Influence of moderate exercise on adipocyte metabolism and hormonal responsiveness

Exercise induces favorable metabolic changes in white adipose tissue preventing high-fat diet obesity

Diet and/or exercise are cost effective interventions to treat obesity. However, it is unclear if the type of exercise undertaken can prevent the onset of obesity and if it can act through different effects on fat depots. In this study we did not allow obesity to develop so we commenced the high-fat diet (HFD) and exercise programs concurrently and investigated the effect of endurance exercise (END) and high-intensity interval training (HIIT) on changes in cellular adipogenesis, thermogenesis, fibrosis, and inflammatory markers in three different fat depots, on a HFD and a chow diet. This was to assess the effectiveness of exercise to prevent the onset of obesity-induced changes. Mice fed with chow or HFD (45% kcal fat) were trained and performed either END or HIIT for 10 weeks (3 x 40 min sessions/week). In HFD mice, both exercise programs significantly prevented the increase in body weight (END: 17%, HIIT: 20%), total body fat mass (END: 46%, HIIT: 50%), increased lean mass as a proportion of body weight (Lean mass/BW) by 14%, and improved insulin sensitivity by 22%. Further evidence of the preventative effect of exercise was seen significantly decreased markers for adipogenesis, inflammation, and extracellular matrix accumulation in both subcutaneous adipose tissue (SAT) and epididymal adipose tissue (EPI). In chow, no such marked effects were seen with both the exercise programs on all the three fat depots. This study establishes the beneficial effect of both HIIT and END exercise in preventing metabolic deterioration, collagen deposition, and inflammatory responses in fat depots, resulting in an improved whole body insulin resistance in HFD mice.

Exercise Training-Enhanced Lipolytic Potency to Catecholamine Depends on the Time of the Day

Exercise training is well known to enhance adipocyte lipolysis in response to hormone challenge. However, the existence of a relationship between the timing of exercise training and its effect on adipocyte lipolysis is unknown. To clarify this issue, Wistar rats were run on a treadmill for 9 weeks in either the early part (E-EX) or late part of the active phase (L-EX). L-EX rats exhibited greater isoproterenol-stimulated lipolysis expressed as fold induction over basal lipolysis, with greater protein expression levels of hormone-sensitive lipase (HSL) phosphorylated at Ser 660 compared to E-EX rats. Furthermore, we discovered that Brain and muscle Arnt-like (BMAL)1 protein can associate directly with several protein kinase A (PKA) regulatory units (RIα, RIβ, and RIIβ) of protein kinase, its anchoring protein (AKAP)150, and HSL, and that the association of BMAL1 with the regulatory subunits of PKA, AKAP150, and HSL was greater in L-EX than in E-EX rats. In contrast, comparison between E-EX and their counterpart sedentary control rats showed a greater co-immunoprecipitation only between BMAL1 and ATGL. Thus, both E-EX and L-EX showed an enhanced lipolytic response to isoproterenol, but the mechanisms underlying exercise training-enhanced lipolytic response to isoproterenol were different in each group.

Lipolysis, lipogenesis, and adiposity are reduced while fatty acid oxidation is increased in visceral and subcutaneous adipocytes of endurance-trained rats

This study examined the alterations in triglyceride (TG) breakdown and storage in subcutaneous inguinal (SC Ing) and epididymal (Epid) fat depots following chronic endurance training. Male Wistar rats were either kept sedentary (Sed) or subjected to endurance training (Ex) at 70-85% peak VO2 for 6 weeks. At weeks 0, 3, and 6 blood was collected at rest and immediately after a bout of submaximal exercise of similar relative intensity to assess whole-body lipolysis. At week 6, adipocytes were isolated from Epid and SC Ing fat pads for the determination of lipolysis under basal or isoproterenol- and forskolin-stimulated conditions, basal and insulin-stimulated glucose incorporation into lipids, and fatty acid oxidation (FAO). Body weight, fat pad mass, and insulin were reduced by endurance training. Also, circulating non-esterified fatty acids (NEFAs) were 33% lower in Ex than Sed rats when exercising at the same relative intensity. This coincided with reduced isoproterenol-stimulated lipolysis in the Epid (27%) and SC Ing (25%) adipocytes in Ex rats. Similarly, forskolin-stimulated lipolysis was reduced in Epid (51%) and SC Ing (49%) adipocytes from Ex rats. Insulin-stimulated glucose incorporation into lipids in adipocytes from both fat depots from Ex rats was also lower (∼43%) than Sed controls. Conversely, FAO was increased in Epid (1.71-fold) and SC Ing (1.82-fold) adipocytes of Ex rats. In conclusion, chronic endurance exercise reduced lipolysis and lipogenesis while increasing FAO in Epid and SC Ing adipocytes. These are compatible with an energy-sparing adaptive response to reduced adiposity under chronic endurance training conditions.

