infectious Diseases, Poznan University of Life Sciences, Wolynska 35, 60-637 Poznan, Poland
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3
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Outbreak of STEC O157:H7 linked to a milk pasteurisation failure at a dairy farm in England, 2019. Epidemiol Infect 2022; 150:e114. [PMID: 35581924 PMCID: PMC9252982 DOI: 10.1017/s0950268822000929] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
In November 2019, an outbreak of Shiga toxin-producing Escherichia coli O157:H7 was detected in South Yorkshire, England. Initial investigations established consumption of milk from a local dairy as a common exposure. A sample of pasteurised milk tested the next day failed the phosphatase test, indicating contamination of the pasteurised milk by unpasteurised (raw) milk. The dairy owner agreed to immediately cease production and initiate a recall. Inspection of the pasteuriser revealed a damaged seal on the flow divert valve. Ultimately, there were 21 confirmed cases linked to the outbreak, of which 11 (52%) were female, and 12/21 (57%) were either <15 or >65 years of age. Twelve (57%) patients were treated in hospital, and three cases developed haemolytic uraemic syndrome. Although the outbreak strain was not detected in the milk samples, it was detected in faecal samples from the cattle on the farm. Outbreaks of gastrointestinal disease caused by milk pasteurisation failures are rare in the UK. However, such outbreaks are a major public health concern as, unlike unpasteurised milk, pasteurised milk is marketed as ‘safe to drink’ and sold to a larger, and more dispersed, population. The rapid, co-ordinated multi-agency investigation initiated in response to this outbreak undoubtedly prevented further cases.
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4
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Withenshaw SM, Smith RP, Davies R, Smith AEO, Gray E, Rodgers J. A systematized review and qualitative synthesis of potential risk factors associated with the occurrence of non‐O157 Shiga toxin‐producing
Escherichia coli
(STEC) in the primary production of cattle. Compr Rev Food Sci Food Saf 2022; 21:2363-2390. [DOI: 10.1111/1541-4337.12929] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/02/2021] [Revised: 01/19/2022] [Accepted: 01/24/2022] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Susan M. Withenshaw
- Department of Epidemiological Sciences Animal and Plant Health Agency – Weybridge New Haw UK
| | - Richard P. Smith
- Department of Epidemiological Sciences Animal and Plant Health Agency – Weybridge New Haw UK
| | - Rob Davies
- Department of Bacteriology Animal and Plant Health Agency – Weybridge New Haw UK
| | - Alice E. O. Smith
- Department of Epidemiological Sciences Animal and Plant Health Agency – Weybridge New Haw UK
| | - Elizabeth Gray
- Department of Epidemiological Sciences Animal and Plant Health Agency – Weybridge New Haw UK
| | - John Rodgers
- Department of Bacteriology Animal and Plant Health Agency – Weybridge New Haw UK
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5
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McCarthy SC, Burgess CM, Fanning S, Duffy G. An Overview of Shiga-Toxin Producing Escherichia coli Carriage and Prevalence in the Ovine Meat Production Chain. Foodborne Pathog Dis 2021; 18:147-168. [PMID: 33395551 DOI: 10.1089/fpd.2020.2861] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Shiga-toxin producing Escherichia coli (STEC) are zoonotic foodborne pathogens that are capable of causing serious human illness. Ovine ruminants are recognized as an important source of STEC and a notable contributor to contamination within the food industry. This review examined the prevalence of STEC in the ovine food production chain from farm-to-fork, reporting carriage in sheep herds, during abattoir processing, and in raw and ready-to-eat meats and meat products. Factors affecting the prevalence of STEC, including seasonality and animal age, were also examined. A relative prevalence can be obtained by calculating the mean prevalence observed over multiple surveys, weighted by sample number. A relative mean prevalence was obtained for STEC O157 and all STEC serogroups at multiple points along the ovine production chain by using suitable published surveys. A relative mean prevalence (and range) for STEC O157 was calculated: for feces 4.4% (0.2-28.1%), fleece 7.6% (0.8-12.8%), carcass 2.1% (0.2-9.8%), and raw ovine meat 1.9% (0.2-6.3%). For all STEC independent of serotype, a relative mean prevalence was calculated: for feces 33.3% (0.9-90.0%), carcass 58.7% (2.0-81.6%), and raw ovine meat 15.4% (2.7-35.5%). The prevalence of STEC in ovine fleece was reported in only one earlier survey, which recorded a prevalence of 86.2%. Animal age was reported to affect shedding in many surveys, with younger animals typically reported as having a higher prevalence of the pathogen. The prevalence of STEC decreases significantly along the ovine production chain after the application of postharvest interventions. Ovine products pose a small risk of potential STEC contamination to the food supply chain.
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Affiliation(s)
- Siobhán C McCarthy
- Food Safety Department, Teagasc Food Research Centre, Ashtown, Dublin, Ireland.,UCD-Centre for Food Safety, School of Public Health, Physiotherapy and Sports Science, University College Dublin, Dublin, Ireland
| | - Catherine M Burgess
- Food Safety Department, Teagasc Food Research Centre, Ashtown, Dublin, Ireland
| | - Séamus Fanning
- UCD-Centre for Food Safety, School of Public Health, Physiotherapy and Sports Science, University College Dublin, Dublin, Ireland
| | - Geraldine Duffy
- Food Safety Department, Teagasc Food Research Centre, Ashtown, Dublin, Ireland
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6
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Treacy J, Jenkins C, Paranthaman K, Jorgensen F, Mueller-Doblies D, Anjum M, Kaindama L, Hartman H, Kirchner M, Carson T, Kar-Purkayastha I. Outbreak of Shiga toxin-producing Escherichia coli O157:H7 linked to raw drinking milk resolved by rapid application of advanced pathogen characterisation methods, England, August to October 2017. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2020; 24. [PMID: 31014418 PMCID: PMC6826345 DOI: 10.2807/1560-7917.es.2019.24.16.1800191] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
An outbreak of Shiga toxin-producing Escherichia coli (STEC) O157:H7 occurred on the Isle of Wight between August and October 2017. Of the seven cases linked to the outbreak, five were identified through the statutory notification process and two were identified through national surveillance of whole genome sequencing data. Enhanced surveillance questionnaires established a common link to a farm, and link to the likely food vehicle, raw drinking milk (RDM). Microbiological investigations, including PCR, identified the presence of STEC O157:H7 in samples of RDM. Analysis of core genome single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) data of STEC O157:H7 from human stool specimens, animal faecal samples and RDM demonstrated a one SNP difference between isolates, and therefore close genetic relatedness. Control measures that were put in place included suspension of sales and recall of RDM, as well as restrictions on public access to parts of the farm. Successful integration of traditional epidemiological surveillance and advanced laboratory methods for the detection and characterisation of STEC O157:H7 from human, animal and environmental samples enabled prompt identification of the outbreak vehicle and provided evidence to support the outbreak control team’s decision-making, leading to implementation of effective control measures in a timely manner.
