Mountain ginseng extract exhibits anti-lung cancer activity by inhibiting the nuclear translocation of NF-κB

Ginsenoside Rb3 inhibits osteoclastogenesis via ERK/NF-κB signaling pathway in vitro and in vivo

OBJECTIVE

The objective of the study was to determine the anti-osteoclastogenic potential of ginsenoside Rb3 for the treatment of periodontitis.

METHODS

The anti-osteoclastogenic effect was determined using RANKL-induced RAW264.7 cells and murine bone marrow-derived macrophages followed by TRAP and phalloidin staining. Expression of osteoclastogenesis-related genes and proteins were examined by qPCR and WB. Activation of signaling pathways was detected by WB and IHC techniques. Experimental periodontitis rat model was built up by gingival injections of P. gingivalis LPS. After 21 days of Rb3 treatment, rats were sacrificed for micro-CT, IHC, H&E, and TRAP staining analyses.

RESULTS

Rb3 dramatically inhibits RANKL-induced osteoclastogenesis. Nfatc1, Mmp9, Ctsk, Acp5 mRNA, and MMP9, CTSK proteins were dose-dependently downregulated by Rb3 pretreatment. WB results revealed that Rb3 suppressed activations of p38 MAPK, ERK, and p65 NF-κB, and the inhibition of ERK was most pronounced. Consistently, IHC analysis revealed that p-ERK was highly expressed in alveolar bone surface, blood vessels, odontoblasts, and gingival epithelia, which were notably suppressed by Rb3 treatment. H&E staining and micro-CT analyses showed that Rb3 significantly attenuated gingivitis and alveolar bone resorption in rats.

CONCLUSION

Rb3 inhibits RANKL-induced osteoclastogenesis and attenuates P. gingivalis LPS-induced gingivitis and alveolar bone resorption in rats via ERK/NF-κB signaling pathway.

Ginsenosides: a potential natural medicine to protect the lungs from lung cancer and inflammatory lung disease

Lung cancer is the malignancy with the highest morbidity and mortality. Additionally, pulmonary inflammatory diseases, such as pneumonia, acute lung injury, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), and pulmonary fibrosis (PF), also have high mortality rates and can promote the development and progression of lung cancer. Unfortunately, available treatments for them are limited, so it is critical to search for effective drugs and treatment strategies to protect the lungs. Ginsenosides, the main active components of ginseng, have been shown to have anti-cancer and anti-inflammatory activities. In this paper, we focus on the beneficial effects of ginsenosides on lung diseases and their molecular mechanisms. Firstly, the molecular mechanism of ginsenosides against lung cancer was summarized in detail, mainly from the points of view of proliferation, apoptosis, autophagy, angiogenesis, metastasis, drug resistance and immunity. In in vivo and in vitro lung cancer models, ginsenosides Rg3, Rh2 and CK were reported to have strong anti-lung cancer effects. Then, in the models of pneumonia and acute lung injury, the protective effect of Rb1 was particularly remarkable, followed by Rg3 and Rg1, and its molecular mechanism was mainly associated with targeting NF-κB, Nrf2, MAPK and PI3K/Akt pathways to alleviate inflammation, oxidative stress and apoptosis. Additionally, ginsenosides may also have a potential health-promoting effect in the improvement of COPD, asthma and PF. Furthermore, to overcome the low bioavailability of CK and Rh2, the development of nanoparticles, micelles, liposomes and other nanomedicine delivery systems can significantly improve the efficacy of targeted lung cancer treatment. To conclude, ginsenosides can be used as both anti-lung cancer and lung protective agents or adjuvants and have great potential for future clinical applications.

Ginsenosides in cancer: Targeting cell cycle arrest and apoptosis

Despite the existence of extensive clinical research and novel therapeutic treatments, cancer remains undefeated and the significant cause of death worldwide. Cancer is a disease in which growth of cells goes out of control, being also able to invade other parts of the body. Cellular division is strictly controlled by multiple checkpoints like G1/S and G2/M which, when dysregulated, lead to uncontrollable cell division. The current remedies which are being utilized to combat cancer are monoclonal antibodies, chemotherapy, cryoablation, and bone marrow transplant etc. and these have also been greatly disheartening because of their serious adverse effects like hypotension, neuropathy, necrosis, leukemia relapse and many more. Bioactive compounds derived from natural products have marked the history of the development of novel drug therapies against cancer among which ginsenosides have no peer as they target several signaling pathways, which when abnormally regulated, lead to cancer. Substantial research has reported that ginsenosides like Rb1, Rb2, Rb3, Rc, Rd, Rg3, Rh2 etc. can prevent and treat cancer by targeting different pathways and molecules by induction of autophagy, neutralizing ROS, induction of cancerous cell death by controlling the p53 pathway, modulation of miRNAs by decreasing Smad2 expression, regulating Bcl-2 expression by normalizing the NF-Kb pathway, inhibition of inflammatory pathways by decreasing the production of cytokines like IL-8, causing cell cycle arrest by restricting cyclin E1 and CDC2, and induction of apoptosis during malignancy by decreasing β-catenin levels etc. In this review, we have analyzed the anti-cancer therapeutic potential of various ginsenoside compounds in order to consider their possible use in new strategies in the fight against cancer.

Bibliometric and visual analysis in the field of traditional Chinese medicine in cancer from 2002 to 2022

Objective: Traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) has been used as a complementary treatment for cancer patients, but there has been no quantitative comprehensive analysis of TCM's efficacy. The purpose of this paper is to explore the current status and hotspots of TCM in cancer research from 2002 to 2022 and to provide a reference for future research. Methods: We retrieved articles published between 2002 and 2022 from the Web of Science database and analyzed them using R software, VOSviewer, and CiteSpace software. Results: A total of 7,129 articles were included in this study. The publication rate of TCM cancer research increased steadily from 2002 to 2022, with a rapid increase from 2010 to 2021. China was the country with the most published articles, followed by the United States, Republic of Korea, Germany, and Japan. China was also the country with the most international collaborations, and China Medical University and Shanghai University of Traditional Chinese Medicine were the most representative cooperation centers. The Journal of Ethnopharmacology was the most published and cited journal. Apoptosis, expression, in vitro, activation, and other related keywords were commonly used in these articles. Breast cancer, colorectal cancer, gastric cancer, liver cancer, and lung cancer were the most studied cancer types in TCM research. Pathway-related apoptosis, anti-inflammation, and oxidative stress were the hotspots and trends of TCM's anti-cancer mechanism. Metabolomics combined with network pharmacology was the main research method. Conclusion: Traditional Chinese medicine as an anti-cancer drug has received increasing attention from researchers worldwide, and it is expected to be a hotspot for developing new anti-cancer drugs in the future. Our study provides a comprehensive analysis of the current status and hotspots of TCM cancer research, which could serve as a valuable reference for future studies.

Maqui Berry and Ginseng Extracts Reduce Cigarette Smoke-Induced Cell Injury in a 3D Bone Co-Culture Model

Cigarette smoking-induced oxidative stress has harmful effects on bone metabolism. Maqui berry extract (MBE) and ginseng extract (GE) are two naturally occurring antioxidants that have been shown to reduce oxidative stress. By using an osteoblast and osteoclast three-dimensional co-culture system, we investigated the effects of MBE and GE on bone cells exposed to cigarette smoke extract (CSE). The cell viability and function of the co-culture system were measured on day 14. Markers of bone cell differentiation and oxidative stress were evaluated at gene and protein levels on day 7. The results showed that exposure to CSE induced osteoporotic-like alterations in the co-culture system, while 1.5 µg/mL MBE and 50 µg/mL GE improved CSE-impaired osteoblast function and decreased CSE-induced osteoclast function. The molecular mechanism of MBE and GE in preventing CSE-induced bone cell damage is linked with the inhibition of the NF-κB signaling pathway and the activation of the Nrf2 signaling pathway. Therefore, MBE and GE can reduce CSE-induced detrimental effects on bone cells and, thus, prevent smoking-induced alterations in bone cell homeostasis. These two antioxidants are thus suitable supplements to support bone regeneration in smokers.