Preventive and improvement effects of exercise training and supplement intake in white adipose tissues on obesity and lifestyle-related diseases

Recent increases in the number of obese individuals and individuals suffering from lifestyle-related diseases, such as type 2 diabetes, that accompany obesity have become a serious social problem. White adipose tissue (WAT) is more than a mere organ for storage of energy; it is also a highly active metabolic and endocrine organ that secretes physiologically active substances collectively known as adipokines, including tumor necrosis factor-α and adiponectin. Dysregulated expression of adipokines in WAT that is hypertrophied by obesity has been closely associated with the phenomenon of insulin resistance. Therefore, WAT is currently considered to be one of the tissues that promote lifestyle-related diseases. Reduction of excess WAT that results from obesity is seen as an important strategy in preventing and improving lifestyle-related diseases. This review shows that exercise training as well as intake of supplements, such as polyphenols, is one strategy for this, because this regimen can result in reduction of WAT mass, which affects the expression and secretory response of adipokines.

Effect of exercise training on the density of endothelial cells in the white adipose tissue of rats

We examined the effects of a 9-week exercise training (TR) in Wistar male rats, beginning at 4 weeks of age, on the density of endothelial cells (ECs) in epididymal white adipose tissue (WAT) and the mRNA expression of angiogenic factors in adipose tissue stromal vascular fraction (SVF) cells. The number of ECs and mRNA expressions were assessed by lectin staining and real-time reverse transcriptase-polymerase chain reaction, respectively. Compared with control (CR) rats, TR rats gained weight more slowly and had significantly lower final weight of WAT due to the reduction in the size and the number of adipocytes. TR significantly increased the number of ECs per square millimeter and per adipocyte (1.37- and 1.23-fold, respectively) in WAT. This is probably because the number of adipocytes is fewer while the number of ECs is constant in the WAT of TR rats, because the regression line of TR rats for adipocyte number-dependent EC number was shifted toward the left without significant differences in the slopes between groups. TR also induced the upregulation of mRNA expression of vascular endothelial growth factor (Vegf)-A and Vegf-receptor-2 in SVF cells, thereby retaining a constant number of ECs in the WAT.

Reduced lipolysis and increased lipogenesis in adipose tissue from pinealectomized rats adapted to training

The current study investigated the effects of chronic training and pinealectomy on the lipogenic and lipolytic activity of adipose tissue. Pinealectomized and sham-operated adult male Wistar rats were distributed in to four subgroups: pinealectomized untrained, pinealectomized trained, control untrained and control trained. At the end of the training period (8 wk) the rats were killed. Blood samples were collected for glucose, insulin and leptin determinations. Peri-epididymal adipocytes were isolated for measurement of in vitro rates of lipolysis and incorporation of substrates (D-[U-14C]-glucose, L-[U-14C]-lactate, [2-14C]-acetate and [1-14C]-palmitate) into lipids, and samples of epididymal adipose tissue were homogenized for evaluation of glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase maximal activity. Pinealectomy resulted in a significantly increased lipolytic capacity in response to isoproterenol and a decrease in circulating leptin levels without affecting the rates of incorporation of different substrates into lipids. However, only in the intact control group did training promote a higher basal and isoproterenol-stimulated lipolysis, increase the incorporation of palmitate (esterification), decrease the incorporation of acetate (lipogenesis) into lipids and diminish circulating leptin levels. These effects of exercise training were not seen in pinealectomized rats. However, pinealectomized trained animals showed a marked reduction in lipolysis and an increased rate of acetate incorporation. In conclusion, we demonstrated for the first time that the pineal gland plays an important role in the regulation of lipid metabolism in such a way that its absence caused a severe alteration in the balance between lipogenesis and lipolysis, which becomes evident with the adaptation to exercise training.