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Affiliation(s)
- Juli Treacy
- Public Health England South East, Hampshire and Isle of Wight Health Protection Team, Fareham, United Kingdom
| | - Claire Jenkins
- National Infection Service, Public Health England, London, United Kingdom
| | - Karthik Paranthaman
- National Infection Service, Field Epidemiology Service, Public Health England, London, United Kingdom
| | - Frieda Jorgensen
- National Infection Service, Food Water and Environmental Microbiology Laboratory, Public Health England, Porton, United Kingdom
| | | | - Muna Anjum
- Animal and Plant Health Agency, Surrey, United Kingdom
| | - Lukeki Kaindama
- Gastrointestinal Emerging and Zoonoses Infections, Public Health England, London, United Kingdom
| | - Hassan Hartman
- Public Health England South East, Hampshire and Isle of Wight Health Protection Team, Fareham, United Kingdom
| | | | | | - Ishani Kar-Purkayastha
- Public Health England South East, Hampshire and Isle of Wight Health Protection Team, Fareham, United Kingdom
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7
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Sharp A, Smout E, Byrne L, Greenwood R, Abdoollah R, Hutchinson C, Jenkins C, Arunachalam N, Padfield S, Hughes G, Gent M. An outbreak of Shiga toxin-producing Escherichia coli O157:H7 linked to a mud-based obstacle course, England, August 2018. Zoonoses Public Health 2020; 67:467-473. [PMID: 32564515 DOI: 10.1111/zph.12744] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/21/2019] [Revised: 04/11/2020] [Accepted: 05/19/2020] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
Abstract
In August 2018, Public Health England (PHE) was made aware of five probable cases of Shiga toxin-producing Escherichia coli (STEC) O157:H7 among individuals reporting participation in a mud-based obstacle race. An additional four cases, identified via routine whole-genome sequencing, were subsequently linked to the same event. Two of the nine cases were due to secondary household transmission. Despite an agreement between the event organizers and the local authority, to ensure that all livestock were removed from the site 28 days before the event, sheep were observed grazing on some of the routes taken by the runners 2 days prior to the race taking place. A retrospective review of incidents reported to PHE between 2015 and 2018 identified 41 cases of gastroenteritis associated with muddy assault course events. Of these, 25 cases were due to infection with STEC O157:H7, of which all but one were associated with outbreaks. Due to the environment in which such events take place, it is impossible to entirely remove the risk of exposure to potentially pathogenic zoonoses. However, race organizers should ensure that livestock are removed from the course 28 days before the event. They should also ensure that participants are made aware of the risk of contracting gastrointestinal disease from the environment, and to stress the importance of hand hygiene post-event and the risk of secondary transmission, particularly to children who are at risk of developing haemolytic uraemic syndrome.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alexander Sharp
- Yorkshire and the Humber Health Protection Team, Public Health England, Leeds, UK
| | - Elizabeth Smout
- Field Service, National Infection Service, Public Health England, London, UK.,UK Field Epidemiology Training Programme, Public Health England, London, UK
| | - Lisa Byrne
- Gastrointestinal Infections Department, National Infection Service, Public Health England, London, UK
| | - Rebecca Greenwood
- Yorkshire and the Humber Health Protection Team, Public Health England, Leeds, UK
| | | | - Charlotte Hutchinson
- Yorkshire and the Humber Health Protection Team, Public Health England, Leeds, UK
| | - Claire Jenkins
- Gastrointestinal Bacteria Reference Unit, National Infection Service, Public Health England, London, UK
| | - Nachi Arunachalam
- Yorkshire and the Humber Health Protection Team, Public Health England, Leeds, UK
| | - Simon Padfield
- Yorkshire and the Humber Health Protection Team, Public Health England, Leeds, UK
| | - Gareth Hughes
- Field Service, National Infection Service, Public Health England, London, UK
| | - Mike Gent
- Yorkshire and the Humber Health Protection Team, Public Health England, Leeds, UK
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8
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Kim JS, Lee MS, Kim JH. Recent Updates on Outbreaks of Shiga Toxin-Producing Escherichia coli and Its Potential Reservoirs. Front Cell Infect Microbiol 2020; 10:273. [PMID: 32582571 PMCID: PMC7287036 DOI: 10.3389/fcimb.2020.00273] [Citation(s) in RCA: 74] [Impact Index Per Article: 18.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/29/2020] [Accepted: 05/07/2020] [Indexed: 12/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Following infection with certain strains of Shiga toxin-producing Escherichia coli (STEC), particularly enterohemorrhagic ones, patients are at elevated risk for developing life-threatening extraintestinal complications, such as acute renal failure. Hence, these bacteria represent a public health concern in both developed and developing countries. Shiga toxins (Stxs) expressed by STEC are highly cytotoxic class II ribosome-inactivating proteins and primary virulence factors responsible for major clinical signs of Stx-mediated pathogenesis, including bloody diarrhea, hemolytic uremic syndrome (HUS), and neurological complications. Ruminant animals are thought to serve as critical environmental reservoirs of Stx-producing Escherichia coli (STEC), but other emerging or arising reservoirs of the toxin-producing bacteria have been overlooked. In particular, a number of new animal species from wildlife and aquaculture industries have recently been identified as unexpected reservoir or spillover hosts of STEC. Here, we summarize recent findings about reservoirs of STEC and review outbreaks of these bacteria both within and outside the United States. A better understanding of environmental transmission to humans will facilitate the development of novel strategies for preventing zoonotic STEC infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jun-Seob Kim
- Infectious Disease Research Center, Korea Research Institute of Bioscience and Biotechnology, Daejeon, South Korea
| | - Moo-Seung Lee
- Department of Biomolecular Science, KRIBB School of Bioscience, Korea University of Science and Technology (UST), Daejeon, South Korea.,Environmental Diseases Research Center, Korea Research Institute of Bioscience and Biotechnology, Daejeon, South Korea
| | - Ji Hyung Kim
- Infectious Disease Research Center, Korea Research Institute of Bioscience and Biotechnology, Daejeon, South Korea.,Department of Biomolecular Science, KRIBB School of Bioscience, Korea University of Science and Technology (UST), Daejeon, South Korea
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9
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Schlager S, Lepuschitz S, Ruppitsch W, Ableitner O, Pietzka A, Neubauer S, Stöger A, Lassnig H, Mikula C, Springer B, Allerberger F. Petting zoos as sources of Shiga toxin-producing Escherichia coli (STEC) infections. Int J Med Microbiol 2018; 308:927-932. [PMID: 30257809 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijmm.2018.06.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/27/2018] [Revised: 06/20/2018] [Accepted: 06/24/2018] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