Extraction, Structural Characterization, and Anti-Hepatocellular Carcinoma Activity of Polysaccharides From Panax ginseng Meyer

Polysaccharides are the main active ingredients of ginseng. To extract the most effective polysaccharides against hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC), we isolated and characterized the polysaccharides from the mountain cultivated ginseng (MCG) and compared their composition and cytotoxic effect with cultivated ginseng (CG) polysaccharide against HepG2 cell lines for the first time. MCG polysaccharides and CG polysaccharides were fractionated into two fractions such as MTPS-1, MTPS-2 and CTPS-1, CTPS-2 by salting out, respectively. Compared to CG, MCG possessed appreciable cytotoxic effect against HepG2 cells among that MTPS-1 possess fortified effect. Then, MTPS-1 was selected for further isolation process and seven acidic polysaccharides (MCGP-1–MCGP-7) were obtained using ethanol precipitation, ion-exchange, and gel permeation chromatography techniques. Structural characteristics of the polysaccharides (MCGP-1–MCGP-7) were done by adapting methylation/GC-MS and NMR analysis. Overall, MCGP-3 polysaccharide was found to possess significant cytotoxic effect against HepG2 cells with the IC₅₀ value.

The active component of ginseng, ginsenoside Rb1, improves erythropoiesis in models of Diamond-Blackfan anemia by targeting Nemo-like kinase

Nemo-like kinase (NLK) is a member of the mitogen-activated protein kinase family of kinases and shares a highly conserved kinase domain with other mitogen-activated protein kinase family members. The activation of NLK contributes to the pathogenesis of Diamond–Blackfan anemia (DBA), reducing c-myb expression and mechanistic target of rapamycin activity, and is therefore a potential therapeutic target. Unlike other anemias, the hematopoietic effects of DBA are largely restricted to the erythroid lineage. Mutations in ribosomal genes induce ribosomal insufficiency and reduced protein translation, dramatically impacting early erythropoiesis in the bone marrow of patients with DBA. We sought to identify compounds that suppress NLK and increases erythropoiesis in ribosomal insufficiency. We report that the active component of ginseng, ginsenoside Rb1, suppresses NLK expression and improves erythropoiesis in in vitro models of DBA. Ginsenoside Rb1–mediated suppression of NLK occurs through the upregulation of miR-208, which binds to the 3′-UTR of NLK mRNA and targets it for degradation. We also compare ginsenoside Rb1–mediated upregulation of miR-208 with metformin-mediated upregulation of miR-26. We conclude that targeting NLK expression through miRNA binding of the unique 3′-UTR is a viable alternative to the challenges of developing small-molecule inhibitors to target the highly conserved kinase domain of this specific kinase.

Rh2-enriched Korean ginseng (Ginseng Rh2+) inhibits tumor growth and development of metastasis of non-small cell lung cancer

BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVE

While there are multiple studies on the anti-tumoral effects of Panax ginseng as active ingredients (one or more ginsenosides derived from the extract) or as a whole plant extract, there is a lack of studies to assess the effects Panax ginseng's of active ingredients combined with the whole plant extract. Our aim was to study the effect of whole ginseng, enriched in the anti-tumoral Rh2 component and other ginsenosides (Ginseng Rh2+), on the metastatic capacity of non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC).

METHODS

We evaluated the effects of Ginseng Rh2+ on survival, migration and motility, induction of apoptosis, and expression of its apoptosis-related proteins in non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC) cells in vitro and on primary tumor growth and metastatic capacity in a syngeneic mouse lung cancer model in vivo. The effects of Ginseng Rh2+ on NSCLC cells were studied in vitro using: a colorimetric tetrazolium salt (XTT) assay, annexin V-FITC/PI, western blotting, wound healing motility assay, Transwell migration and cell adhesion assays. In vivo, mice were inoculated with Lewis mouse lung carcinoma cells subcutaneously to evaluate local tumor growth, or intravenously to evaluate the effects of Ginseng Rh2+ on development of experimental metastases. Mice were treated by intraperitoneal administration of Ginseng Rh2+ (0.005-0.5 g kg^-1) on days 6, 10, and 14 after tumor injection.

RESULTS

We found that Ginseng Rh2+ increased the apoptosis of NSCLC cells in vitro, demonstrating dose dependent down-regulation of the Bcl-2 anti-apoptotic gene and concurrent up-regulation of the Bax pro-apoptotic gene. Ginseng Rh2+ inhibited the tumor cells' capacity to attach to the ECM-related matrix and reduced cell migration. In vivo, Ginseng Rh2+ inhibited local tumor growth and reduced the development of experimental lung metastases.

CONCLUSION

Our study suggests that Ginseng Rh2+ may potentially be used as a therapeutic agent for treatment of NSCLC.

Anticancer Effects of Herbal Medicine Compounds and Novel Formulations: a Literature Review

INTRODUCTION

Many agents disrupt the cell cycle and its signaling circuits leading to cancer progress. Cancer therapy is performed by surgery, radiation, and chemical drugs remaining some side effects.

OBJECTIVE

To evaluate the anticancer traits of herbal medicines.

METHODS

We collected previously published data in searching engines (Web of Science, PubMed, Medline, and SCOPUS) by searching key words "herbal medicine," "anticancer effect," "compounds," and "fractions."

RESULTS

Herbal medicines have unraveled anticancer effects mostly through cancer cells apoptosis via blocking NF-κB pathway by curcumin and terpenoides; CD95 signaling and enhancement of CD95L expression by resveratrol; and inhibiting tyrosine kinas, angiogenesis, and cell cycle arrest in G2/M phase by β-lapachone-genistein and cytochrome-c release into the cytosol and caspase-9 activation by biocalein and quercetin. Additionally, impeding cell cycle in the G1 phase in ovarian cancer cells by 7-hydroxystaurosporine, immune cells enrichment (neutrophils and NK cells activation by Viscum album L., T cells and NK cells activation and cytokines such as tumor necrosis factor release by Ganoderma lucidum and microRNAs regulation (by Sinomeniumacutum, shikonin, Oleaeuropaea, curcumin and ginseng). These effects have implications for proper cancer cells elimination. It has been revealed that cytotoxic effects of herbal compounds (mostly those secondary metabolites) have exerted anticancer properties against several cancer cell lines. In addition, targeting microRNAs, nanoparticle-assisted herbal synergism, and novel drug delivery systems and combination chemotherapies have also emerged exerting higher efficacies for specific cell targeting as novel cancer therapy approaches.

CONCLUSION

Considering side effects, toxicity, and higher costs of common cancer therapy approaches, application of novel herbal medicine-based therapies will confer promising insights for health outcomes.

Structural characterization and antioxidant activity of oligosaccharides from Panax ginseng C. A. Meyer

The purpose of present work was to investigate the antioxidant activity of oligosaccharides from mountain-cultivated ginseng (MCG) and cultivated ginseng (CG). The antioxidant activity of total oligosaccharides from MCG and CG were compared preliminary. And then, the total oligosaccharides of MCG, which displayed stronger activity than that of CG, were separated by Carbon-Celite column and eluted with water and ethanol of different concentrations (30%, 50%, 70%, 95%, v/v). Five fractions, MCGOS-H₂O, MCGOS-30, MCGOS-50, MCGOS-70, MCGOS-95, were obtained. Seven oligosaccharides were purified from MCGOS-30-MCGOS-95. The structure features of oligosaccharides (MCGO-1-MCGO-7) were characterized using high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC), methylation and gas chromatography-mass (GC-MS), as well as nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy. ABTS radical scavenging assay, DPPH radical scavenging assay as well as ferric reducing antioxidant power assay were adopted for antioxidant activity of all the different oligosaccharides sub-fraction. The result showed that the fractions of MCGOS-70 and MCGOS-95 exhibited significant radical scavenging activity with DPPH and ABTS. In conclusion, the oligosaccharides from MCG possessed the significant antioxidant activity. Therefore, we propose that the oligosaccharides from Panax ginseng can be developed as natural antioxidants in food and pharmaceutical fields.