Cellular adaptations in fat tissue of exercise-trained miniature swine: role of excess energy intake

This study examined the influence of energy expenditure and energy intake on cellular mechanisms regulating adipose tissue metabolism. Twenty-four swine were assigned to restricted-fed sedentary, restricted-fed exercise-trained, full-fed sedentary, or full-fed exercise-trained groups. After 3 mo of treatment, adipocytes were isolated and adipocyte size, adenosine A(1) receptor characteristics, and lipolytic sensitivity were measured. Swine were infused with epinephrine during which adipose tissue extracellular adenosine, plasma fatty acids, and plasma glycerol were measured. Results revealed that adipocytes isolated from restricted-fed exercised swine had a smaller diameter, a lower number of A(1) receptors, and a greater sensitivity to lipolytic stimulation, compared with adipocytes from full-fed exercised swine. Extracellular adenosine levels were transiently increased on infusion of epinephrine in adipose tissue of restricted-fed exercised but not full-fed exercised swine. These results suggest a role for adenosine in explaining the discrepancy between in vitro and in vivo lipolysis findings and underscore the notion that excess energy intake dampens the lipolytic sensitivity of adipocytes to beta-agonists and adenosine, even if accompanied by exercise training.

Adipocyte responses to adrenaline and insulin in active and former sportsmen

The rates of lipolysis and lipogenesis in adipocytes, isolated from biopsy samples of subcutaneous fat, was assessed by estimation of glycerol release during a 30-min incubation, and of the incorporation of 14C-glucose into lipids during a 1-h incubation at 37 degrees C, respectively. The subjects were six highly-qualified, active endurance sportsmen, eight former endurance sportsmen of international class, and six untrained young men. In the active sportsmen the basal rate of lipolysis was about half of that in the previously-active sportsmen and the untrained subjects, but after the addition of adrenaline (10(-4) or 5 x 10(-4) mol.l-1) the lipolysis rate was the highest. No differences were observed in the lipolytic rates in the former sportsmen compared to the untrained subjects. Gases of a comparatively high level of lipogenesis were found in the trained subjects. The addition of insulin (9 microU.ml-1) to isolated adipocytes caused a significant augmentation of individual rates of lipogenesis in the active sportsmen and the untrained persons but not in the previously-active sportsmen. In comparison with the active sportsmen, the previously active sportsmen revealed an increased basal rate of lipolysis and a reduced sensitivity to the lipogenic action of insulin. These findings suggest that these changes may have had significance in avoiding an increase of adipose tissue after a decrease in energy expenditure due to a change in physical activity.

Exercise training normalizes glucose metabolism in a rat model of impaired glucose tolerance

The purpose of this study was to characterize an animal model of impaired glucose tolerance produced by streptozocin treatment of rats (45 mg/kg, intravenously [i.v.]) and selection of animals with plasma glucose concentrations less than 150 mg/dL. In addition, we determined the effects of physical training on glucose tolerance and metabolism in these animals. During 10 weeks of monitoring, it was determined that these animals have nearly normal plasma glucose concentrations; however, they have an impaired glucose tolerance when challenged with an oral glucose load. They also have normal fasting insulin, free fatty acid, and triglyceride concentrations, normal body weight and food consumption patterns, and normal rates of skeletal muscle glucose uptake, but impaired basal and insulin-stimulated glucose metabolism in isolated adipose cells. Ten weeks of exercise training normalized both the impaired glucose tolerance and adipose cell function present in the untrained streptozocin-treated rats. Low-dose streptozocin treatment of rats with appropriate selection of animals based on plasma glucose concentrations appears to be an excellent model of impaired glucose tolerance for studies of factors affecting insulin resistance and altered glucose metabolism.