Despite their general low incidence, Shiga toxin-producing Escherichia (E.) coli (STEC) infections are considered an important public health issue due to the severity of illness that can develop, particularly in young children. We report on two Austrian petting zoos, one in Tyrol (2015) and one in Vorarlberg (2016), which were identified as highly likely infection sources of STEC infections. The petting zoo related cases involved a case of hemolytic uremic syndrome (HUS) due to STEC O157:HNM in 2015 and an outbreak of STEC O157:H7 infections affecting five young children and two adults in 2016. The HUS case accounted for 2.8% of the 36 STEC O157:HNM/H7 infections notified in Austria in 2015 (5,9% of 17 HUS cases). The seven cases described for 2016 accounted for 4.0% of the 177 human STEC infections documented for Austria in 2016, and for 19.4% of the 36 STEC O157:HNM/H7 infections notified that year. The evaluation of the STEC infections described here clearly underlines the potential of sequence-based typing methods to offer suitable resolutions for public health applications. Furthermore, we give a state-of-the-art mini-review on the risks of petting zoos concerning exposure to the zoonotic hazard STEC and on proper measures of risk-prevention.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sabine Schlager
- National Reference Centre for Escherichia coli including Verotoxin producing E. coli, Austrian Agency for Health and Food Safety (AGES), Beethovenstraße 6, A-8010 Graz, Austria
| | - Sarah Lepuschitz
- National Reference Centre for Escherichia coli including Verotoxin producing E. coli, Austrian Agency for Health and Food Safety (AGES), Beethovenstraße 6, A-8010 Graz, Austria
| | - Werner Ruppitsch
- National Reference Centre for Escherichia coli including Verotoxin producing E. coli, Austrian Agency for Health and Food Safety (AGES), Beethovenstraße 6, A-8010 Graz, Austria
| | - Oksana Ableitner
- National Reference Centre for Escherichia coli including Verotoxin producing E. coli, Austrian Agency for Health and Food Safety (AGES), Beethovenstraße 6, A-8010 Graz, Austria
| | - Ariane Pietzka
- National Reference Centre for Escherichia coli including Verotoxin producing E. coli, Austrian Agency for Health and Food Safety (AGES), Beethovenstraße 6, A-8010 Graz, Austria
| | - Sabine Neubauer
- National Reference Centre for Escherichia coli including Verotoxin producing E. coli, Austrian Agency for Health and Food Safety (AGES), Beethovenstraße 6, A-8010 Graz, Austria
| | - Anna Stöger
- National Reference Centre for Escherichia coli including Verotoxin producing E. coli, Austrian Agency for Health and Food Safety (AGES), Beethovenstraße 6, A-8010 Graz, Austria
| | - Heimo Lassnig
- National Reference Centre for Escherichia coli including Verotoxin producing E. coli, Austrian Agency for Health and Food Safety (AGES), Beethovenstraße 6, A-8010 Graz, Austria
| | - Claudia Mikula
- National Reference Centre for Escherichia coli including Verotoxin producing E. coli, Austrian Agency for Health and Food Safety (AGES), Beethovenstraße 6, A-8010 Graz, Austria
| | - Burkhard Springer
- National Reference Centre for Escherichia coli including Verotoxin producing E. coli, Austrian Agency for Health and Food Safety (AGES), Beethovenstraße 6, A-8010 Graz, Austria
| | - Franz Allerberger
- National Reference Centre for Escherichia coli including Verotoxin producing E. coli, Austrian Agency for Health and Food Safety (AGES), Beethovenstraße 6, A-8010 Graz, Austria.
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10
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Wilson D, Dolan G, Aird H, Sorrell S, Dallman TJ, Jenkins C, Robertson L, Gorton R. Farm-to-fork investigation of an outbreak of Shiga toxin-producing Escherichia coli O157. Microb Genom 2018; 4. [PMID: 29488865 PMCID: PMC5885012 DOI: 10.1099/mgen.0.000160] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Fifteen cases of Shiga toxin-producing Escherichia coli (STEC) O157 infection were associated with the consumption of contaminated food from two related butchers' premises in the north-east of England. Ten cases were admitted to hospital and seven cases developed haemolytic uraemic syndrome. A case control study found a statistically significant association with the purchase of raw and/or ready-to-eat (RTE) food supplied by the implicated butchers' shops. Isolates of STEC O157 were detected in two raw lamb burgers taken from one of the butchers' premises. Subsequent environmental sampling identified STEC O157 in bovine faecal samples on the farm supplying cattle to the implicated butchers for slaughter. Whole genome sequencing (WGS) was performed on the Illumina HiSeq 2500 platform on all cultures isolated from humans, food and cattle during the investigation. Quality trimmed Illumina reads were mapped to the STEC O157 reference genome Sakai using bwa-mem, and single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) were identified using gatk2. Analysis of the core genome SNP positions (>90 % consensus, minimum depth 10×, mapping quality (MQ)≥30) revealed that all isolates from humans, food and cattle differed by two SNPs. WGS analysis provided forensic-level microbiological evidence to support the epidemiological links between the farm, the butchers' premises and the clinical cases. Cross-contamination from raw meat to RTE foods at the butchers' premises was the most plausible transmission route. The evidence presented here highlights the importance of taking measures to mitigate the risks of cross-contamination in this setting.
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Affiliation(s)
- Deborah Wilson
- 1Public Health England North East Health Protection Team, New castle, UK
| | - Gayle Dolan
- 2Public Health England Field Epidemiology Service, New castle, UK
| | - Heather Aird
- 3Public Health England Food, Water and Environmental Microbiology Laboratory, York, UK
| | | | - Timothy J Dallman
- 5Public Health England Gastrointestinal Bacteria Reference Unit, Colindale, London, UK
| | - Claire Jenkins
- 5Public Health England Gastrointestinal Bacteria Reference Unit, Colindale, London, UK
| | - Lucy Robertson
- 6Stockton-on-Tees District Council Environmental Health, Stockton-on-Tees, UK
| | - Russell Gorton
- 2Public Health England Field Epidemiology Service, New castle, UK
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11
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Marchant P, Hidalgo-Hermoso E, Espinoza K, Retamal P. Prevalence of Salmonella enterica and Shiga toxin-producing Escherichia coli in zoo animals from Chile. J Vet Sci 2017; 17:583-586. [PMID: 27030195 PMCID: PMC5204038 DOI: 10.4142/jvs.2016.17.4.583] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/08/2015] [Revised: 12/17/2015] [Accepted: 03/04/2016] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Salmonella (S.) enterica and Shiga toxin-producing Escherichia coli (STEC) are foodborne pathogens. Here, we report the prevalence of S. enterica and STEC in feces of 316 zoo animals belonging to 61 species from Chile. S. enterica and STEC strains were detected in 7.5% and 4.4% of animals, respectively. All Salmonella isolates corresponded to the serotype Enteritidis. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first report of S. Enteritidis in the culpeo fox (Lycalopex culpaeus), black-capped capuchin (Sapajus apella) and Peruvian pelican (Pelecanus thagus) and the first STEC report in Thomson's gazelle (Eudorcas thomsonii).
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Affiliation(s)
- Paulina Marchant
- Faculty of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, University of Chile, Santiago, 8820808, Chile
| | | | - Karen Espinoza
- Faculty of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, University of Chile, Santiago, 8820808, Chile
| | - Patricio Retamal
- Faculty of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, University of Chile, Santiago, 8820808, Chile
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12
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Abstract
The number of South American camelids (SACs) in England and Wales is increasing and with this comes a risk of new and emerging infections. Although classified as livestock, these animals are also treated as pets and may be in regular contact with humans. This paper reviews zoonotic diseases that have been identified in SACs in England and Wales, and which pose a potential risk to human health. We also highlight the importance of surveillance continuing to capture information on infections in SACs for the protection of both public and animal health.