How Ginsenosides Trigger Apoptosis in Human Lung Adenocarcinoma Cells

Panax ginseng is a natural medicine that has been used globally for a long time. Moreover, several studies have reported the effective activity of ginseng in treating malignancies. Various agents containing ginseng were widely used as an antitumor treatment nowadays. Lung cancer is the most common fatal cancer in China, and lung adenocarcinoma is the most common histological type of non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC). What's worse, many patients may have a failed response to conventional therapy including chemotherapy, radiotherapy, or molecule-targeted therapy due to drug resistance. Apoptosis is a highly ordered cellular suicidal process that plays an essential role in maintaining normal homeostasis. The pharmacological mechanism of many antineoplastic drugs involves triggering of apoptotic process. In several recent studies, ginsenosides are regarded as major active components of ginseng that have the potential to control lung cancer. Most of these results have proved that ginsenosides induce apoptosis in lung cancer cells through many different signaling pathways such as PI3K/Akt, NF-κB, EGFR, and so on. This study is aimed at reviewing the signaling pathways that underlie ginsenosides-triggered apoptotic process and encourage further studies to target promising agents against lung cancer treatment.

Ginsenoside Rg1 impairs homologous recombination repair by targeting CtBP-interacting protein and sensitizes hepatoblastoma cells to DNA damage

The ginsenoside Rg1, the primary pharmacologically active ingredient of the traditional Chinese herb ginseng, is widely used in the clinical treatment of diseases of the immune and nervous systems. Recent studies have shown that it also has an antitumor effect. In this study, we explored the effects of Rg1 on hepatoblastoma (HB) and its underlying mechanisms. We demonstrated that Rg1 significantly inhibited HB cell growth both in vivo and in vitro. Mechanistic studies revealed that Rg1 impaired homologous recombination and triggered double-strand breaks in HB cells by directly targeting CtBP-interacting protein (CtIP), a key double-strand break repair factor, which is highly expressed in HB tissues. Moreover, we also demonstrated that Rg1 sensitized HB cells to DNA-damaging agents both in vitro and in vivo. In conclusion, our data not only demonstrate the potential clinical application of Rg1 as a novel chemotherapeutic candidate but also offer a mechanism-based therapeutic option by which DNA-damaging agents can be used in combination with Rg1 to target HB.

Four Novel Dammarane-Type Triterpenoids from Pearl Knots of Panax ginseng Meyer cv. Silvatica

Panax ginseng Meyer cv. Silvatica (PGS), which is also known as "Lin-Xia-Shan-Shen" or "Zi-Hai" in China, is grown in forests and mountains by broadcasting the seeds of ginseng and is harvested at the cultivation age of 15⁻20 years. In this study, four new dammarane-type triterpenoids, ginsengenin-S1 (1), ginsengenin-S2 (2), ginsenoside-S3 (3), ginsenoside-S4 (4), along with one known compound were isolated from pearl knots of PGS. Ginsengenin-S2 significantly alleviated oxidative damage when A549 cells were exposed to cigarette smoke (CS) extract. In addition, ginsengenin-S2 could inhibit the CS-induced inflammatory reaction in A549 cells. Protective effects of ginsengenin-S2 against CS-mediated oxidative stress and the inflammatory response in A549 cells may involve the Nrf2 and HDAC2 pathways.

UPLC-QTOF/MS-Based Nontargeted Metabolomic Analysis of Mountain- and Garden-Cultivated Ginseng of Different Ages in Northeast China

Aiming at further systematically comparing the similarities and differences of the chemical components in ginseng of different ages, especially comparing the younger or the older and mountain-cultivated ginseng (MCG), 4, 5, 6-year-old cultivated ginseng (CG) and 12, 20-year-old MCG were chosen as the analytical samples in the present study. The combination of UPLC-QTOF-MS^E, UNIFI platform and multivariate statistical analysis were developed to profile CGs and MCGs. By the screening analysis based on UNIFI, 126 chemical components with various structural types were characterized or tentatively identified from all the CG and MCG samples for the first time. The results showed that all the CG and MCG samples had the similar chemical composition, but there were significant differences in the contents of markers. By the metabolomic analysis based on multivariate statistical analysis, it was shown that CG_{4⁻6 years}, MCG_{12 years} and MCG_{20 years} samples were obviously divided into three different groups, and a total of 17 potential age-dependent markers enabling differentiation among the three groups of samples were discovered. For differentiation from other two kinds of samples, there were four robust makers such as α-linolenic acid, 9-octadecenoic acid, linoleic acid and panaxydol for CG_{4⁻6 years}, five robust makers including ginsenoside Re₁, -Re₂, -Rs₁, malonylginsenoside Rb₂ and isomer of malonylginsenoside Rb₁ for MCG_{20 years}, and two robust makers, 24-hydroxyoleanolic acid and palmitoleic acid, for MCG_{12 years} were discovered, respectively. The proposed approach could be applied to directly distinguish MCG root ages, which is an important criterion for evaluating the quality of MCG. The results will provide the data for the further study on the chemical constituents of MCG.

The use of a standardized Chinese herbal formula in patients with advanced lung cancer: a feasibility study

OBJECTIVE

Increasing numbers of cancer patients are using Chinese herbs (CHs). However, differences among prior studies make it difficult to draw firm conclusions about the clinical usefulness of any specific CH formula. The primary objective of this study was to establish the acceptability of taking a standardized CH formula for patients with advanced lung cancer. The secondary objective was to identify any toxicities attributable to this CH formula and to measure changes in quality of life.

METHODS

A single-arm, prospective study of a 6-week intervention with a selected CH formula in 15 patients with stage 4 nonsmall-cell lung cancer (NSCLC, Seventh American Joint Committee on Cancer TNM staging system).

RESULTS

Patients with advanced lung cancer were interested in using the CH formula. Completion (93%) and adherence (98%) levels were very high and most patients perceived the CH treatment as easy to take and were willing to take the CHs used in the study again if it was available. About half of the patients reported adverse events, all of which were mild (Grade 1 or 2) and only a small minority (8%) were potentially related to CHs. No biochemical or hematological evidence of toxicity was observed. Overall, there were improvement in quality of life, and reduced feelings of tiredness and sleepiness.

CONCLUSION

This study provides preliminary evidence that short-term use of a carefully selected and prepared CH formula in patients with stage 4 NSCLC is acceptable and safe.

Ginsenoside Rb2 inhibits osteoclast differentiation through nuclear factor-kappaB and signal transducer and activator of transcription protein 3 signaling pathway

Ginsenoside-Rb2 (Rb2) is a 20(S)-protopanaxadiol glycoside extracted from ginseng possessing various bioactivities which has drawn considerable interest regarding the area of bone metabolism. However, the effect of Rb2 on osteoclast differentiation remains unknown. In this study, we aimed to investigate the potential role of Rb2 in regulating osteoclast differentiation and the underlying molecular mechanisms. Osteoclast differentiation was induced by receptor activator nuclear factor-kappaB (NF-κB) ligand (RANKL) and macrophage colony-stimulating factor (M-CSF) in mouse RAW 264.7 cells. The results showed that Rb2 dose-dependently inhibited the formation of the tartrate resistant acid phosphatase (TRAP)-positive multinucleated cells and TRAP expression. Furthermore, Rb2 promoted osteoprotegerin expression and bone resorption. The expression of osteoclast marker genes including nuclear factor of activated T cells c1 (NFATc1), c-Fos, OSCAR, and cathepsin K were also markedly inhibited by Rb2 treatment. Moreover, Rb2 significantly inhibited the RANKL-induced NF-κB activation. In addition, Rb2 also markedly suppressed the activation of signal transducer and activator of transcription protein 3 (STAT3) signaling pathway. Interestingly, the knockdown of STAT3 significantly strengthened the inhibitory effect of Rb2 on osteoclast differentiation. Taken together, our study suggests that Rb2 inhibits osteoclast differentiation associated with blocking NF-κB and STAT3 signaling pathways.

Chemical Comparison of Two Drying Methods of Mountain Cultivated Ginseng by UPLC-QTOF-MS/MS and Multivariate Statistical Analysis

In traditional Chinese medicine practice, drying method is an essential factor to influence the components of Chinese medicinal herbs. In this study, an ultra-performance liquid chromatography quadrupole time-of-flight tandem mass spectrometry (UPLC-QTOF-MS/MS)-based approach was used to compare the content of chemical compounds of mountain cultivated ginseng that had been natural air dried (LX-P) and vacuum freeze-dried (LX-L). Multivariate statistical analysis such as principal component analysis (PCA) and supervised orthogonal partial least squared discrimination analysis (OPLS-DA) were used to select the influential components of different samples. There were 41 ginsenosides unambiguously identified and tentatively assigned in both LX-L and LX-P. The results showed that the characteristic components in LX-P were ginsenoside Rb1, ginsenoside Rc, ginsenoside Rg6, dendrolasin, and ginsenoside Rb2. The characteristic components in LX-L were malonyl-ginsenoside Re, malonyl-ginsenoside Rb1, malonyl-ginsenoside Rc, malonyl-ginsenoside Rb1 isomer, malonyl-ginsenoside Rb2, malonyl-ginsenoside Rb3, malonyl-ginsenoside Rd isomer, gypenoside XVII, and notoginsenoside Fe. This is the first time that the differences between LX-L and LX-P have been observed systematically at the chemistry level. It was indicated that vacuum freeze-drying method can improve the content of malonyl-ginsensides in mountain cultivated ginseng.