Increased insulin-stimulated glucose uptake by exercised human muscles one day after prolonged physical exercise

We evaluated whether the increased peripheral insulin sensitivity often reported after physical exercise is generalized or limited to the active musculature. Substrate exchange in leg (previously active) and forearm (previously inactive) were measured by catheterization technique basally and during a hyperinsulinaemic euglycaemic clamp (2 mU insulin kg-1 BW min-1) in nine healthy men before and 1 day after 3-h exercise (50% VO2max). One day after exercise basal glucose uptake was unchanged in the leg, while it was decreased in the forearm (-61%, P less than 0.01) compared with the pre-exercise condition. Glucose uptake during hyperinsulinaemia was increased in the leg (+31%, P less than 0.05), but not in the forearm. Basal lactate release by the leg was increased by the exercise, while lactate release by the forearm was decreased, significantly only during the clamp. These results indicate that local and not systemic factors are responsible for the changes in insulin sensitivity observed in the recovery from physical exercise.

Lipolytic response of adipocytes to epinephrine in sedentary and exercise-trained subjects: sex-related differences

Adipose tissue lipolytic activity is increased in endurance-trained subjects, but little is known about the mechanisms of this increase. To understand more fully the mechanisms involved and to discover whether sex-related differences exist, biopsies of fat were performed in the periumbilical region of 20 sedentary subjects (10 women (W) and 10 men (M)) and 20 trained subjects (10 W, 10 M); the in vitro response to epinephrine of the collagenase-isolated fat cells was studied. Glycerol release, chosen as an adipocyte lipolysis indicator, was measured by bioluminescence. Dose-response curves with epinephrine (alpha 2 and beta agonist), with isoproterenol (beta agonist) and epinephrine + propranolol and adenosine deaminase, were studied. Epinephrine-induced lipolysis was enhanced in trained subjects and this was due to an increased efficiency of the beta-adrenergic pathway. However, differences were found between the two sexes. In trained men, the lipolysis increase resulted from the enhancement of the beta-adrenergic pathway efficiency without any significant decrease in the alpha 2-adrenergic pathway efficiency. In trained women, the lipolysis increase was not only due to the enhancement of the beta-adrenergic pathway efficiency (which was greater than in trained men), but also to a significant decrease in the alpha 2-adrenergic pathway efficiency. Despite the decrease, the alpha 2-adrenergic pathway remained more efficient in trained women than in trained men, as was the case in sedentary subjects. It is concluded that endurance training led to better lipid mobilization and that this effect seemed greater in women than in men.

Effects of exercise training on in vivo insulin action in individual tissues of the rat

It has previously been suggested that exercise training leads to increased whole body insulin sensitivity. However, the specific tissues and metabolic pathways involved have not been examined in vivo. By combining the euglycemic clamp with administration of glucose tracers, [3H]2-deoxyglucose (2DG), [14C]glucose, and [3H]glucose, in vivo insulin action at the whole body level and within individual tissues has been assessed in exercise-trained (ET, running 1 h/d for 7 wk) and sedentary control rats at four insulin doses. Whole body insulin sensitivity was significantly increased in ET. In addition, the skeletal muscles, soleus, red and white gastrocnemius, extensor digitorum longus (EDL), and diaphragm all showed increased sensitivity of insulin-stimulated 2DG uptake with training. With the exception of EDL, no significant difference in insulin-mediated glycogen synthesis between control and ET could be found. Therefore, the increased insulin-induced 2DG uptake observed in muscle following training is apparently directed towards glucose oxidation. In ET animals, adipose tissue exhibited a significant increase in insulin-mediated 2DG uptake and [14C]glucose incorporation into free fatty acids but there was no difference from control in any parameters measured in lung or liver. EDL and white gastrocnemius, which are not primarily involved during exercise of this type, also demonstrated increased insulin sensitivity following training. In conclusion, exercise training results in a marked increase in whole body insulin sensitivity related mainly to increased glucose oxidation in skeletal muscle. This effect may be mediated by systemic as well as local factors and is likely to be of therapeutic value in pathological conditions exhibiting insulin resistance.