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13
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BUTCHER H, ELSON R, CHATTAWAY MA, FEATHERSTONE CA, WILLIS C, JORGENSEN F, DALLMAN TJ, JENKINS C, McLAUCHLIN J, BECK CR, HARRISON S. Whole genome sequencing improved case ascertainment in an outbreak of Shiga toxin-producing Escherichia coli O157 associated with raw drinking milk. Epidemiol Infect 2016; 144:2812-23. [PMID: 27338677 PMCID: PMC9150458 DOI: 10.1017/s0950268816000509] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/05/2015] [Revised: 01/29/2016] [Accepted: 02/21/2016] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
Five cases of STEC O157 phage type (PT) 21/28 reported consumption of raw cows' drinking milk (RDM) produced at a dairy farm in the South West of England. STEC O157 PT21/28 was isolated from faecal specimens from milking cows on the implicated farm. Whole genome sequencing (WGS) showed that human and cattle isolates were the same strain. Further analysis of WGS data confirmed that sequences of isolates from an additional four cases (who did not report consumption of RDM when first questioned) fell within the same five single nucleotide polymorphism cluster as the initial five cases epidemiologically linked to the consumption of RDM. These four additional cases identified by WGS were investigated further and were, ultimately, associated with the implicated farm. The RDM outbreak strain encoded stx2a, which is associated with increased pathogenicity and severity of symptoms. Further epidemiological analysis showed that 70% of isolates within a wider cluster containing the outbreak strain were from cases residing in, or linked to, the same geographical region of England. During this RDM outbreak, use of WGS improved case ascertainment and provided insights into the evolution of a highly pathogenic clade of STEC O157 PT21/28 stx2a associated with the South West of England.
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Affiliation(s)
- H. BUTCHER
- Devon, Cornwall and Somerset Public Health England Centre, Exeter, Devon, UK
| | - R. ELSON
- Gastrointestinal and Emerging Zoonotic Infections Department, Public Health England, UK
| | - M. A. CHATTAWAY
- Gastrointestinal Bacteria Reference Unit, Public Health England, London, UK
| | - C. A. FEATHERSTONE
- Animal and Plant Health Agency, Veterinary Investigation Centre, Thirsk, Yorkshire, UK
| | - C. WILLIS
- Food Water and Environmental Microbiology Laboratory Services, Public Health England, UK
| | - F. JORGENSEN
- Food Water and Environmental Microbiology Laboratory Services, Public Health England, UK
| | - T. J. DALLMAN
- Gastrointestinal Bacteria Reference Unit, Public Health England, London, UK
| | - C. JENKINS
- Gastrointestinal Bacteria Reference Unit, Public Health England, London, UK
| | - J. McLAUCHLIN
- Food Water and Environmental Microbiology Laboratory Services, Public Health England, UK
- University of Liverpool, Institute of Infection and Global Health, Liverpool, UK
| | - C. R. BECK
- Field Epidemiology Service, Public Health England, UK
| | - S. HARRISON
- Devon, Cornwall and Somerset Public Health England Centre, Exeter, Devon, UK
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14
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ROWELL S, KING C, JENKINS C, DALLMAN TJ, DECRAENE V, LAMDEN K, HOWARD A, FEATHERSTONE CA, CLEARY P. An outbreak of Shiga toxin-producing Escherichia coli serogroup O157 linked to a lamb-feeding event. Epidemiol Infect 2016; 144:2494-500. [PMID: 27297133 PMCID: PMC9150456 DOI: 10.1017/s0950268816001229] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/06/2016] [Revised: 04/29/2016] [Accepted: 05/25/2016] [Indexed: 11/07/2022] Open
Abstract
Fifteen confirmed cases and 15 possible cases of Shiga toxin-producing Escherichia coli (STEC) O157 phage type 21/28 were linked to direct contact with lambs at a 'Lambing Live' event in the North West of England between 29 March and 21 April 2014. Twenty-one (70%) of the cases were female, 23 (77%) were children aged <16 years, of whom 14 (46%) were in the 0-5 years age group. Five children developed haemolytic uraemic syndrome. Multilocus variable number tandem repeat analysis (MLVA) profiles on 14 human cases were indistinguishable, and 6/10 animal isolates had a MLVA profile identical to the outbreak profile. Whole-genome sequencing analysis revealed that all isolates, both human and animal, fell within a 5-single nucleotide polymorphism cluster indicating the isolates belonged to the same point source. On inspection of the premises, extensive and uncontrolled physical contact between visitors and animals was occuring within the animal pens and during bottle-feeding. Public areas were visibly contaminated with animal faeces. Information to visitors, and the infection control awareness demonstrated by staff, was inadequate. Managing the risk to visitors of STEC O157 infection at animal petting events and open farms requires implementation of stringent control measures by the operator, as outlined in the industry code of practice. Enforcement action is sometimes required to prevent high-risk activities taking place at both permanent and temporary attractions.
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Affiliation(s)
- S. ROWELL
- Cumbria and Lancashire Public Health England Centre, Chorley, Lancashire, UK
| | - C. KING
- Cumbria and Lancashire Public Health England Centre, Chorley, Lancashire, UK
| | - C. JENKINS
- Gastrointestinal Bacteria Reference Unit, Public Health England, Colindale, London, UK
| | - T. J. DALLMAN
- Gastrointestinal Bacteria Reference Unit, Public Health England, Colindale, London, UK
| | - V. DECRAENE
- Field Epidemiology Service North West, Public Health England, UK
| | - K. LAMDEN
- Cumbria and Lancashire Public Health England Centre, Chorley, Lancashire, UK
| | - A. HOWARD
- South Ribble Borough Council, Leyland, Lancashire, UK
| | - C. A. FEATHERSTONE
- Animal and Plant Health Agency, Veterinary Investigation Centre, Thirsk, North Yorkshire, UK
| | - P. CLEARY
- Field Epidemiology Service North West, Public Health England, UK
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15
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SMITH RP, POLLITT WJ, PAIBA GA. A longitudinal study of risk factors for shedding of VTEC O157 by young cattle in herds with known E. coli O157 carriage. Epidemiol Infect 2016; 144:1818-29. [PMID: 26830233 PMCID: PMC9150623 DOI: 10.1017/s095026881600008x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/27/2015] [Revised: 11/17/2015] [Accepted: 01/10/2016] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
A longitudinal study in England and Wales of two dairy, five beef-fattener and three beef-suckler herds was carried out to identify risk factors for young cattle excreting verocytotoxin-producing Escherichia coli O157 (VTEC O157). A total of 1383 cattle, selected into cohorts at 0-24 months were sampled between March 2000 and February 2001. Mixed-effects logistic regression was employed to identify significant associations between VTEC O157 isolation from rectal faecal samples and explanatory factors (P < 0·001 unless shown). The results revealed a positive association with feeding root crops and a negative association with animals fed silage, milk (P = 0·001) or grain (P = 0·027). Cattle in suckler herds (P = 0·001) and those changing group between sampling visits were identified as negatively associated with VTEC O157 presence. The recovery of VTEC O157 varied throughout the year. However, the winter period from December to February was a risk factor in the multivariable analysis. Cattle in pens were 4·7 times more likely to shed VTEC O157 than those group-housed or at pasture. VTEC O157 detected in pooled environmental faecal pats and biofilm of the water supply within a group's enclosure were positively associated with an animal's VTEC O157 status in the multivariable logistic regression, as was detection of VTEC O157 in the pooled faecal pats at the previous visit.