Modified Panax ginseng extract regulates autophagy by AMPK signaling in A549 human lung cancer cells

Panax ginseng has been used worldwide as a traditional medicine for the treatment of cancer and other diseases. The antiproliferative activity of ginseng has been increased after enzymatic processing of ginseng saponin, which may result in the accumulation of minor saponins, such as Rh2, Rg3, compound K and protopanaxatriol type (PPT) in modified regular ginseng extract (MRGX). In the present study, the anticancer activity and the associated mechanisms of MRGX were investigated using A549 human lung cancer cells. To elucidate the mechanisms underlying the effects of MRGX, we performed a microarray analysis of gene expression in the A549 cells. Molecular mechanisms that were associated with the anticancer activity of MRGX were studied, with a special focus on the autophagy-related multiple signaling pathways in lung cancer cells. Microarray analyses elucidated autophagy-related genes affected by MRGX. Administration of MRGX at 100 µg/ml induced punctate cytoplasmic expression of LC3, Beclin-1 and ATG5 and increased expression of endogenous LC3-II whereas 50 µg/ml did not inhibit the proliferation of A549 cells. Compared to the control cells, in cells treated with MRGX at 100 µg/ml, the level of p-Akt was increased, while that of mTOR-4EBP1 was decreased. Downregulation of mTOR and 4EBP1 in the MRGX-treated cells was found not to be a p-Ulk (S757)-dependent pathway, but a p-Ulk (S317)-dependent autophagic pathway, using AMPK. These data suggest that MRGX regulates AMPK and induces autophagy in lung cancer cells.

Regulation of miRNAs by herbal medicine: An emerging field in cancer therapies

MicroRNAs' expression profiles have recently gained major attention as far as cancer research is concerned. MicroRNAs are able to inhibit target gene expression via binding to the 3' UTR of target mRNA, resulting in target mRNA cleavage or translation inhibition. MicroRNAs play significant parts in a myriad of biological processes; studies have proven, on the other hand, that aberrant microRNA expression is, more often than not, associated with the growth and progression of cancers. MicroRNAs could act as oncogenes (oncomir) or tumor suppressors and can also be utilized as biomarkers for diagnosis, prognosis, and cancer therapy. Recent studies have shown that such herbal extracts as Shikonin, Sinomenium acutum, curcumin, Olea europaea, ginseng, and Coptidis Rhizoma could alter microRNA expression profiles through inhibiting cancer cell development, activating the apoptosis pathway, or increasing the efficacy of conventional cancer therapeutics. Such findings patently suggest that the novel specific targeting of microRNAs by herbal extracts could complete the restriction of tumors by killing the cancerous cells so as to recover survival results in patients diagnosed with malignancies. In this review, we summarized the current research about microRNA biogenesis, microRNAs in cancer, herbal compounds with anti-cancer effects and novel strategies for employing herbal extracts in order to target microRNAs for a better treatment of patients diagnosed with cancer.

Modified Panax ginseng Extract Inhibits uPAR-Mediated α5β1-Integrin Signaling by Modulating Caveolin-1 to Induce Early Apoptosis in Lung Cancer Cells

Urokinase receptor (uPAR) is enhanced in many human cancer cells and is frequently an indicator of poor prognosis. Activation of [Formula: see text]1-integrin requires caveolin-1 and is regulated by uPAR. However, the underlying molecular mechanism responsible for the interaction between uPAR and [Formula: see text]1-integrin remains obscure. We found that modified regular Panax ginseng extract (MRGX) had a negative modulating effect on the uPAR/[Formula: see text]1-integrin interaction, disrupted the uPAR/integrin interaction by modulating caveoline-1, and caused early apoptosis in cancer cells. Additionally, we found that siRNA-mediated caveoline-1 downregulation inhibited uPAR-mediated [Formula: see text]1-integrin signaling, whereas caveoline-1 up-regulation stimulated the signaling, which suppressed p53 expression, thereby indicating negative crosstalk exists between the integrin [Formula: see text]1 and the p53 pathways. Thus, these findings identify a novel mechanism whereby the inhibition of [Formula: see text]1 integrin and the activation of p53 modulate the expression of the anti-apoptotic proteins that are crucially involved in inducing apoptosis in A549 lung cancer cells. Furthermore, MRGX causes changes in the expressions of members of the Bcl-2 family (Bax and Bcl-2) in a pro-apoptotic manner. In addition, MGRX-mediated inhibition of [Formula: see text]1 integrin attenuates ERK phosphorylation (p-ERK), which up-regulates caspase-8 and Bax. Therefore, ERK may affect mitochondria through a negative regulation of caspase-8 and Bax. Taken together, these findings reveal that MRGX is involved in uPAR-[Formula: see text]1-integrin signaling by modulating caveolin-1 signaling to induce early apoptosis in A549 lung-cancer cells and strongly indicate that MRGX might be useful as a herbal medicine and may lead to the development of new herbal medicine that would suppress the growth of lung-cancer cells.

Identification of mountain-cultivated ginseng and cultivated ginseng using UPLC/oa-TOF MSE with a multivariate statistical sample-profiling strategy

Background

Mountain-cultivated ginseng (MCG) and cultivated ginseng (CG) both belong to Panax ginseng and have similar ingredients. However, their pharmacological activities are different due to their significantly different growth environments.

Methods

An ultra-performance liquid chromatography/quadrupole time-of-flight mass spectrometry (UPLC-QTOF-MS/MS)-based approach was developed to distinguish MCG and CG. Multivariate statistical methods, such as principal component analysis and supervised orthogonal partial-least-squares discrimination analysis were used to select the influential components.

Results

Under optimized UPLC-QTOF-MS/MS conditions, 40 ginsenosides in both MCG and CG were unambiguously identified and tentatively assigned. The results showed that the characteristic components of CG and MCG included ginsenoside Ra3/isomer, gypenoside XVII, quinquenoside R1, ginsenoside Ra7, notoginsenoside Fe, ginsenoside Ra2, ginsenoside Rs6/Rs7, malonyl ginsenoside Rc, malonyl ginsenoside Rb1, malonyl ginsenoside Rb2, palmitoleic acid, and ethyl linoleate. The malony ginsenosides are abundant in CG, but higher levels of the minor ginsenosides were detected in MCG.

Conclusion

This is the first time that the differences between CG and MCG have been observed systematically at the chemical level. Our results suggested that using the identified characteristic components as chemical markers to identify different ginseng products is effective and viable.

Commonly Used Dietary Supplements on Coagulation Function during Surgery

BACKGROUND

Patients who undergo surgery appear to use dietary supplements significantly more frequently than the general population. Because they contain pharmacologically active compounds, dietary supplements may affect coagulation and platelet function during the perioperative period through direct effects, pharmacodynamic interactions, and pharmacokinetic interactions. However, in this regard, limited studies have been conducted that address the pharmacological interactions of dietary supplements. To avoid possible bleeding risks during surgery, information of potential complications of dietary supplements during perioperative management is important for physicians.

METHODS

Through a systematic database search of all available years, articles were identified in this review if they included dietary supplements and coagulation/platelet function, while special attention was paid to studies published after 1990.

RESULTS

Safety concerns are reported in commercially available dietary supplements. Effects of the most commonly used natural products on blood coagulation and platelet function are systematically reviewed, including 11 herbal medicines (echinacea, ephedra, garlic, ginger, ginkgo, ginseng, green tea, kava, saw palmetto, St John's wort, and valerian) and 4 other dietary supplements (coenzyme Q₁₀, glucosamine and chondroitin sulfate, fish oil, and vitamins). Bleeding risks of garlic, ginkgo, ginseng, green tea, saw palmetto, St John's wort, and fish oil are reported. Cardiovascular instability was observed with ephedra, ginseng, and kava. Pharmacodynamic and pharmacokinetic interactions between dietary supplements and drugs used in the perioperative period are discussed.