The effect of a 20-week endurance training program on adipose-tissue morphology and lipolysis in men and women

In order to assess the effect of endurance training on adipose-tissue morphology and lipolysis, 22 adult subjects (11 men and 11 women) took part in a 20-week ergocycle training program, four to five days a week, 40 minutes a day, at 80% of their maximal heart rate. Before and after training, they were submitted to an adipose-tissue biopsy in the suprailiac region. Fat cell weight (FCW), and lipolytic activity were determined on isolated fat cells. For the whole sample, training significantly reduced FCW (pre: 0.40 +/- 0.13 (mean +/- SD) versus post: 0.36 +/- 0.13 micrograms; P less than 0.05), percentage of fat (pre: 22.0 +/- 8.3 versus post: 19.7 +/- 8.1%; P less than 0.05), and increased adipocyte epinephrine maximal stimulated lipolysis (ESL) (pre: 1.08 +/- 0.49 versus post: 1.69 +/- 0.67 mumol glycerol/30 min/10(6) cells; P less than 0.001). No changes were observed in fat cell number. In women, however, training induced no changes in the fatness indicators (% fat, sum of skinfolds, FCW). The exercise program significantly lowered the adiposity of men (% fat: P less than 0.001; sum of skinfolds: P less than 0.01; FCW: P less than 0.05). In both sexes, a significant increase in ESL was observed after training. ESL of men, however, responded better than that of women to training (ESL of women: 1.36 +/- 0.67 versus ESL of men: 2.02 +/- 0.50 mumol glycerol/30 min/10(6) cells; P less than 0.05), with increases over pre-training values of 46% and 66% in women and men, respectively.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)

Effects of exercise-training and detraining on fat cell lipolysis in men and women

The effects of training and detraining on adipose tissue lipolysis were studied in 19 healthy subjects (7 women and 12 men) who were submitted to a 20-week aerobic training program. Thereafter, subjects refrained from exercise for a period of 50 days. Suprailiac fat biopsies were performed before training, after training, and at the end of the detraining period. Mean fat cell diameter and epinephrine stimulated lipolysis (ESL) were assessed on collagenase isolated fat cells. Body density through underwater weighing and skinfolds at seven different sites were also obtained. Training significantly increased ESL (P less than 0.05) in men but not in women. However, ESL values in men returned to pretraining values after the exercise restriction period. No significant changes in women lipolysis were observed under any conditions. Changes in lipolysis were not correlated with changes in body fatness. However, a significant correlation was observed between the increase in ESL produced by training and the subsequent decrease caused by detraining (r = -0.53; P less than 0.05). The present results suggest that lipolysis in fat cells from the female subjects seems to be insensitive to changes in energy expenditure. Moreover, the present study demonstrates that there are high and low responders in adipocytes ESL to variations in habitual energy expenditure.

Role of environmental factors in the development of noninsulin-dependent diabetes mellitus

Environmental factors, such as excessive caloric intake leading to obesity, altered dietary composition, physical inactivity, various forms of stress, hormonal imbalance, drugs, toxins, and the process of aging, may contribute to the development of noninsulin-dependent diabetes mellitus in the genetically predisposed subject but do not by themselves cause the disease. Both abnormal pancreatic beta-cell function and decreased sensitivity to insulin are present in most patients with noninsulin-dependent diabetes mellitus, and the degree of carbohydrate intolerance is dependent on the interaction between these two factors. Efforts to prevent or treat noninsulin-dependent diabetes mellitus should be aimed primarily towards eliminating factors associated with the development of insulin resistance and promoting those that increase insulin sensitivity. Obesity, the composition of the diet, and level of physical training are all important in this regard and are the major environmental factors discussed herein.