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Affiliation(s)
- R. P. SMITH
- Department of Epidemiological Sciences, Animal and Plant Health Agency (APHA), New Haw, Addlestone, Surrey, UK
| | - W. J. POLLITT
- APHA South East, Redwing House, Springfield, Chelmsford, Essex, UK
| | - G. A. PAIBA
- Animals in Science Regulation Unit, Home Office, London, UK
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16
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Pintar KDM, Christidis T, Thomas MK, Anderson M, Nesbitt A, Keithlin J, Marshall B, Pollari F. A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of the Campylobacter spp. Prevalence and Concentration in Household Pets and Petting Zoo Animals for Use in Exposure Assessments. PLoS One 2015; 10:e0144976. [PMID: 26683667 PMCID: PMC4684323 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0144976] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/30/2015] [Accepted: 11/25/2015] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Animal contact is a potential transmission route for campylobacteriosis, and both domestic household pet and petting zoo exposures have been identified as potential sources of exposure. Research has typically focussed on the prevalence, concentration, and transmission of zoonoses from farm animals to humans, yet there are gaps in our understanding of these factors among animals in contact with the public who don’t live on or visit farms. This study aims to quantify, through a systematic review and meta-analysis, the prevalence and concentration of Campylobacter carriage in household pets and petting zoo animals. Four databases were accessed for the systematic review (PubMed, CAB direct, ProQuest, and Web of Science) for papers published in English from 1992–2012, and studies were included if they examined the animal population of interest, assessed prevalence or concentration with fecal, hair coat, oral, or urine exposure routes (although only articles that examined fecal routes were found), and if the research was based in Canada, USA, Europe, Australia, and New Zealand. Studies were reviewed for qualitative synthesis and meta-analysis by two reviewers, compiled into a database, and relevant studies were used to create a weighted mean prevalence value. There were insufficient data to run a meta-analysis of concentration values, a noted study limitation. The mean prevalence of Campylobacter in petting zoo animals is 6.5% based on 7 studies, and in household pets the mean is 24.7% based on 34 studies. Our estimated concentration values were: 7.65x103cfu/g for petting zoo animals, and 2.9x105cfu/g for household pets. These results indicate that Campylobacter prevalence and concentration are lower in petting zoo animals compared with household pets and that both of these animal sources have a lower prevalence compared with farm animals that do not come into contact with the public. There is a lack of studies on Campylobacter in petting zoos and/or fair animals in Canada and abroad. Within this literature, knowledge gaps were identified, and include: a lack of concentration data reported in the literature for Campylobacter spp. in animal feces, a distinction between ill and diarrheic pets in the reported studies, noted differences in shedding and concentrations for various subtypes of Campylobacter, and consistent reporting between studies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Katarina D. M. Pintar
- Centre for Foodborne, Environmental and Zoonotic Infectious Diseases, Public Health Agency of Canada, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada
- * E-mail:
| | - Tanya Christidis
- Centre for Foodborne, Environmental and Zoonotic Infectious Diseases, Public Health Agency of Canada, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada
| | - M. Kate Thomas
- Centre for Foodborne, Environmental and Zoonotic Infectious Diseases, Public Health Agency of Canada, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada
| | - Maureen Anderson
- Ontario Ministry of Agriculture, Food and Rural Affairs, Guelph, Ontario, Canada
| | - Andrea Nesbitt
- Centre for Foodborne, Environmental and Zoonotic Infectious Diseases, Public Health Agency of Canada, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada
| | - Jessica Keithlin
- Centre for Public Health and Zoonoses, University of Guelph, Guelph, Ontario, Canada
| | - Barbara Marshall
- Centre for Foodborne, Environmental and Zoonotic Infectious Diseases, Public Health Agency of Canada, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada
| | - Frank Pollari
- Centre for Foodborne, Environmental and Zoonotic Infectious Diseases, Public Health Agency of Canada, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada
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17
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Dallman TJ, Byrne L, Ashton PM, Cowley LA, Perry NT, Adak G, Petrovska L, Ellis RJ, Elson R, Underwood A, Green J, Hanage WP, Jenkins C, Grant K, Wain J. Whole-genome sequencing for national surveillance of Shiga toxin-producing Escherichia coli O157. Clin Infect Dis 2015; 61:305-12. [PMID: 25888672 DOI: 10.1093/cid/civ318] [Citation(s) in RCA: 131] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/08/2014] [Accepted: 04/04/2015] [Indexed: 01/19/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND National surveillance of gastrointestinal pathogens, such as Shiga toxin-producing Escherichia coli O157 (STEC O157), is key to rapidly identifying linked cases in the distributed food network to facilitate public health interventions. In this study, we used whole-genome sequencing (WGS) as a tool to inform national surveillance of STEC O157 in terms of identifying linked cases and clusters and guiding epidemiological investigation. METHODS We retrospectively analyzed 334 isolates randomly sampled from 1002 strains of STEC O157 received by the Gastrointestinal Bacteria Reference Unit at Public Health England, Colindale, in 2012. The genetic distance between each isolate, as estimated by WGS, was calculated and phylogenetic methods were used to place strains in an evolutionary context. RESULTS Estimates of linked clusters representing STEC O157 outbreaks in England and Wales increased by 2-fold when WGS was used instead of traditional typing techniques. The previously unidentified clusters were often widely geographically distributed and small in size. Phylogenetic analysis facilitated identification of temporally distinct cases sharing common exposures and delineating those that shared epidemiological and temporal links. Comparison with multi locus variable number tandem repeat analysis (MLVA) showed that although MLVA is as sensitive as WGS, WGS provides a more timely resolution to outbreak clustering. CONCLUSIONS WGS has come of age as a molecular typing tool to inform national surveillance of STEC O157; it can be used in real time to provide the highest strain-level resolution for outbreak investigation. WGS allows linked cases to be identified with unprecedented specificity and sensitivity that will facilitate targeted and appropriate public health investigations.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | - Richard J Ellis
- Animal and Plant Health Agency, Addlestone, Surrey, United Kingdom
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | - John Wain
- University of East Anglia, Norwich, United Kingdom
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18
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Moriarty EM, Downing M, Bellamy J, Gilpin BJ. Concentrations of faecal coliforms, Escherichia coli, enterococci and Campylobacter spp. in equine faeces. N Z Vet J 2015; 63:104-9. [PMID: 25415756 DOI: 10.1080/00480169.2014.952789] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/28/2022]
Abstract
AIMS To determine the concentration of Campylobacter spp. as well as faecal indicator bacteria; faecal coliforms, Escherichia coli and enterococci in the faeces of healthy adult horses in a sample of properties in the Canterbury region of New Zealand. METHODS The faeces of healthy adult horses (n=59), including ponies, pleasure horses and Thoroughbreds, were collected from eight properties around Christchurch, New Zealand. The faeces were analysed for concentrations of Campylobacter spp and faecal indicator bacteria; faecal coliforms, Escherichia coli and enterococci. The presence of other animals on the properties sampled as well as the age, feed and health of the horses at the time of sampling was recorded. RESULTS Enterococci and faecal coliforms were isolated from all samples, and E. coli was isolated from 58/59 samples. Mean concentrations of faecal coliforms and E. coli did not differ between properties, but there was a significant difference in mean concentration of enterococci between properties. Campylobacter spp. were detected in two faecal samples with one isolate being determined by PCR analysis to be a thermotolerant Campylobacter species, the other C. jejuni. CONCLUSIONS This is the first known report quantifying the concentration of Campylobacter spp. present in healthy adult horses in New Zealand. The presence of equine faecal material in water could elevate concentrations of faecal bacteria and therefore needs to be considered as a source of water contamination. The access of horses to waterways and coastal environments may also need to be restricted to prevent transmission of faecal indicator bacteria and potentially zoonotic agents.