CONCLUSIONS

To prevent potential problems associated with the use of dietary supplements, physicians should be familiar with the perioperative effects of commonly used dietary supplements. Since the effects of dietary supplements on coagulation and platelet function are difficult to predict, it is prudent to advise their discontinuation before surgery.

Intravenous Single-dose Toxicity of Mountain Ginseng Pharmacopuncture in Sprague-Dawley Rats

Objectives:

Mountain ginseng pharmacopuncture (MGP) is an extract distilled from either mountain cultivated ginseng or mountain wild ginseng. This is the first intravenous injection of pharmacopuncture in Korea. The word intravenous does not discriminate between arteries, veins, and capillaries in Oriental Medicine, but only the vein is used for MGP. The aim of this study is to evaluate the intravenous injection toxicity of MGP through a single-dose test in Sprague-Dawley (SD) rats.

Methods:

Male and female 6-week-old SD rats were injected intravenously with MGP (high dosage of 20 mL/kg or low dosage of 10 mL/kg). Normal saline was injected into the rats in the control group by using the same method. After the rats has treated, we conducted clinical observations, body-weight measurements and histological observations.

Results:

In this study, no mortalities were observed in any of the experimental groups. Also, no significant changes by the intravenous injection of MGP were observed in the body weights, or the histological observations in any of the experimental groups compared to the control group. The lethal dose for intravenous injection of MGP was found to be over 20 mL/kg in SD rats.

Conclusion:

Considering that the dosage of MGP generally used each time in clinical practice is about 0.3 mL/kg, we concluded with confidence that MGP is safe pharmacopuncture.

Differential Expression of Gene Profiles in MRGX-treated Lung Cancer

Objectives:

Modified regular ginseng extract (MRGX) has stronger anti-cancer activity-possessing gensenoside profiles.

Methods:

To investigate changes in gene expression in the MRGX-treated lung cancer cells (A549), we examined genomic data with cDNA microarray results. After completing the gene-ontology-based analysis, we grouped the genes into up-and down-regulated profiles and into ontology-related regulated genes and proteins through their interaction network.

Results:

One hundred nine proteins that were up- and down-regulated by MRGX were queried by using IPA. IL8, MMP7 and PLAUR and were found to play a major role in the anti-cancer activity in MRGX-treated lung cancer cells. These results were validated using a Western blot analysis and a semi-quantitative reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) analysis.

Conclusions:

Most MRGX-responsive genes are up-regulated transiently in A549 cells, but down-regulated in a sustained manner in lung cancer cells.

Blood pressure lowering effect of Korea ginseng derived ginseol K-g1

We investigated the effect of Panax ginseng extract, which is rich in the ginsenoside protopanaxatriol (Ginseol K-g1), on blood pressure (BP). Adults over 20 years old with a systolic BP (SBP) between 120 and 159 mm Hg or a diastolic BP (DBP) between 80 and 99 mm Hg were included. At the end of an initial 2-week washout period, the patients were divided into three groups: the control group (placebo), the low-dose Ginseol K-g1 group (100 mg), and the high-dose Ginseol K-g1 (300 mg) group. The primary end point was the difference in seated SBP (seSBP) and seated DBP (seDBP) changes between the placebo and Ginseol K-g1 groups after 8 weeks of treatment. A total of 90 subjects participated in the study (mean age; 55.2 ± 11.8 years, 43 males). At week 8, levels of seSBP and seDBP were significantly decreased from baseline in the high-dose Ginseol K-g1 group (-3.1 mm Hg and -2.3 mm Hg, respectively, p < 0.05). In contrast, there was no significant decrease in seSBP or seDBP in the control or low-dose Ginseol K-g1 groups. No significant difference of seSBP and seDBP was identified among the three treatment groups at week 8. In patients who had a seSBP ≥ 130 mm Hg or an seDBP ≥ 85 mm Hg, the high dose of Ginseol K-g1 decreased the BP compared with the control group at week 4; however, there was no significant difference at week 8. The proportions of patients who experienced adverse events were comparable among the treatment groups. In conclusion, Ginseol K-g1 has a favorable effect on BP after 4 weeks of treatment, especially at a high dose. However, the effect is not maintained over 8 weeks. (Clinical trial registration information is available at http://www.clinicaltrials.gov , identifier: NCT01483430.).

Traditional Chinese medicine: a treasured natural resource of anticancer drug research and development

To discover and develop novel natural compounds, active ingredients, single herbs and combination formulas or prescriptions in traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) with therapeutic selectivity that can preferentially kill cancer cells and inhibit the amplification of cancer without significant toxicity is an important area in cancer therapy. A lot of valuable TCMs were applied as alternative or complementary medicines in the United States and Europe. But these TCMs, as one of the main natural resources, were widely used to research and develop new drugs in Asia. In TCMs, some specific herbs, animals, minerals and combination formulas were recorded and exploited due to their active ingredients and specific natural compounds with antitumor activities. The article focused on the antitumor properties of natural compounds and combination formulas or prescriptions in TCMs, described its influence on tumor progression, angiogenesis, metastasis, and revealed its mechanisms of antitumor and inhibitory action. Among the nature compounds, triptolide, berberine, matrine, oxymatrine, kurarinone and deoxypodophyllotoxin (DPT) with specific molecular structures have been separated, purified, and evaluated their antitumor properties in vitro and in vivo. Cancer is a multifactorial and multistep disease, so the treatment effect of combination formulas and prescriptions in TCMs involving multi-targets and multi-signal pathways on tumor may be superior than that of agents targeting a single molecular target alone. Shi Quan Da Bu Tang and Yanshu injection, as well known combination formulas and prescriptions in TCMs, have shown an excellent therapeutic effect on cancer.

In vitro and in vivo inhibitory effects of ginsenoside Rg1 on proliferation of colon cancer cells

AIM: To assess the inhibitory effects of ginsenoside Rg1 on colon cancer cell proliferation in vivo and in vitro, and to investigate the possible underlying mechanism.

METHODS: The proliferation of normal colon cells and colon cancer cells treated with different concentrations of ginsenoside Rg1 was assessed in vitro, and related protein expression was also detected. A mouse model of colon cancer was created, and model mice were given different concentrations of ginsenoside Rg1 by gavage administration. Tumor growth and related protein expression in tumor tissue were then measured.

RESULTS: Ginsenoside Rg1 could not only inhibit colon cancer cell proliferation and alter cell cycle progression in vitro, but also suppress tumor growth and decrease cancer growth related protein expression in vivo.

CONCLUSION: Ginsenoside Rg1 can inhibit colon cancer growth and proliferation effectively possibly by down-regulating the expression of cell cycle- and proliferation-related proteins.

An enzymatically fortified ginseng extract inhibits proliferation and induces apoptosis of KATO3 human gastric cancer cells via modulation of Bax, mTOR, PKB and IκBα

Accumulative evidence suggests ginseng extract and/or its major components, ginsenosides and compound K, a metabolized ginseng saponin, have anti-cancer effects. In the present study, the effects of a ginseng butanolic extract (GBX) and an enzymatically fortified ginseng extract (FGX), with enriched ginsenosides and compound K, on the growth of KATO3 human gastric cancer cells were investigated using a cell viability assay. While treatment with GBX at 31.25-125 mg/ml for 24 h did not affect the proliferation of KATO3 cells, FGX under the same conditions inhibited cell proliferation in a concentration-dependent manner. Furthermore, Annexin V/PI-staining and flow cytometric analysis demonstrated that the population of apoptotic KATO3 cells was increased following treatment with FGX, which was greater than in the GBX-treated cells, suggesting that FGX had a stronger apoptotic effect than GBX. To investigate the underlying mechanism of the cytostatic and cytotoxic effects of the ginseng extracts, apoptosis-associated proteins were assessed using western blot analysis. The data revealed higher expression levels of B-cell lymphoma 2-associated X protein (Bax), lower expression of nuclear factor of kappa light polypeptide gene enhancer in B-cells inhibitor α (IκBα) and reduced phosphorylation of mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR) and protein kinase B (PKB) in the FGX-treated KATO3 cells than in the GBX-treated cells. Collectively, these results demonstrated for the first time, to the best of our knowledge, that FGX had stronger anti-proliferative and pro-apoptotic effects on KATO3 cells than GBX. The anti-proliferative and/or pro-apoptotic effects of FGX appeared to be mediated via the upregulation of Bax, IκBα proteolysis (activation of nuclear factor-κB) and the blocking of mTOR and PKB signals.