Fatty acid synthesis in adipose tissues of physically trained rats in vivo

The effect of physical training on fatty acid synthesis in vivo was studied. After the rats had free access to a running wheel for 50 days, the rate of fatty acid synthesis estimated using 3H2O in adipose tissues of trained rats was about three times higher than that of sedentary rats in both the light and dark period. The rate of fatty acid synthesis in the liver but not in the brown adipose tissue was also slightly enhanced by physical training. The number of adipocytes was not affected, but the size of adipocytes was reduced by physical training. In trained rats, the rate of fatty acid synthesis in adipocytes whose diameter was similar to that of sedentary rats was about 10 times higher than that of sedentary rats. Within adipose tissue, the rate of fatty acid synthesis correlated positively to the diameter of adipocytes both in the sedentary and trained rats. These findings mean that the adaptive increase in fatty acid synthesis seen in adipocytes of trained rats is not secondary to the reduction in size of adipocytes.

Effect of physical training on transport and metabolism of glucose in adipocytes

Adipocytes were prepared from the epididymal fat pads of rats trained by swimming (T) and from control rats matching the T rats with respect to free-feeding and age (FC), body weight and age (WC), or mean fat cell size and age (CC). The number of epididymal fat cells was the same in all groups, whereas the mean adipocyte volumes (in pl) differed (P less than 0.01): 153 (T and CC), 266 (WC), and 540 (FC). The initial influx rate of 3-O-[14C]methylglucose (60 mumol/liter) in maximally insulin-stimulated adipocytes was more than twofold higher in T rats than in any control group (P less than 0.01). In the control groups, influx was positively correlated to cell size. Also the maximally insulin-stimulated incorporation of 14C from [U-14C]glucose into lipids was significantly higher in T rats than in the control groups. The saturable binding of mono[125I-TyrA14]insulin was about 18% higher in T rats than in WC rats in the insulin concentration range from 30 to 20 X 10(4) pmol/liter. In conclusion, physical training markedly increases 3-O-methylglucose transport in fat cells, an effect that cannot be elicited by reduction in body weight or fat cell size.

Enhanced receptor-cyclase coupling and augmented catecholamine-stimulated lipolysis in exercising rats

To test the hypothesis that alterations of adipocyte beta-adrenergic receptors provide a molecular mechanism for enhanced catecholamine-stimulated lipolysis in physically trained animals, we studied adipocytes derived from rats subjected to 14 wk of swimming and from sedentary controls. Peak glycerol release and peak adenylate cyclase activity in response to epinephrine were increased in swimmers to 255% (P less than 0.01) and 156% (P less than 0.01) of control values, respectively, but neither basal glycerol release, basal cyclase activity, NaF-stimulated cyclase activity, beta-receptor number, nor receptor affinity for [3H]dihydroalprenolol were altered. Epinephrine-stimulated adenylate cyclase activity remained increased in adipocytes from swimmers in the presence of theophylline or adenosine. In the absence of exogenous guanine nucleotide, we observed no differences in the dissociation constants for either the high-affinity (KD = 0.025 microM) or the low-affinity (KL = 11 microM) classes of binding sites for (-)-epinephrine, but the proportion of high-affinity sites was greater in membrane preparations from swimmers than from controls (74 vs. 42%; P less than 0.01). We conclude that receptor-cyclase coupling is enhanced in adipocytes from exercising rats, perhaps due to an improved ability of adrenergic agonists to form the guanine nucleotide reversible high-affinity agonist-receptor complex.

Physical training of lean and genetically obese Zucker rats: effect on fat cell metabolism

The effects of 6-wk treadmill training program on the metabolism of isolated adipose cells from obese (fa/fa) and lean (Fa/?) Zucker rats were studied. Glucose metabolism and transport, insulin binding, and lipolysis were measured in adipose cells prepared from sedentary control and exercise-trained (ET) lean and/or obese rats. Two- to threefold increases in glucose metabolism were observed in cells from lean and obese ET rats compared with their respective controls. However, the insulin concentrations giving half-maximal stimulation (measuring insulin sensitivity) did not change (approximately 8 microunits/ml in lean and approximately 45 microunits/ml in obese rats). In lean ET rats, glucose transport and maximal glucose metabolic capacity (transport not rate-limiting) were increased twofold and sensitivity of lipolysis to epinephrine was increased three- to fourfold. These were not measured in obese rats. The results suggest that training of both lean and obese Zucker rats increases glucose utilization in adipose cells by increasing both glucose transport and intracellular glucose metabolism. Increased triglyceride turnover is also suggested by the increased sensitivity of lipolysis to epinephrine.