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Affiliation(s)
- E M Moriarty
- a Institute of Environmental Science and Research , PO Box 29-181, Christchurch , New Zealand
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19
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Jedial JT, Shittu A, Tambuwal FM, Abubakar MB, Garba MK, Kwaga JP, Fasina FO. Predictors and risk factors for the intestinal shedding of Escherichia coli O157 among working donkeys (Equus asinus) in Nigeria. Vet Rec Open 2015; 2:e000070. [PMID: 26392892 PMCID: PMC4567149 DOI: 10.1136/vetreco-2014-000070] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/14/2014] [Revised: 05/01/2015] [Accepted: 05/05/2015] [Indexed: 02/05/2023] Open
Abstract
OBJECTIVES Escherichia coli are an important group of bacteria in the normal gastrointestinal system but can sometimes cause infections in domestic animals and man. Donkeys are routinely used as multipurpose animal but details of burdens of potentially infectious bacteria associated with it are limited. The prevalence and associations between intestinal shedding of E. coli O157 and animal characteristics and management factors were studied among 240 randomly selected working donkeys in north-western Nigeria. DESIGN Four local government areas, of Sokoto State in north-western Nigeria were recruited in this study. A multistage randomised cluster design was used to select subjects and donkey owners within selected zones. Confirmation of infection was based on bacterial culture, isolation and biochemical test for E. coli O157 from faecal samples. RESULTS Of the total bacteria isolated, 203 of the 329 (61.70 per cent) were E. coli, 76 of which was E. coli serotype O157. A multivariable logistic regression model was used to examine the relation between intestinal shedding of E. coli O157 and selected variables. The analysis yielded five potential predictors of shedding: soft faeces in donkeys, Akaza and Fari ecotypes of donkey were positive predictors while maize straw as feed and sampling during the cold dry period were negative predictors. CONCLUSIONS This study concludes that controlling intestinal shedding of E. coli O157 among working donkeys in Nigeria is possible using the identified predictors in planning appropriate interventions to reduced human risk of infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jesse T. Jedial
- Department of Pathology and Microbiology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Usmanu Danfodiyo University, Sokoto, Nigeria
| | - Aminu Shittu
- Department of Public Health and Preventive Medicine, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Usmanu Danfodiyo University, Sokoto, Nigeria
| | - Faruk M. Tambuwal
- Department of Pathology and Microbiology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Usmanu Danfodiyo University, Sokoto, Nigeria
| | - Mikail B. Abubakar
- Department of Pathology and Microbiology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Usmanu Danfodiyo University, Sokoto, Nigeria
| | - Muhammed K. Garba
- School of Medical Laboratory Sciences, College of Health Sciences, Usmanu Danfodiyo University, Sokoto, Nigeria
| | - Jacob P. Kwaga
- Department of Public Health and Preventive Medicine, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria, Nigeria
| | - Folorunso O. Fasina
- Department of Production Animal Studies, University of Pretoria, Pretoria, Onderstepoort, South Africa
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20
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Abstract
ABSTRACT
Shiga toxin-producing
Escherichia coli
(STEC) strains have been detected in a wide diversity of mammals, birds, fish, and several insects. Carriage by most animals is asymptomatic, thus allowing for dissemination of the bacterium in the environment without detection. Replication of the organism may occur in the gastrointestinal tract of some animals, notably ruminants. Carriage may also be passive or transient, without significant amplification of bacterial numbers while in the animal host. Animals may be classified as reservoir species, spillover hosts, or dead-end hosts. This classification is based on the animal's ability to (i) transmit STEC to other animal species and (ii) maintain STEC infection in the absence of continuous exposure. Animal reservoirs are able to maintain STEC infections in the absence of continuous STEC exposure and transmit infection to other species. Spillover hosts, although capable of transmitting STEC to other animals, are unable to maintain infection in the absence of repeated exposure. The large diversity of reservoir and spillover host species and the survival of the organism in environmental niches result in complex pathways of transmission that are difficult to interrupt.