Ginsenoside Rg1 regulates innate immune responses in macrophages through differentially modulating the NF-κB and PI3K/Akt/mTOR pathways

Ginsenoside Rg1 is one of the major active components of ginseng, which has been shown to regulate the immune response of hosts. However, the mechanism underlying the immunomodulatory effect of Rg1 is incompletely understood. In this study, we aimed to explore whether and how Rg1 regulates the innate immune response in macrophages. The results showed that Rg1 treatment significantly increased tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-α but decreased interleukin-6 (IL-6) protein expression in both lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-activated RAW 264.7 cells and mouse peritoneal macrophages. However, Rg1 reduced the mRNA levels of both cytokines in LPS-activated macrophages, which might be a consequence of decreased activation of IκB and nuclear factor-κB (NF-κB). Importantly, Rg1 treatment further promoted LPS-induced activation of the Akt/mechanistic target of rapamycin (mTOR) pathway, which is critical for controlling protein translation. The elevated Akt/mTOR signaling was likely responsible for increased production of TNF-α protein at the translational level, as suppression of this pathway by LY294002, an inhibitor of the upstream phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase (PI3K), abrogated such an enhancement of TNF-α protein expression even though its mRNA levels were conversely increased. These findings highlight a novel mechanism for Rg1 to regulate the innate immune response in macrophages through differentially modulating the NF-κB and PI3K/Akt/mTOR pathways.

Anti-proliferative effects of ginsenosides extracted from mountain ginseng on lung cancer

OBJECTIVE

To investigate the effect of three major ginsenosides from mountain ginseng as anticancer substance and explore the underlying mechanism involved in lung cancer.

METHODS

The inhibitory proliferation of lung cancer by major five ginsenosides (Rb1, Rb2, Rg1, Rc, and Re) was examined using 3-(4,5-dimethylthiazol-2-yl)-2,5-diphenyl tetrazolium bromide assay. Calculated 50% inhibition (IC50) values of five ginsenosides were determined and compared each other. Apoptosis by the treatment of single ginsenoside was performed by fluorescence-assisted cytometric spectroscopy. The alterations of apoptosis-related proteins were evaluated by Western blot analysis.

RESULTS

The abundance of ginsenosides in butanol extract of mountain ginseng (BX-MG) was revealed in the order of Rb1, Rg1, Re, Rc and Rb2. Among them, Rb1 was the most effective to lung cancer cell, followed by Rb2 and Rg1 on the basis of relative IC50 values of IMR90 versus A549 cell. The alterations of apoptotic proteins were confirmed in lung cancer A549 cells according to the administration of Rb1, Rb2 and Rg1. The expression levels of caspase-3 and caspase-8 were increased upon the treatment of three ginsenosides, however, the levels of caspase-9 and anti-apoptotic protein Bax were not changed.

CONCLUSION

Major ginsenosides such as Rb1, Rb2 and Rg1 comprising BX-MG induced apoptosis in lung cancer cells via extrinsic apoptotic pathway rather than intrinsic mitochondrial pathway.

Herbal medicine as inducers of apoptosis in cancer treatment

Cancer is uncontrolled growth of abnormal cells in the body. Nowadays, cancer is considered as a human tragedy and one of the most prevalent diseases in the wide, and its mortality resulting from cancer is being increased. It seems necessary to identify new strategies to prevent and treat such a deadly disease. Control survival and death of cancerous cell are important strategies in the management and therapy of cancer. Anticancer agents should kill the cancerous cell with the minimal side effect on normal cells that is possible through the induction of apoptosis. Apoptosis is known as programmed cell death in both normal and damaged tissues. This process includes some morphologically changes in cells such as rapid condensation and budding of the cell, formation of membrane-enclosed apoptotic bodies with well-preserved organelles. Induction of apoptosis is one of the most important markers of cytotoxic antitumor agents. Some natural compounds including plants induce apoptotic pathways that are blocked in cancer cells through various mechanisms in cancer cells. Multiple surveys reported that people with cancer commonly use herbs or herbal products. Vinca Alkaloids, Texans, podo phyllotoxin, Camptothecins have been clinically used as Plant derived anticancer agents. The present review summarizes the literature published so far regarding herbal medicine used as inducers of apoptosis in cancer.

Medicinal Plants and Other Living Organisms with Antitumor Potential against Lung Cancer

Lung cancer is a disease with high morbidity and mortality rates. As a result, it is often associated with a significant amount of suffering and a general decrease in the quality of life. Herbal medicines are recognized as an attractive approach to lung cancer therapy with little side effects and are a major source of new drugs. The aim of this work was to review the medicinal plants and other living organisms with antitumor potential against lung cancer. The assays were conducted with animals and humans, and Lewis lung carcinoma was the most used experimental model. China, Japan, South Korea, and Ethiopia were the countries that most published studies of species with antitumor activity. Of the 38 plants evaluated, 27 demonstrated antitumor activity. In addition, six other living organisms were cited for antitumor activity against lung cancer. Mechanisms of action, combination with chemotherapeutic drugs, and new technologies to increase activity and reduce the toxicity of the treatment are discussed. This review was based on the NAPRALERT databank, Web of Science, and Chemical Abstracts. This work shows that natural products from plants continue to be a rich source of herbal medicines or biologically active compounds against cancer.

American ginseng attenuates azoxymethane/dextran sodium sulfate-induced colon carcinogenesis in mice

BACKGROUND

Colorectal cancer is a leading cause of cancer-related death, and inflammatory bowel disease is a risk factor for this malignancy. We previously reported colon cancer chemoprevention potential using American ginseng (AG) in a xenograft mice model. However, the nude mouse model is not a gut-specific colon carcinogenesis animal model.

METHODS

In this study, an experimental colitis and colitis-associated colorectal carcinogenesis mouse model, chemically induced by azoxymethane/dextran sodium sulfate (DSS) was established and the effects of oral AG were evaluated. The contents of representative ginseng saponins in the extract were determined.

RESULTS

AG significantly reduced experimental colitis measured by the disease activity index scores. This suppression of the experimental colitis was not only evident during DSS treatment, but also very obvious after the cessation of DSS, suggesting that the ginseng significantly promoted recovery from the colitis. Consistent with the anti-inflammation data, we showed that ginseng very significantly attenuated azoxymethane/DSS-induced colon carcinogenesis by reducing the colon tumor number and tumor load. The ginseng also effectively suppressed DSS-induced proinflammatory cytokines activation using an enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay array, in which 12 proinflammatory cytokine levels were assessed, and this effect was supported subsequently by real-time polymerase chain reaction data.

CONCLUSION

AG, as a candidate of botanical-based colon cancer chemoprevention, should be further investigated for its potential clinical utility.

Adulteration and cultivation region identification of American ginseng using HPLC coupled with multivariate analysis

American ginseng (Panax quinquefolius) is originally grown in North America. Due to price difference and supply shortage, American ginseng recently has been cultivated in northern China. Further, in the market, some Asian ginsengs are labeled as American ginseng. In this study, forty-three American ginseng samples cultivated in the USA, Canada or China were collected and 14 ginseng saponins were determined using HPLC. HPLC coupled with hierarchical cluster analysis and principal component analysis was developed to identify the species. Subsequently, an HPLC-linear discriminant analysis was established to discriminate cultivation regions of American ginseng. This method was successfully applied to identify the sources of 6 commercial American ginseng samples. Two of them were identified as Asian ginseng, while 4 others were identified as American ginseng, which were cultivated in the USA (3) and China (1). Our newly developed method can be used to identify American ginseng with different cultivation regions.