Norepinephrine mobilization of free fatty acids in endurance trained rats

Wistar rats were trained to run, a male group on 6 days a week for 4 months at 28 m x min-1, and a female group on 5 days a week for 5-6 months at 31 m x min-1. Male rats were given continuous infusion of [1-14C] palmitate-albumin tracer via a jugular catheter at a constant infusion rate of 80 nCI x min-1. The effect of concurrent norepinephrine (NE) infusion on free fatty acid (FFA) mobilization was then studied in this group. NE increased plasma FFA levels similarly in both control and endurance trained male groups. Turnover of FFA, however, increased in response to NE relatively less in the trained group. Furthermore, NE caused the metabolic clearance rate of FFA (MCR) to decrease in control animals but not in runners. Colonic temperature was slightly increased by NE infusion in the control group only. Female rats were given a bolus injection of 5 microCi of [1-14C] palmitate-rat serum through a venous cannula. The disappearance of radioactivity in the circulation was measured. MCR values were higher in the trained group (p = 0.01). The effect of NE infusion on FFA levels was also studied in female animals. NE caused levels to increase in both control and trained rats. FFA concentrations were however more elevated in the control than in the trained group, before and during NE infusion. The relative increase tended to be less extensive in the trained group (p = 0.06). It is concluded that long term endurance training diminishes calorigenic and fat mobilizing actions of NE in the rat in vivo.

Mechanism of enhanced lipolysis in adipose tissue of exercise-trained rats

The effects of exercise training and food restriction on the regulation of lipolysis were studied comparatively in adipocytes isolated from male and female rats. Exercise training inhibited cell proliferation in parametrial, but not in epididymal adipose tissue, whereas it significantly reduced adipocyte size in both fat depots. Adipocyte capacity for responding lipolytically to epinephrine (10 microns) or to ACTH (1 micron) was markedly increased by exercise training. Enhanced lipolysis was also observed when cells isolated from exercise-trained animals were stimulated by bypassing with dibutyryl cyclic AMP (5 mM) or theophylline (5 mM) the early metabolic steps associated with hormonal activation of the adenylate cyclase complex. Significantly, binding of (-)-[3H]dihydroalprenolol to cellular receptor sites was not affected by exercise training. It is therefore concluded that exercise training increases adipocyte responsiveness to lipolytic hormones at a metabolic step distal to stimulus recognition by adrenoreceptors, possibly at the level of protein kinases or lipases. Food restriction markedly reduced adipocyte size and partially mimicked the effects of exercise training on adipocyte proliferation and lipolysis.

Site of enhanced insulin sensitivity in exercise-trained rats at rest

Spontaneously exercised rats show at rest enhanced responsiveness to exogenous insulin and lower plasma insulin levels after oral glucose than sedentary control rats. To assess insulin sensitivity of specific organs, glucose uptake by perfused hindlimb muscle and liver from resting exercise-trained rats was compared with perfused organs from control rats. Glucose uptake, assessed by metabolic clearance formulas, was 17% faster in hindlimbs from exercise-trained rats when perfused without added insulin and 43% faster at perfusate insulin levels of 40 microU/ml. After an overnight fast, glucose clearance in exercise-trained hindlimbs increased over controls by 57% in the basal state and by 97% at low perfusate levels. In contrast, glucose clearance by livers from both fed and fasted exercise-trained rats was less than one-half that of livers from control rats. These results suggest that skeletal muscle, and not liver, is the organ primarily responsible for the increased sensitivity to insulin-induced glucose uptake with exercise training and that this response is enhanced after overnight fasting.