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21
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Byrne L, Elson R, Dallman TJ, Perry N, Ashton P, Wain J, Adak GK, Grant KA, Jenkins C. Evaluating the use of multilocus variable number tandem repeat analysis of Shiga toxin-producing Escherichia coli O157 as a routine public health tool in England. PLoS One 2014; 9:e85901. [PMID: 24465775 PMCID: PMC3895024 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0085901] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/01/2013] [Accepted: 12/06/2013] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Multilocus variable number tandem repeat analysis (MLVA) provides microbiological support for investigations of clusters of cases of infection with Shiga toxin-producing E. coli (STEC) O157. All confirmed STEC O157 isolated in England and submitted to the Gastrointestinal Bacteria Reference Unit (GBRU) during a six month period were typed using MLVA, with the aim of assessing the impact of this approach on epidemiological investigations. Of 539 cases investigated, 341 (76%) had unique (>2 single locus variants) MLVA profiles, 12% of profiles occurred more than once due to known household transmission and 12% of profiles occurred as part of 41 clusters, 21 of which were previously identified through routine public health investigation of cases. The remaining 20 clusters were not previously detected and STEC enhanced surveillance data for associated cases were retrospectively reviewed for epidemiological links including shared exposures, geography and/or time. Additional evidence of a link between cases was found in twelve clusters. Compared to phage typing, the number of sporadic cases was reduced from 69% to 41% and the diversity index for MLVA was 0.996 versus 0.782 for phage typing. Using MLVA generates more data on the spatial and temporal dispersion of cases, better defining the epidemiology of STEC infection than phage typing. The increased detection of clusters through MLVA typing highlights the challenges to health protection practices, providing a forerunner to the advent of whole genome sequencing as a diagnostic tool.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lisa Byrne
- Gastrointestinal Emerging and Zoonotic Infections Department, Health Protection Services, Public Health England, Centre for Infectious Disease Surveillance and Control, London, United Kingdom
| | - Richard Elson
- Gastrointestinal Emerging and Zoonotic Infections Department, Health Protection Services, Public Health England, Centre for Infectious Disease Surveillance and Control, London, United Kingdom
| | - Timothy J. Dallman
- Gastrointestinal Bacteria Reference Unit, Microbiology Services, GBRU, Public Health England, Centre for Infectious Disease Surveillance and Control, London, United Kingdom
| | - Neil Perry
- Gastrointestinal Bacteria Reference Unit, Microbiology Services, GBRU, Public Health England, Centre for Infectious Disease Surveillance and Control, London, United Kingdom
| | - Philip Ashton
- Gastrointestinal Bacteria Reference Unit, Microbiology Services, GBRU, Public Health England, Centre for Infectious Disease Surveillance and Control, London, United Kingdom
| | - John Wain
- Faculty of Medicine and Health Services, Norwich Medical School, University of East Anglia, Norwich, United Kingdom
| | - Goutam K. Adak
- Gastrointestinal Emerging and Zoonotic Infections Department, Health Protection Services, Public Health England, Centre for Infectious Disease Surveillance and Control, London, United Kingdom
| | - Kathie A. Grant
- Gastrointestinal Bacteria Reference Unit, Microbiology Services, GBRU, Public Health England, Centre for Infectious Disease Surveillance and Control, London, United Kingdom
| | - Claire Jenkins
- Gastrointestinal Bacteria Reference Unit, Microbiology Services, GBRU, Public Health England, Centre for Infectious Disease Surveillance and Control, London, United Kingdom
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22
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Abstract
Shiga toxin-producing Escherichia coli (STEC) strains are food-borne pathogens that are an important public health concern. STEC infection is associated with severe clinical diseases in human beings, including hemorrhagic colitis (HC) and hemolytic uremic syndrome (HUS), which can lead to kidney failure and death. Cattle are the most important STEC reservoir. However, a number of STEC outbreaks and HUS cases have been attributed to pork products. In swine, STEC strains are known to be associated with edema disease. Nevertheless, the relationship between STEC of swine origin and human illness has yet to be determined. This review critically summarizes epidemiologic and biological studies of swine STEC. Several epidemiologic studies conducted in multiple regions of the world have demonstrated that domestic swine can carry and shed STEC. Moreover, animal studies have demonstrated that swine are susceptible to STEC O157:H7 infection and can shed the bacterium for 2 months. A limited number of molecular epidemiologic studies, however, have provided conflicting evidence regarding the relationship between swine STEC and human illness. The role that swine play in STEC transmission to people and the contribution to human disease frequency requires further evaluation.
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23
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Abstract
A risk ranking process identified Toxoplasma gondii and pathogenic verocytotoxin-producing Escherichia coli (VTEC) as the most relevant biological hazards for meat inspection of sheep and goats. As these are not detected by traditional meat inspection, a meat safety assurance system using risk-based interventions was proposed. Further studies are required on T. gondii and pathogenic VTEC. If new information confirms these hazards as a high risk to public health from meat from sheep or goats, setting targets at carcass level should be considered. Other elements of the system are risk-categorisation of flocks/herds based on improved Food Chain Information (FCI), classification of abattoirs according to their capability to reduce faecal contamination, and use of improved process hygiene criteria. It is proposed to omit palpation and incision from post-mortem inspection in animals subjected to routine slaughter. For chemical hazards, dioxins and dioxin-like polychlorinated biphenyls were ranked as being of high potential concern. Monitoring programmes for chemical hazards should be more flexible and based on the risk of occurrence, taking into account FCI, which should be expanded to reflect the extensive production systems used, and the ranking of chemical substances, which should be regularly updated and include new hazards. Control programmes across the food chain, national residue control plans, feed control and monitoring of environmental contaminants should be better integrated. Meat inspection is a valuable tool for surveillance and monitoring of animal health and welfare conditions. Omission of palpation and incision would reduce detection effectiveness for tuberculosis and fasciolosis at animal level. Surveillance of tuberculosis at the slaughterhouse in small ruminants should be improved and encouraged, as this is in practice the only surveillance system available. Extended use of FCI could compensate for some, but not all, the information on animal health and welfare lost if only visual post-mortem inspection is applied.
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24
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Vande Walle K, Vanrompay D, Cox E. Bovine innate and adaptive immune responses against Escherichia coli O157:H7 and vaccination strategies to reduce faecal shedding in ruminants. Vet Immunol Immunopathol 2012; 152:109-20. [PMID: 23084625 DOI: 10.1016/j.vetimm.2012.09.028] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
Abstract
Enterohaemorrhagic E. coli (EHEC) O157:H7 is a zoonotic pathogen of worldwide importance causing foodborne infections with possibly life-threatening consequences in humans, such as haemorrhagic colitis and in a small percentage of zoonotic cases, haemolytic-uremic syndrome (HUS). Ruminants are an important reservoir of EHEC and human infections are most frequently associated with direct or indirect contact with ruminant faeces. A thorough understanding of the host-bacterium interaction in ruminants could lead to the development of novel interventions strategies, including innovative vaccines. This review aims to present the current knowledge regarding innate and adaptive immune responses in EHEC colonized ruminants. In addition, results on vaccination strategies in ruminants aiming at reduction of EHEC shedding are reviewed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kris Vande Walle
- Laboratory of Immunology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Ghent University, Salisburylaan 133, 9860 Merelbeke, Belgium
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25
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Prevalence and characteristics of enteric pathogens detected in diarrhoeic and non-diarrhoeic foals in trinidad. Vet Med Int 2012; 2012:724959. [PMID: 22792513 PMCID: PMC3388383 DOI: 10.1155/2012/724959] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/25/2012] [Revised: 04/09/2012] [Accepted: 04/09/2012] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
The study determined the relative importance of Escherichia coli, E. coli O157, Salmonella spp., Clostridium spp., rotavirus, Cryptosporidium spp., and Strongyloides westeri in foal (diarrhoeic and non-diarrhoeic) available for sampling during the foaling season of 2010 and determined their sensitivity to antimicrobial agents. A cross-sectional study was conducted on 164 foals (9 diarrhoeic and 155 non-diarrhoeic) from 15 farms in Trinidad. Isolation and detection of enteric pathogens followed standard methods, and the antibiograms of E. coli and Salmonella spp. were determined using the disc diffusion method. All organisms investigated were detected except E. coli O157. A high prevalence of E. coli (85.0%), Cryptosporidium spp. (64.8%), Strongyloides westeri (35.7%) was seen, but the prevalence was comparatively low for Clostridium spp. (12.9%), Salmonella spp. (4.4%) and rotavirus (2.1%). Only Salmonella spp. was isolated at a statistically significantly (P < 0.05; χ2) higher frequency from diarrhoeic (25.0%) than non-diarrhoeic (4.0%) foals. Amongst E. coli isolates, the frequency of resistance was higher in isolates from diarrhoeic compared with non-diarrhoeic foals but the difference was only statistically significant (P < 0.05; χ2) for tetracycline. All isolates of Salmonella spp. were sensitive to streptomycin and sulphamethoxazole/trimethoprim, a finding that may have therapeutic significance.