ATF-2/CREB/IRF-3-targeted anti-inflammatory activity of Korean red ginseng water extract

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Korean Red Ginseng (KRG) is one of the representative traditional herbal medicines prepared from Panax ginseng Meyer (Araliaceae) in Korea. It has been reported that KRG exhibits a lot of different biological actions such as anti-aging, anti-fatigue, anti-stress, anti-atherosclerosis, anti-diabetic, anti-cancer, and anti-inflammatory activities. Although systematic studies have investigated how KRG is able to ameliorate various inflammatory diseases, its molecular inhibitory mechanisms had not been carried out prior to this study.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

In order to investigate these mechanisms, we evaluated the effects of a water extract of Korean Red Ginseng (KRG-WE) on the in vitro inflammatory responses of activated RAW264.7 cells, and on in vivo gastritis and peritonitis models by analyzing the activation events of inflammation-inducing transcription factors and their upstream kinases.

RESULTS

KRG-WE reduced the production of nitric oxide (NO), protected cells against NO-induced apoptosis, suppressed mRNA levels of inducible NO synthase (iNOS), cyclooxygenase (COX)-2, and interferon (IFN)-β, ameliorated EtOH/HCl-induced gastritis, and downregulated peritoneal exudate-derived NO production from lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-injected mice. The inhibition of these inflammatory responses by KRG-WE was regulated through the suppression of p38, c-Jun N-terminal kinase (JNK), and TANK-binding kinase 1 (TBK1) and by subsequent inhibition of activating transcription factor (ATF)-2, cAMP response element-binding protein (CREB), and IRF-3 activation. Of ginsensides included in this extract, interestingly, G-Rc showed the highest inhibitory potency on IRF-3-mediated luciferase activity.

CONCLUSION

These results strongly suggest that the anti-inflammatory activities of KRG-WE could be due to its inhibition of the p38/JNK/TBK1 activation pathway.

An ethyl acetate fraction of Moringa oleifera Lam. Inhibits human macrophage cytokine production induced by cigarette smoke

Moringa oleifera Lam. (MO) has been reported to harbor anti-oxidation and anti-inflammatory activity and useful in the treatment of inflammatory diseases. However, despite these findings there has been little work done on the effects of MO on immune cellular function. Since macrophages, TNF and related cytokines play an important pathophysiologic role in lung damage induced by cigarette smoke, we examined the effects of MO on cigarette smoke extract (CSE)-induced cytokine production by human macrophages. An ethyl acetate fraction of MO (MOEF) was prepared from fresh leaves extract of Moringa and shown to consist of high levels of phenolic and antioxidant activities. Human monocyte derived macrophages (MDM) pre-treated with varying concentrations of MOEF showed decreased production of TNF, IL-6 and IL-8 in response to both LPS and CSE. The decrease was evident at both cytokine protein and mRNA levels. Furthermore, the extract inhibited the expression of RelA, a gene implicated in the NF-κB p65 signaling in inflammation. The findings highlight the ability of MOEF to inhibit cytokines (IL-8) which promote the infiltration of neutrophils into the lungs and others (TNF, IL-6) which mediate tissue disease and damage.

Efficacy Comparison of Korean Ginseng and American Ginseng on Body Temperature and Metabolic Parameters

Ginseng has beneficial effects in cancer, diabetes and aging. There are two main varieties of ginseng: Panax ginseng (Korean ginseng) and Panax quinquefolius (American ginseng). There are anecdotal reports that American ginseng helps reduce body temperature, whereas Korean ginseng improves blood circulation and increases body temperature; however, their respective effects on body temperature and metabolic parameters have not been studied. We investigated body temperature and metabolic parameters in mice using a metabolic cage. After administering ginseng extracts acutely (single dose of 1000 mg/kg) or chronically (200 mg/kg/day for four weeks), core body temperature, food intake, oxygen consumption and activity were measured, as well as serum levels of pyrogen-related factors and mRNA expression of metabolic genes. Acute treatment with American ginseng reduced body temperature compared with PBS-treated mice during the night; however, there was no significant effect of ginseng treatment on body temperature after four weeks of treatment. VO 2, VCO 2, food intake, activity and energy expenditure were unchanged after both acute and chronic ginseng treatment compared with PBS treatment. In acutely treated mice, serum thyroxin levels were reduced by red and American ginseng, and the serum prostaglandin E2 level was reduced by American ginseng. In chronically treated mice, red and white ginseng reduced thyroxin levels. We conclude that Korean ginseng does not stimulate metabolism in mice, whereas a high dose of American ginseng may reduce night-time body temperature and pyrogen-related factors.

Effects of Carnosine on Cyclophosphamide-Induced Hematopoietic Suppression in Mice

Cyclophosphamide is one of the most widely used chemotherapeutic agents in treating cancers. Chemotherapy drug-induced oxidative stress produces side effects. The severity of myelosuppression increases with a high dose of cyclophosphamide. Chicken soup or chicken essence, a traditional Chinese aliment, is a popular health supplement for patients with cancers or other diseases in Asia. As a major functional component of chicken meat extract, carnosine (beta-alanyl-L-histidine), a dipeptide of the amino acids beta-alanine and histidine, has been shown to have strong antioxidant activities. In the present study, we investigated the effects of carnosine on hematopoietic suppression in mice treated with cyclophosphamide. As expected, we found that cyclophosphamide administration (with a single dose of 150 mg/kg) induced a rapid (within 24 hours) and severe hematopoietic suppression in mice. We further showed that carnosine administration (100 mg/kg/day or 200 mg/kg/day for continuous seven days) could substantially improve suppressed hematopoietic functions and accelerate the recovery of leukocyte counts, bone marrow spontaneous proliferation, colony stimulating activity (CSA) in serum, and production of endogenous cytokines such as interleukin-3 (IL-3) and stem cell factor (SCF). These results indicate that carnosine has the potential to promote the recovery from hematopoietic suppression induced by cyclophosphamide. Our data suggest that carnosine holds a potential in clinical application to minimize the side effects induced by chemotherapeutic agents such as cyclophosphamide and thus will substantially improve the overall anti-tumor effects of the standard chemotherapies.

Cancer Prevention and Therapy: Integrating Traditional Korean Medicine Into Modern Cancer Care

In spite of billions of dollars spent on cancer research each year, overall cancer incidence and cancer survival has not changed significantly in the last half century. Instead, the recent projection from the World Health Organization suggests that global cancer incidence and death is expected to double within the next decade. This requires an "out of the box" thinking approach. While traditional medicine used for thousands of years is safe and affordable, its efficacy and mechanism of action are not fully reported. Demonstrating that traditional medicine is efficacious and how it works can provide a "bed to bench" and "bench to bed" back approach toward prevention and treatment of cancer. This current review is an attempt to describe the contributions of traditional Korean medicine (TKM) to modern medicine and, in particular, cancer treatment. TKM suggests that cancer is an outcome of an imbalance of body, mind, and spirit; thus, it requires a multimodal treatment approach that involves lifestyle modification, herbal prescription, acupuncture, moxibustion, traditional exercise, and meditation to restore the balance. Old wisdoms in combination with modern science can find a new way to deal with the "emperor of all maladies."

Research progress of Chinese herbal medicine Radix isatidis (banlangen)

Radix isatidis (R. isatidis) (Banlangen) is a traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) famous for its broad antiviral activity. Its clinical medical history spans several thousands of years in China. Many scientists and scholars have conducted systematic research on this herb from its pharmacognosy to pharmaceuticals, especially in China. Through our research and literature reports, we inferred that the antiviral activity of R. isatidis mostly depended on the water-soluble part, including amino acids, IRPS, nucleosides, and sulfur-containing alkaloids. By playing a role in directly killing pathogenic viruses or regulating the immune system to enhance anti-virus ability, R. isatidis's biological activities mostly depend on the synergistic effect of its multiple components. This article aims to expand understanding of R. isatidis in the following aspects including medicinal resources, chemical constituents, pharmacological activities, clinical applications, and separation and analytical technologies.