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26
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Large outbreak of verocytotoxin-producing Escherichia coli O157 infection in visitors to a petting farm in South East England, 2009. Epidemiol Infect 2011; 140:1400-13. [PMID: 22093751 PMCID: PMC3404481 DOI: 10.1017/s0950268811002111] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/02/2023] Open
Abstract
In the summer of 2009, an outbreak of verocytotoxigenic Escherichia coli O157 (VTEC O157) was identified in visitors to a large petting farm in South East England. The peak attack rate was 6/1000 visitors, and highest in those aged <2 years (16/1000). We conducted a case-control study with associated microbiological investigations, on human, animal and environmental samples. We identified 93 cases; 65 primary, 13 secondary and 15 asymptomatic. Cases were more likely to have visited a specific barn, stayed for prolonged periods and be infrequent farm visitors. The causative organism was identified as VTEC O157 PT21/28 with the same VNTR profile as that isolated in faecal specimens from farm animals and the physical environment, mostly in the same barn. Contact with farm livestock, especially ruminants, should be urgently reviewed at the earliest suspicion of a farm-related VTEC O157 outbreak and appropriate risk management procedures implemented without delay.
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27
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Williams M, Pearl D, LeJeune J. Multiple-locus variable-nucleotide tandem repeat subtype analysis implicates European starlings as biological vectors for Escherichia coli O157:H7 in Ohio, USA. J Appl Microbiol 2011; 111:982-8. [DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-2672.2011.05102.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
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28
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29
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Featherstone CA, Foster AP, Chappell SA, Carson T, Pritchard GC. Verocytotoxigenic Escherichia coli
O157 in camelids. Vet Rec 2011; 168:194-5. [DOI: 10.1136/vr.d902] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/04/2022]
Affiliation(s)
| | - A. P. Foster
- VLA - Shrewsbury; Kendal Road, Harlescott Shrewsbury Shropshire SY1 4HD
| | | | - T. Carson
- VLA - Bury St Edmunds; Rougham Hill Bury St Edmunds Suffolk IP33 2RX
| | - G. C. Pritchard
- VLA - Bury St Edmunds; Rougham Hill Bury St Edmunds Suffolk IP33 2RX
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Escherichia coliO157: comparing awareness of rural residents and visitors in livestock farming areas. Epidemiol Infect 2011; 139:1522-30. [DOI: 10.1017/s0950268810002918] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
SUMMARYThis research compared public opinions aboutEscherichia coliO157 (an increasing environmental hazard associated with livestock) in two farming areas with contrasting incidence ofE. coliO157 disease. A questionnaire was administered in rural Grampian (10·8 cases/100 000 population per year) and North Wales (2·5 cases/100 000 population per year). Awareness was highest among farmers in Grampian (91%) and lowest among visitors to both areas (28%). Respondents were more likely to indicate vomiting (76%) than bloody diarrhoea (48%) as a common symptom. Undercooked meat and contact with farm animal faeces were identified by 60% of all respondents as risk factors who described ‘basic hygiene’ for risk reduction indoors. Visitors viewE. coliO157 as a food hazard, not an environmental hazard that produces vomiting not dysentery. Efforts to reduce human infections in livestock farming areas could be improved with proximate reminders for visitors of the environmental pathway ofE. coliO157 infection.
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Ferens WA, Hovde CJ. Escherichia coli O157:H7: animal reservoir and sources of human infection. Foodborne Pathog Dis 2010; 8:465-87. [PMID: 21117940 DOI: 10.1089/fpd.2010.0673] [Citation(s) in RCA: 354] [Impact Index Per Article: 25.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/18/2022] Open
Abstract
This review surveys the literature on carriage and transmission of enterohemorrhagic Escherichia coli (EHEC) O157:H7 in the context of virulence factors and sampling/culture technique. EHEC of the O157:H7 serotype are worldwide zoonotic pathogens responsible for the majority of severe cases of human EHEC disease. EHEC O157:H7 strains are carried primarily by healthy cattle and other ruminants, but most of the bovine strains are not transmitted to people, and do not exhibit virulence factors associated with human disease. Prevalence of EHEC O157:H7 is probably underestimated. Carriage of EHEC O157:H7 by individual animals is typically short-lived, but pen and farm prevalence of specific isolates may extend for months or years and some carriers, designated as supershedders, may harbor high intestinal numbers of the pathogen for extended periods. The prevalence of EHEC O157:H7 in cattle peaks in the summer and is higher in postweaned calves and heifers than in younger and older animals. Virulent strains of EHEC O157:H7 are rarely harbored by pigs or chickens, but are found in turkeys. The bacteria rarely occur in wildlife with the exception of deer and are only sporadically carried by domestic animals and synanthropic rodents and birds. EHEC O157:H7 occur in amphibian, fish, and invertebrate carriers, and can colonize plant surfaces and tissues via attachment mechanisms different from those mediating intestinal attachment. Strains of EHEC O157:H7 exhibit high genetic variability but typically a small number of genetic types predominate in groups of cattle and a farm environment. Transmission to people occurs primarily via ingestion of inadequately processed contaminated food or water and less frequently through contact with manure, animals, or infected people.
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Affiliation(s)
- Witold A Ferens
- Department of Microbiology, Molecular Biology, and Biochemistry, University of Idaho, Moscow, Idaho 83844-3052, USA.
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Lengacher B, Kline TR, Harpster L, Williams ML, Lejeune JT. Low prevalence of Escherichia coli O157:H7 in horses in Ohio, USA. J Food Prot 2010; 73:2089-92. [PMID: 21219723 DOI: 10.4315/0362-028x-73.11.2089] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
Abstract
Manure from draft animals deposited in fields during vegetable and fruit production may serve as a potential source of preharvest pathogen contamination of foods. To better quantify this risk, we determined the prevalence of Escherichia coli O157:H7 in horses. Between June and September 2009, freshly voided fecal samples were collected from horses stabled on 242 separate premises in Ohio, USA. Overall, the prevalence of E. coli O157:H7 was 1 of 242 (0.4% prevalence, 95% confidence interval [CI] = 0.01 to 2.28). E. coli O157:H7 was recovered from none of the 107 equine fecal samples (0% prevalence, 95% CI = 0.00 to 3.39) that originated from locations without ruminant presence, and only 1 of the 135 horse fecal samples (0.7% prevalence, 95% CI = 0.02 to 4.06) from sites where ruminants were also present. The lone positive sample was collected from a horse that was costabled with a goat. Subsequent sampling at that location identified indistinguishable subtypes of E. coli O157:H7 present in the cohoused goat, in the environment, insects, sheep, and other goats housed in an adjacent field. E. coli O157:H7 was not isolated from the five subsequent samples from this horse. These data indicate that E. coli O157:H7 carriage by horses is an uncommon event.
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Affiliation(s)
- Brandy Lengacher
- Food Animal Health Research Program, Ohio Agricultural Research and Development Center, The Ohio State University, Wooster, Ohio 44691, USA.
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