Preliminary evaluation of the interactions of Panax ginseng and Salvia miltiorrhiza Bunge with 5-fluorouracil on pharmacokinetics in rats and pharmacodynamics in human cells

An increasing number of cancer patients are using herbs in combination with conventional chemotherapeutic treatment. It is therefore important to study the potential consequences of the interactions between herbs and anticancer drugs. The effects of extracts from Panax ginseng (PGS) and Salvia miltiorrhiza Bunge (SMB) on the pharmacokinetics of 5-fluorouracil (5-FU) were performed in vivo and detected by high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC), while, an ATP assay was used to study the pharmacodynamic interactions in vitro. The results of the pharmacokinetic experiments showed a significant increase in the elimination half-life (t1/2(k e )) of 5-FU in the PGS-pretreated group and in the area under the curve (AUC) in the SMB-pretreated group compared with the control group. However, after SMB pretreatment, weight loss was observed in rats. The results of pharmacodynamic experiments showed that neither PGS nor SMB, when used alone, directly inhibited cancer cell growth at 0.1-100 μg/ml. Moreover, PGS had a synergistic cytotoxic effect with 5-FU on human gastric cancer cells but not on normal gastric cells. The results imply that when combined with 5-FU, PGS may be a better candidate for further study. This study might provide insights for the selection of herbal-chemotherapy agent interactions.

Role of saffron and its constituents on cancer chemoprevention

CONTEXT

Cancer dramatically impacts human life expectancy and quality of life. Natural substances from vegetables, herbs and spices could be beneficial in the prevention or treatment of a variety of cancers. Crocus sativus (Iridaceae), which has been used as a folk medicine for treating diseases for ages, showed obvious cancer chemoprevention potential.

OBJECTIVE

This article focuses on the effects of Crocus sativus and its main ingredients, such as crocin, on cancer therapeutics.

METHODS

We reviewed research data from saffron, a spice derived from the flower of Crocus sativus, and its constituents using the major databases, namely, Web of Science, SciFinder and PubMed.

RESULTS AND CONCLUSION

Saffron possesses free radical-scavenging properties and antitumor activities. Significant cancer chemopreventive effects have been shown in both in vitro and in vivo models. Based on current data, saffron and its ingredients could be considered as a promising candidate for clinical anticancer trials.

Chemoprevention of lung squamous cell carcinoma by ginseng

Ginseng has been used as a medicinal herb to maintain physical vitality for thousands of years, and it has also been shown to be a nonorgan-specific cancer preventive agent by several epidemiologic studies. However, the chemopreventive effects of Korea white ginseng (KWG) in lung squamous cell carcinoma (SCC) have not been tested. In this study, we investigated the chemopreventive activity of KWG in a mouse lung SCC model. N-nitroso-trischloroethylurea (NTCU) was used to induce lung tumors in female Swiss mice, and KWG was given orally. KWG significantly reduced the percentage of lung SCCs from 26.5% in the control group to 9.1% in the KWG group and in the meantime, increased the percentage of normal bronchial and hyperplasia. KWG was also found to greatly reduce squamous cell lung tumor area from an average of 9.4% in control group to 1.5% in the KWG group. Treatment with KWG decreased Ki-67 staining, suggesting that the lung tumor inhibitory effects of KWG were partly through inhibition of proliferation. High-performance liquid chromatography/mass spectrometry identified 10 ginsenosides from KWG extracts, Rb1 and Rd being the most abundant as detected in mouse blood and lung tissue. The tumor inhibitory effects of KWG are mediated by inhibition of activator protein (AP-1), as showed by in vitro study conducted on AP-1/NF-κB-dependent mouse non-small cell lung carcinoma cell lines. Western blotting of lung tissues also indicated that NTCU upregulated AP-1 through phosphorylation of c-jun-NH2-kinase, which was downregulated by KWG in concurrence with its chemoprevention function. These results suggest that KWG could be a potential chemopreventive agent for lung SCC.

Compound K, a Ginsenoside Metabolite, Inhibits Colon Cancer Growth via Multiple Pathways Including p53-p21 Interactions

Compound K (20-O-beta-D-glucopyranosyl-20(S)-protopanaxadiol, CK), an intestinal bacterial metabolite of ginseng protopanaxadiol saponins, has been shown to inhibit cell growth in a variety of cancers. However, the mechanisms are not completely understood, especially in colorectal cancer (CRC). A xenograft tumor model was used first to examine the anti-CRC effect of CK in vivo. Then, multiple in vitro assays were applied to investigate the anticancer effects of CK including antiproliferation, apoptosis and cell cycle distribution. In addition, a qPCR array and western blot analysis were executed to screen and validate the molecules and pathways involved. We observed that CK significantly inhibited the growth of HCT-116 tumors in an athymic nude mouse xenograft model. CK significantly inhibited the proliferation of human CRC cell lines HCT-116, SW-480, and HT-29 in a dose- and time-dependent manner. We also observed that CK induced cell apoptosis and arrested the cell cycle in the G1 phase in HCT-116 cells. The processes were related to the upregulation of p53/p21, FoxO3a-p27/p15 and Smad3, and downregulation of cdc25A, CDK4/6 and cyclin D1/3. The major regulated targets of CK were cyclin dependent inhibitors, including p21, p27, and p15. These results indicate that CK inhibits transcriptional activation of multiple tumor-promoting pathways in CRC, suggesting that CK could be an active compound in the prevention or treatment of CRC.

Paraptosis and NF-κB activation are associated with protopanaxadiol-induced cancer chemoprevention

Background

Protopanaxadiol (PPD) is a triterpenoid that can be prepared from steamed ginseng. PPD possesses anticancer potential via caspase-dependent apoptosis. Whether paraptosis, a type of the caspase-independent cell death, is also induced by PPD has not been evaluated.

Methods

Cell death, the cell cycle and intracellular reactive oxygen species (ROS) were analyzed by flow cytometry after staining with annexin V/PI, PI/RNase or H2DCFDA. We observed morphological changes by crystal violet staining assay. Mitochondrial swelling was measured by ultraviolet–visible spectrophotometry. The activation of NF-κB was measured by luciferase reporter assay.

Results

At comparable concentrations of 5-fluorouracil, PPD induced more cell death in human colorectal cancer cell lines HCT-116 and SW-480. We demonstrated that PPD induced paraptosis in these cancer cells. PPD treatment significantly increased the percentage of cancer cells with cytoplasmic vacuoles. After the cells were treated with PPD and cycloheximides, cytoplasmic vacuole generation was inhibited. The paraptotic induction effect of PPD was also supported by the results of the mitochondrial swelling assay. PPD induced ROS production in cancer cells, which activated the NF-κB pathway. Blockage of ROS by NAC or PS-1145 inhibited the activation of NF-κB signaling.

Conclusions

PPD induces colorectal cancer cell death in part by induction of paraptosis. The anticancer activity of PPD may be enhanced by antioxidants such as green tea, which also inhibit the activation of NF-κB signaling.

Potentiation of antioxidative and anti-inflammatory properties of cultured wild ginseng root extract through probiotic fermentation

OBJECTIVES

This work aimed to determine some pharmacological properties of non-fermented (WG) and fermented (FWG) extracts of cultured wild ginseng root.

METHODS

WG was treated with Bifidobacterium longum to generate FWG. Ginsenoside patterns were analysed using thin-layer chromatography and high-performance liquid chromatography. The effect of WG and FWG on reactive oxygen species (ROS) was examined in lipopolysaccharide-stimulated RAW264.7 macrophage cells. Intracellular ROS were detected by flow cytometry. Nitrite in culture supernatant fractions was determined using the Griess reaction. 1,1-Diphenyl-2-picrylhydrazyl was used to determine anti-radical activity. Cell viability was determined using 3-(4,5-dimethylthiazol-2-yl)-2,5-diphenyltetrazolium bromide assay.

KEY FINDINGS

FWG was rich in ginsenosides Rg3 and Rh2, compared with WG. FWG diminished the enhanced ROS level more strongly than WG in lipopolysaccharide-stimulated RAW264.7 macrophage cells. Both WG and FWG decreased the nitrite levels in stimulated macrophage cells with half-maximal inhibitory concentration (IC50) values of 2.7 and 1.5 mg/ml, respectively, implying that FWG had an enhanced anti-inflammatory activity. Neither WG nor FWG exhibited cytotoxicity on the macrophage cells. In the radical scavenging assay, the IC50 values of WG and FWG were 32.6 and 0.78 mg/ml, respectively, suggesting that FWG had an increased scavenging activity.

CONCLUSIONS

FWG possesses enhanced antioxidative and anti-inflammatory activity, indicating that fermentation of cultured wild ginseng root extract with a probiotic bacterium can strengthen some of its desirable effects.